Problem Definition and theProblem Definition and theResearch ProposalResearch Proposal

A Sea Horse’s TaleA Sea Horse’s Tale

Problemdiscovery

Problem definition(statement of

research objectives)

Secondary(historical)

data

Experiencesurvey

Pilotstudy

Casestudy

Selection ofexploratory research

technique

Selection ofbasic research

method

Experiment SurveyObservation Secondary

Data StudyLaboratory Field Interview Questionnaire

Selection ofexploratory research

techniqueSampling

Probability No probability

Collection ofdata

(fieldwork)

Editing andcodingdata

Dataprocessing

Interpretationof

findings

Report

DataGathering

DataProcessingandAnalysis

Conclusionsand Report

Research Design

Problem Discoveryand Definition

COMPLETELYCERTAIN

ABSOLUTEAMBIGUITY

CAUSAL ORDESCRIPTIVE

EXPLORATORY

Uncertainty Influences the Type Uncertainty Influences the Type of Researchof Research

Problem Discovery and DefinitionProblem Discovery and Definition

First stepFirst step

Problem, opportunity, or monitor Problem, opportunity, or monitor operationsoperations

Discovery before definitionDiscovery before definition

Problem means management Problem means management problemproblem

““The formulation of the The formulation of the problem is often more problem is often more

essential than its solution.”essential than its solution.”

Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein

Problem DefinitionProblem DefinitionThe indication of a specific business The indication of a specific business decision area that will be clarified by decision area that will be clarified by answering some research questionsanswering some research questions..

Statement of Research Objectives

Problem Definition

Defining Problem Results inClear Cut Research Objectives

ExploratoryResearch(Optional)

Analysis of the Situation

Symptom Detection

The Process ofProblem Definition

Ascertain the decision maker’s objectives

Understand background of the problem

Isolate/identify the problem, not the symptoms

Determine unit of analysis

Determine relevant variables

State research questions and objectives

1010

Ascertain the Decision Maker’s Ascertain the Decision Maker’s ObjectivesObjectives

Decision makers’ objectivesDecision makers’ objectives

Managerial goals expressed in Managerial goals expressed in measurable terms.measurable terms.

The Iceberg PrincipleThe Iceberg Principle

The principle indicating that the The principle indicating that the dangerous part of many business dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor problems is neither visible to nor understood by managers.understood by managers.

1212

Understand the Background of Understand the Background of the Problemthe Problem

Exercising judgmentExercising judgment

Situation analysis - The informal Situation analysis - The informal gathering of background information gathering of background information to familiarize researchers or to familiarize researchers or managers with the decision area.managers with the decision area.

1313

Isolate and Identify the Isolate and Identify the Problems, Not the SymptomsProblems, Not the SymptomsSymptoms can be confusingSymptoms can be confusing

Symptoms Can Be ConfusingSymptoms Can Be Confusing

Twenty-year-old neighborhood Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming association:swimming association:

Membership has been declining for Membership has been declining for years. years.

New water park -residents prefer the New water park -residents prefer the expensive water park????expensive water park????

Demographic changes: Children have Demographic changes: Children have grown upgrown up

Problem DefinitionOrganization Symptoms Based on Symptom True Problem

Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming association in a major city.

Membership has been declining for years. New water park with wave pool and water slides moved into town a few years ago.

Neighborhood residents prefer the expensive water park and have negative image of swimming pool.

Demographic changes: Children in this 20-year-old neighborhood have grown up. Older residents no longer swim anywhere.

TOTIEMULESTO

What Language Is Written on What Language Is Written on This Stone Found by This Stone Found by

Archaeologists?Archaeologists?

TOTIEMULESTO

The Language Is English: To The Language Is English: To Tie Mules ToTie Mules To

1818

Determine the Unit of AnalysisDetermine the Unit of AnalysisIndividuals, households, Individuals, households, organizations, etc.organizations, etc.

In many studies, the family rather In many studies, the family rather than the individual is the appropriate than the individual is the appropriate unit of analysis.unit of analysis.

