Principles of Sociology SOC-201

Unit 2 – Science and Methods in Sociology

Scientific Sociology How Theory and Research Work Together

Without research to back it up, a theory will remain an abstract concept with little value

Without theory, research is simply a collection of meaningless facts

Every theory must be tested with research and findings need to be explained

To test their theories, sociologists conduct research They rely on scientific method to investigate how

and why people behave the way they do Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence

Sociological research often reveals that what we accept as “common sense” is not entirely true

Concepts, Variables, and Measurements Concept

A mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form

Examples: family, gender, race, social class Variable

A concept whose values changes from case to case Examples: price, economic classes (upper class, lower

class) Measurement

A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

Researcher must specify exactly what they are measuring in each case

Concepts, Variables, and Measurements Descriptive Statistics

Sociologists need to employ statistics to state what the “average” is for a large population

Mean - Arithmetic average of all measures Median – The middle score that divides the

distribution in half Mode – The single score that appears most often

With measurements, you also need reliability and validity Reliability – The consistency of the measure

Must yield the same results each time it is measured Validity – The precision in measuring exactly what

one intends to measure

Cause and Effect

Correlation and Cause How do we determine that the variables are

related? Correlation

A relationship by which two or more variables change together

But we want to know not just the how but the why Cause and Effect

A relationship in which we know that change in one variable causes change in another

It allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior will affect another

Correlation and Cause Types of variables

Independent – The causal factor Dependent – The effect

Spurious Correlation When two variables change together but neither

one caused the other to change Usually results from a third factor

Correlation and Cause A true cause and effect relationship must

show: That the two variables are correlated That the independent variable precedes the

dependent in time There is no evidence that the correlation is

spurious Ideal of Objectivity

This is allowing the facts to speak for themselves Try not to filtering them through the personal

values and biases of the researcher However, total neutrality is impossible

Research and Gender

Research and Gender There are a five problems involving gender:

Androcentricity “Male Centered” Ignoring what women do

Overgeneralizing Using a small segment to represent the population as a

whole For example, using only males in studies

Gender Blindness Failing to consider gender at all

Double Standards Interference

Where a subject sees the researcher as a woman instead of a researcher

Research and Gender Feminist Research

Sociology focused mainly on men in the past This new focus allows research to focus mainly on

women It looks at the social standing of women, guided by

the assumption that women experience subordination

There is no single feminist strategy

Research Models

Research Model Eight steps involved in scientific research:

Selecting a Topic What do you want to learn more about?

Defining the Problem Narrow the topic to focus on a specific area

Reviewing the Literature To make sure what you want to study has not already been

studied Formulating a Hypothesis –

Hypothesis is a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory

Variables are factors that vary or change from one person or situation to another

Your hypothesis will need operational definitions, which are precise ways to measure the variables

Research Model Choosing a Research Model

The means by which you collect your data Sociologists use six basic research methods

Collecting the Data When you gather data, you must take care to assure its

validity and its reliability Analyzing the Results

This is why you test your hypothesis Sharing the Results

Publish a report with your findings to the scientific community

Research Methods

Research Methods There are