1919

Determine the Relevant Determine the Relevant VariableVariable

Anything that may assume different Anything that may assume different numerical valuesnumerical values

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

CategoricalCategorical

ContinuousContinuous

DependentDependent

Independent Independent

HypothesisHypothesis

An unproven propositionAn unproven proposition

A possible solution to a problemA possible solution to a problem

GuessGuess

2222

State the research questions State the research questions and research objectivesand research objectives

If you do not know where you are If you do not know where you are going,going,

any road will take you there.any road will take you there.

Statement of business

problem

Exploratory research (optional)

Statement of business

problem

Broad research

objectives

Specific Objective 1

Specific Objective 2

Specific Objective 3

Research Design

Results

The Process ofProblem Definition

Ascertain the decision maker’s objectives

Understand background of the problem

Isolate/identify the problem, not the symptoms

Determine unit of analysis

Determine relevant variables

State research questions and objectives

Research ProposalResearch Proposal

A written statement of the research A written statement of the research design that includes a statement design that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the studyexplaining the purpose of the study

Detailed outline of procedures Detailed outline of procedures associated with a particular associated with a particular methodologymethodology

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Problem DefinitionProblem Definition

What is the purpose of the study?What is the purpose of the study?

How much is already known?How much is already known?

Is additional background information Is additional background information necessary?necessary?

What is to be measured? How?What is to be measured? How?

Can the data be made available?Can the data be made available?

Should research be conducted?Should research be conducted?

Can a hypothesis be formulated?Can a hypothesis be formulated?

Basic Questions -Basic Questions - Basic Research Design Basic Research Design

What types of questions need to be What types of questions need to be answered?answered?

Are descriptive or causal findings Are descriptive or causal findings required?required?

What is the source of the data?What is the source of the data?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Basic Research DesignBasic Research Design

Can objective answers be obtained Can objective answers be obtained by asking people?by asking people?

How quickly is the information How quickly is the information needed?needed?

How should survey questions be How should survey questions be worded?worded?

How should experimental How should experimental manipulations be made?manipulations be made?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Selection of SampleSelection of Sample

Who or what is the source of the data?Who or what is the source of the data?

Can the target population be identified?Can the target population be identified?

Is a sample necessary?Is a sample necessary?

How accurate must the sample be?How accurate must the sample be?

Is a probability sample necessary?Is a probability sample necessary?

Is a national sample necessary?Is a national sample necessary?

How large a sample is necessary?How large a sample is necessary?

How will the sample be selected?How will the sample be selected?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Data GatheringData Gathering

Who will gather the data?Who will gather the data?

How long will data gathering take?How long will data gathering take?

How much supervision is needed?How much supervision is needed?

What operational procedures need to What operational procedures need to be followed?be followed?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Data AnalysisData Analysis

Will standardized editing and coding Will standardized editing and coding procedures be used?procedures be used?

How will the data be categorized?How will the data be categorized?

What statistical software will be used?What statistical software will be used?

What is the nature of the data?What is the nature of the data?

What questions need to be answered?What questions need to be answered?

How many variables are to be How many variables are to be investigated simultaneously?investigated simultaneously?

Performance criteria for evaluation?Performance criteria for evaluation?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Type of ReportType of Report

Who will read the report?Who will read the report?

Are managerial recommendations Are managerial recommendations requested?requested?

How many presentations are How many presentations are required?required?

What will be the format of the written What will be the format of the written report?report?

Basic Questions - Basic Questions - Overall EvaluationOverall Evaluation

How much will the study cost?How much will the study cost?

Is the time frame acceptable?Is the time frame acceptable?

Is outside help needed?Is outside help needed?

Will this research design attain the Will this research design attain the stated research objectives?stated research objectives?

When should the research be When should the research be scheduled to begin?scheduled to begin?

Anticipating OutcomesAnticipating Outcomes

Dummy tablesDummy tables

Representations of the actual tables Representations of the actual tables that will be in the findings section of that will be in the findings section of the final report; used to gain a better the final report; used to gain a better understanding of what the actual understanding of what the actual outcomes of the research will be.outcomes of the research will be.

Research Design

Research Design: Research Design: DefinitionDefinition

A A research designresearch design is a framework or is a framework or

blueprint for conducting the marketing blueprint for conducting the marketing

research project. It details the procedures research project. It details the procedures

necessary for obtaining the information necessary for obtaining the information

needed to structure or solve marketing needed to structure or solve marketing

research problems.research problems.

Components of a Research Components of a Research DesignDesign

Define the information neededDefine the information neededDesign the exploratory, descriptive, Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the research and/or causal phases of the research Specify the measurement and scaling Specify the measurement and scaling procedures procedures Construct and pretest a questionnaire Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an appropriate (interviewing form) or an appropriate form for data collection form for data collection Specify the sampling process and Specify the sampling process and sample size sample size Develop a plan of data analysisDevelop a plan of data analysis

A Classification Research A Classification Research DesignsDesigns

Single Cross-Sectional Design

Multiple Cross-Sectional Design

Research Design

Conclusive Research Design

Exploratory Research Design

Descriptive Research

Causal Research

Cross-Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

Exploratory & Conclusive Exploratory & Conclusive Research DifferencesResearch Differences

Objective:

Character-istics:

Findings/ Results:

Outcome:

To provide insights and understanding.

Information needed is defined only loosely. Research process is flexible and unstructured. Sample is small and non-representative. Analysis of primary data is qualitative.

Tentative.

Generally followed by further exploratory or conclusive research.

To test specific hypotheses and examine relationships.

Information needed is clearly defined. Research process is formal and structured. Sample is large and representative. Data analysis is quantitative.

Conclusive.

Findings used as input into decision making.

Exploratory Conclusive

A Comparison of Basic A Comparison of Basic Research DesignsResearch Designs

Objective:

Characteristics:

Methods:

Discovery of ideas and insights

Flexible, versatile

Often the front end of total research design

Expert surveysPilot surveysSecondary data:qualitative analysisQualitative research

Describe market characteristics or functions

Marked by the prior formulation of specific hypotheses

Preplanned and structured design

Secondary data:quantitative analysisSurveysPanelsObservation and other data

Determine cause and effect relationships

Manipulation of one or more independent variables

Control of other mediating variables

Experiments

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Uses of Exploratory ResearchUses of Exploratory Research

Formulate a problem or define a problem Formulate a problem or define a problem more preciselymore precisely

Identify alternative courses of actionIdentify alternative courses of action

Develop hypothesesDevelop hypotheses

Isolate key variables and relationships for Isolate key variables and relationships for further examinationfurther examination

Gain insights for developing an approach Gain insights for developing an approach to the problemto the problem

Establish priorities for further researchEstablish priorities for further research

Methods of Exploratory Methods of Exploratory ResearchResearch

Survey of expertsSurvey of experts

Pilot surveys Pilot surveys

Secondary data analyzed in a Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way qualitative way

Qualitative researchQualitative research

Use of Descriptive Use of Descriptive ResearchResearch

To describe the characteristics of relevant To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, groups, such as consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas.organizations, or market areas.

To estimate the percentage of units in a To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain specified population exhibiting a certain behavior. behavior.

To determine the perceptions of product To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.characteristics.

To determine the degree to which marketing To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.variables are associated.

To make specific predictions.To make specific predictions.

Methods of Descriptive Methods of Descriptive ResearchResearch

Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as opposed to a qualitative manner as opposed to a qualitative manner

Surveys Surveys

Panels Panels

Observational and other dataObservational and other data

Exploratory Research Design:Secondary Data

Primary Vs. Secondary Primary Vs. Secondary DataData

Primary dataPrimary data are originated by a are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand. The addressing the problem at hand. The collection of primary data involves all six collection of primary data involves all six steps of the marketing research process steps of the marketing research process (Chapter 1). (Chapter 1).

Secondary dataSecondary data are data that have are data that have already been collected for purposes other already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand. These data than the problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.can be located quickly and inexpensively.

A Comparison of Primary A Comparison of Primary & Secondary Data& Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problemsCollection process Very involved Rapid & easyCollection cost High Relatively lowCollection time Long Short

Table 4.1

Uses of Secondary Uses of Secondary DataData

Identify the problemIdentify the problem

Better define the problemBetter define the problem

Develop an approach to the problemDevelop an approach to the problem

Formulate an appropriate research design (for Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables)example, by identifying the key variables)

Answer certain research questions and test Answer certain research questions and test some hypothesessome hypotheses

Interpret primary data more insightfullyInterpret primary data more insightfully

SpecificationsSpecifications:: Methodology Used to Collect the Data Methodology Used to Collect the Data

ErrorError:: Accuracy of the Data Accuracy of the Data

CurrencyCurrency:: When the Data Were Collected When the Data Were Collected

Objective(s)Objective(s):: The Purpose for Which the Data Were The Purpose for Which the Data Were CollectedCollected

NatureNature:: The Content of the Data The Content of the Data

DependabilityDependability:: Overall, How Dependable Are the Overall, How Dependable Are the DataData

Criteria for Evaluating Criteria for Evaluating Secondary DataSecondary Data

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary DataCriteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

Criteria Issues RemarksSpecifications & Methodology

Error & Accuracy

Currency

Objective

Nature

Dependability

Data collection method, response rate, quality & analysis of data, sampling technique & size, questionnaire design, fieldwork.Examine errors in approach,research design, sampling, datacollection & analysis, & reporting.

Time lag between collection &publication, frequency of updates.Why were the data collected?

Definition of key variables, units of measurement, categories used, relationships examined.Expertise, credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the source.

Data should be reliable, valid, & generalizable to the problem.

Assess accuracy by comparing data from different sources.

Census data are updated by syndicated firms.The objective determines the relevance of data.Reconfigure the data to increase their usefulness.

Data should be obtained from an original source.

Table 4.2

A Classification of Secondary A Classification of Secondary DataData

Secondary Data

Ready to Use

Requires Further

Processing

PublishedMaterials

Computerized Databases

Syndicated

Services

Fig. 4.1

Internal External

Internal Secondary DataInternal Secondary DataDepartment Store ProjectDepartment Store ProjectSales were analyzed to obtain:Sales were analyzed to obtain:

Sales by product lineSales by product lineSales by major department (e.g., men's Sales by major department (e.g., men's wear, house wares)wear, house wares)Sales by specific storesSales by specific storesSales by geographical regionSales by geographical regionSales by cash versus credit purchasesSales by cash versus credit purchasesSales in specific time periodsSales in specific time periodsSales by size of purchaseSales by size of purchaseSales trends in many of these Sales trends in many of these classifications were also examinedclassifications were also examined

Type of Individual/Household Level DataType of Individual/Household Level DataAvailable from Syndicated FirmsAvailable from Syndicated Firms

I. Demographic Data- Identification (name, address, email, telephone)- Sex- Marital status- Names of family members- Age (including ages of family

members)- Income- Occupation- Number of children present- Home ownership- Length of residence- Number and make of cars owned

Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Syndicated FirmsSyndicated Firms

II. Psychographic Lifestyle Data

- Interest in golf

- Interest in snow skiing

- Interest in book reading

- Interest in running

- Interest in bicycling

- Interest in pets

- Interest in fishing

- Interest in electronics

- Interest in cable television

There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.

A Classification of A Classification of Published Secondary Published Secondary

SourcesSources

StatisticalData

Guides Directories Indexes Census Data

Other Governmen

t Publications

Fig. 4.2

Published Secondary Data

General Business Sources

Government Sources

A Classification of A Classification of ComputerizedComputerized

DatabasesDatabases

Bibliographic Databases

Numeric Database

s

Full-Text Database

s

Directory Databases

Special-Purpose

Databases

Fig. 4.3

Computerized Databases

Online Off-LineInternet

Published External Secondary SourcesPublished External Secondary Sources

GuidesGuidesAn excellent source of standard or recurring informationAn excellent source of standard or recurring informationHelpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade associations, and trade publicationsassociations, and trade publicationsOne of the first sources a researcher should consultOne of the first sources a researcher should consult

DirectoriesDirectoriesHelpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific dataspecific dataExamples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services DirectoryDirectory

IndicesIndicesHelpful in locating information on a particular topic in several Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several different publicationsdifferent publications

Classification of ComputerizedClassification of ComputerizedDatabasesDatabases

Bibliographic databasesBibliographic databases are composed of are composed of citations to articlescitations to articles

Numeric databasesNumeric databases contain numerical and contain numerical and statistical information statistical information

Full-text databasesFull-text databases contain the complete text of contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the database the source documents comprising the database

Directory databasesDirectory databases provide information on provide information on individuals, organizations, and services individuals, organizations, and services

Special-purpose databasesSpecial-purpose databases provide specialized provide specialized informationinformation

Syndicated ServicesSyndicated Services

Companies that collect and sell common pools of Companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed to serve a data of known commercial value designed to serve a number of clientsnumber of clients

Syndicated sources can be classified based on the Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions) institutions)

Household/consumer data may be obtained from Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services

Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firmswholesalers, or industrial firms

A Classification of A Classification of Syndicated ServicesSyndicated Services

Unit ofMeasureme

nt

Fig. 4.4

Households/Consumers Institution

s

Syndicated Services:Syndicated Services: ConsumersConsumers

Fig. 4.4 cont.

Psychographic

& Lifestyles

General AdvertisingEvaluation

Households / Consumers

Scanner Panels with Cable TV

Surveys Volume Tracking

Data

Scanner Panels

Electronic scanner services

Purchase Media

Panels

Syndicated Services: InstitutionsSyndicated Services: Institutions

Audits

Direct Inquiries

Clipping Services

Corporate Reports

Fig. 4.4 cont.Institutions

Retailers Wholesalers

Industrial firms

Overview of Syndicated ServicesOverview of Syndicated Services

Table 4.3

Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Surveys Surveys conducted at regular intervals

Most flexible way of obtaining data; information on underlying motives

Interviewer errors; respondent errors

Market segmentation, advertising theme selection and advertising effectiveness

Purchase Panels

Households provide specific information regularly over an extended period of time; respondent asked to record specific behaviors as they occur

Recorded purchase behavior can be linked to the demographic/ psychographic characteristics

Lack of representativeness; response bias; maturation

Forecasting sales, market share and trends; establishing consumer profiles, brand loyalty and switching; evaluating test markets, advertising, and distribution

Media Panels Electronic devices automatically recording behavior, supplemented by a diary

Same as purchase panel

Same as purchase panel

Establishing advertising rates; selecting media program or air time; establishing viewer profiles

Overview of Syndicated Overview of Syndicated ServicesServices

Table 4.3 cont.

Scanner Diary Panels with Cable TV

Scanner panels of households that subscribe to cable TV

Data reflect actual purchases; sample control; ability to link panel data to household characteristics

Data may not be representative; quality of data limited

Promotional mix analyses, copy testing, new product testing, positioning

Audit services Verification of product movement by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis

Relatively precise information at the retail and wholesale levels

Coverage may be incomplete; matching of data on competitive activity may be difficult

Measurement of consumer sales and market share, competitive activity, analyzing distribution patterns: tracking of new products

Industrial Product Syndicated Services

Data banks on industrial establishments created through direct inquiries of companies, clipping services, and corporate reports

Important source of information on industrial firms, particularly useful in initial phases of the projects

Data are lacking in terms of content, quantity, and quality

Determining market potential by geographic area, defining sales territories, allocating advertising budget

Single-Source DataSingle-Source DataSingle-source dataSingle-source data provide integrated information on provide integrated information onhousehold variables, including media consumption andhousehold variables, including media consumption andpurchases, and marketing variables, such as productpurchases, and marketing variables, such as productsales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-storesales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-storemarketing effortmarketing effort

Recruit a test panel of households and meter each Recruit a test panel of households and meter each home's TV setshome's TV setsSurvey households periodically on what they readSurvey households periodically on what they readGrocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and promotionpromotion

Exploratory Research Design:

Qualitative Research

A Classification of Research DataA Classification of Research Data

Survey Data

Observational and Other

Data

Experimental Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Marketing Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Vs. Quantitative ResearchQualitative Vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations

Small number of non-representative cases

Unstructured

Non-statistical

Develop an initial understanding

Objective

Sample

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Outcome

Quantitative Research

To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest

Large number of representative cases

Structured

Statistical

Recommend a final course of action

A Classification of Qualitative A Classification of Qualitative Research ProceduresResearch Procedures

Association

Techniques

Completion

Techniques

Construction Techniques

Expressive Technique

s

Direct (Non- disguised)

Indirect (Disguised)

Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Projective Techniques

Qualitative Research Procedures

Characteristics of Focus GroupsCharacteristics of Focus Groups

Group Size 8-12

Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents,

prescreened

Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time Duration 1-3 hours

Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the

moderator

Key Qualifications of Focus Key Qualifications of Focus Group ModeratorsGroup Moderators

1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with understanding empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction.

2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group’s cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.

3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal involvement.

4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.

Key Qualifications of Focus Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators, cont.Group Moderators, cont.

5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate.

6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the group process.

7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.

Procedure for Planning and Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus GroupsConducting Focus Groups

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action

State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups

Write a Screening Questionnaire

Variations in Focus GroupsVariations in Focus GroupsTwo-way focus group.Two-way focus group. This allows one target This allows one target group to listen to and learn from a related group. group to listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of arthritis patients discussing the focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired. treatment they desired.

Dual-moderator group.Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted A focus group conducted by two moderators: One moderator is responsible by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that specific issues are discussed.ensures that specific issues are discussed.

Dueling-moderator group.Dueling-moderator group. There are two There are two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite moderators, but they deliberately take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.positions on the issues to be discussed.

Variations in Focus GroupsVariations in Focus Groups

Respondent-moderator group.Respondent-moderator group. The moderator The moderator asks selected participants to play the role of asks selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

Client-participant groupsClient-participant groups.. Client personnel are Client personnel are identified and made part of the discussion group. identified and made part of the discussion group.

Mini groups.Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents. and only 4 or 5 respondents.

Tele-session groups.Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call technique.phone using the conference call technique.

Online Focus groups.Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.online over the Internet.

Advantages of Focus GroupsAdvantages of Focus Groups1.1. SynergismSynergism

2.2. SnowballingSnowballing

3.3. StimulationStimulation

4.4. SecuritySecurity

5.5. SpontaneitySpontaneity

6.6. SerendipitySerendipity

7.7. SpecializationSpecialization

8.8. Scientific scrutinyScientific scrutiny

9.9. StructureStructure

10.10. SpeedSpeed

Disadvantages of Disadvantages of Focus GroupsFocus Groups

1.1. MisuseMisuse

2.2. MisjudgeMisjudge

3.3. ModerationModeration

4.4. MessyMessy

5.5. MisrepresentationMisrepresentation

Online Versus Traditional Focus Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups Groups

Characteristic Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups

Group size 4-6 8-12

Group composition Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local area

Time duration 1-1.5 hours 1-3 hours

Physical setting Researcher has little control Under the control of the researcher

Respondent identity Difficult to verify Can be easily verified

Respondent attentiveness Respondents can engage in other tasks Attentiveness can be monitored

Online Versus Traditional Focus Online Versus Traditional Focus GroupsGroups

.

Respondent recruiting Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail, Recruited by traditional means

panel, or by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel)

Group dynamics Limited Synergistic, snowballing (bandwagon) effect

Openness of respondentsRespondents are more candid Respondents are candid, except for due to lack of face-to-face contact sensitive topics

Nonverbal communication Body language cannot be observed Body language and emotions Emotions expressed by using symbols observed

Use of physical stimuli Limited to those that can be displayed A variety of stimuli (products, on the Internet advertising demonstrations, etc.) can be used

Online Versus Traditional Focus Online Versus Traditional Focus GroupsGroups

Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming and expensive to obtain

Observers’ communication Observers can communicate with the Observers can manually send noteswith moderator the moderator on a split-screen to the focus group room

Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observationalwith chat room slang

Turnaround time Can be set up and completed Takes many days for setup and in a few days completion

Client travel costs None Can be expensive

Basic focus group costs Much less expensive More expensive: facility rental, food, taping,

transcript preparation

Advantages of Online Focus GroupsAdvantages of Online Focus Groups

Geographical constraints are removed and time Geographical constraints are removed and time constraints are lessened. constraints are lessened.

Unique opportunity to re-contact group Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a later date.participants at a later date.

Can recruit people not interested in traditional Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.

Moderators can carry on side conversations with Moderators can carry on side conversations with individual respondents.individual respondents.

There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange so the cost is much lower.arrange so the cost is much lower.

Disadvantages of Online Focus GroupsDisadvantages of Online Focus Groups

Only people that have access to the Internet can Only people that have access to the Internet can participate. participate.

Verifying that a respondent is a member of a Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult. target group is difficult.

There is lack of general control over the There is lack of general control over the respondent's environment.respondent's environment.

Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g., perfumes).smelled (e.g., perfumes).

Depth Interview Techniques: Depth Interview Techniques: LadderingLaddering

In In ladderingladdering, the line of questioning proceeds from product , the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings. researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.

Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)  I can get more work doneI can get more work done  I accomplish moreI accomplish more  I feel good about myself(user characteristic)I feel good about myself(user characteristic)  Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flyingAdvertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flyingour airline. “You're The Boss.”our airline. “You're The Boss.”

Depth Interview Techniques: Depth Interview Techniques: Hidden Issue QuestioningHidden Issue Questioning

In In hidden issue questioninghidden issue questioning,, the focus is not on the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal “sore socially shared values but rather on personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns. personal concerns.

fantasies, work lives, and social lives fantasies, work lives, and social lives

  

historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive activitiesactivities

Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high status, and competitive heritage of the airline.high status, and competitive heritage of the airline.

Depth Interview Techniques: Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic AnalysisSymbolic Analysis

Symbolic analysisSymbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-product,” and opposite types of products. product,” and opposite types of products.

““What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?” What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”    “ “Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- distance calls.”distance calls.”

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication. Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication. Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as Federal Express does for a package.manager as Federal Express does for a package.

Focus Groups Versus Focus Groups Versus Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

Table 5.4

Characteristic Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Group synergy and dynamics + -

Peer pressure/group influence - +

Client involvement + -

Generation of innovative ideas + -

In-depth probing of individuals - +

Uncovering hidden motives - +

Discussion of sensitive topics - +

Focus Groups Versus Focus Groups Versus Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

Table 5.4, cont.

Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure, a - indicates a relative disadvantage.

Interviewing competitors

Interviewing professional respondents

Scheduling of respondents

Amount of information

Bias in moderation and interpretation

Cost per respondent

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

Characteristic Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Definition of Projective TechniquesDefinition of Projective Techniques

An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern. feelings regarding the issues of concern.

In projective techniques, respondents are asked to In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others. interpret the behavior of others.

In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.attitudes, or feelings into the situation.

Word AssociationWord AssociationIn In word associationword association,, respondents are presented respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating: of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating:

(1)  the frequency with which any word is given as a (1)  the frequency with which any word is given as a response; response;

(2)  the amount of time that elapses before a (2)  the amount of time that elapses before a response response is given; and is given; and

(3) (3) the number of respondents who do not respond the number of respondents who do not respond at at all to a test word within a reasonable period of all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.time.

Word AssociationWord Association

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE

STIMULUSSTIMULUS MRS. MMRS. M MRS. C MRS. C

washday washday everyday everyday ironing ironing

fresh fresh and sweet and sweet clean clean

pure pure air air soiled soiled

scrub scrub don't; husband does don't; husband does clean clean

filth filth this neighborhood this neighborhood dirt dirt

bubbles bubbles bath bath soap and soap and

water water

family family squabbles squabbles children children

towels towels dirty dirty washwash

Completion TechniquesCompletion TechniquesInIn s sentence completionentence completion,, respondents are given respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.that comes to mind.

A person who shops at Sears is ______________________A person who shops at Sears is ______________________  A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would be __________________________________Avenue would be __________________________________  J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________  When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes a completion, in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase. paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.

Completion TechniquesCompletion TechniquesIn In story completionstory completion,, respondents are given part of respondents are given part of a story – enough to direct attention to a particular a story – enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.to give the conclusion in their own words.

Construction TechniquesConstruction TechniquesWith a With a picture response,picture response, the respondents are the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality. individual's personality.   In In cartoon testscartoon tests,, cartoon characters are shown in a cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the comments of character might say in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response administer and analyze than picture response techniques.techniques.

A Cartoon TestA Cartoon Test

Let’s see if we can pick up some house

wares at Sears.

Figure 5.4

SearsSears

Expressive TechniquesExpressive TechniquesIn In expressive techniquesexpressive techniques,, respondents are presented respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.

Role playingRole playing Respondents are asked to play the role or Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else. assume the behavior of someone else.

Third-person techniqueThird-person technique The respondent is presented The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.

Advantages of Projective TechniquesAdvantages of Projective Techniques

They may elicit responses that subjects would be They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. purpose of the study.

Helpful when the issues to be addressed are Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms. norms.

Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Disadvantages of Projective TechniquesDisadvantages of Projective Techniques

Suffer from many of the disadvantages of Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent. extent.

Require highly-trained interviewers. Require highly-trained interviewers.

Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. the responses.

There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.

They tend to be expensive. They tend to be expensive.

May require respondents to engage in unusual May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.behavior.

Guidelines for Using Projective TechniquesGuidelines for Using Projective Techniques

Projective techniques should be used Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods.accurately obtained by direct methods.

Projective techniques should be used for Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.and understanding.

Given their complexity, projective Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.techniques should not be used naively.

Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and Projective Techniquesand Projective Techniques

1. Degree of Structure2. Probing of individual

respondents3. Moderator bias4. Interpretation bias5. Uncovering

subconscious information

6. Discovering innovative information

7. Obtaining sensitive information

8. Involve unusual behavior or questioning

9. Overall usefulness

Relatively highLow

Relatively mediumRelatively lowLow

High

Low

No

Highly useful

Relatively mediumHigh

Relatively high Relatively medium Medium to high

Medium

Medium

To a limited extentUseful

Relatively lowMedium

Low to highRelatively highHigh

Low

High

Yes

Somewhat useful

Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Projective Techniques

Criteria

Table 5.5

Analysis of Qualitative DataAnalysis of Qualitative Data

1)1)Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.the project at hand.

2)2)Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of the Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in the data. and interrelationships in the data.

3)3)Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers the Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers the meaning of analyzed data and assess its meaning of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research question at hand.implications for the research question at hand.

Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Ethical issues related to the respondents and Ethical issues related to the respondents and the general public are of primary concern. the general public are of primary concern.

Disguise can violate the respondents' right to Disguise can violate the respondents' right to know and result in psychological harm. know and result in psychological harm.

In debriefing sessions, respondents should be In debriefing sessions, respondents should be informed about the true purpose and given informed about the true purpose and given opportunities to ask questions. opportunities to ask questions.

The use of qualitative research results for The use of qualitative research results for questionable purposes raises ethical concernsquestionable purposes raises ethical concerns

Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Deceptive procedures that violate respondents’ Deceptive procedures that violate respondents’ right to privacy and informed consent should right to privacy and informed consent should be avoidedbe avoided

Video- or audio-taping the respondents without Video- or audio-taping the respondents without their prior knowledge or consent raises ethical their prior knowledge or consent raises ethical concerns. concerns.

The comfort level of the respondents should be The comfort level of the respondents should be addressed. addressed.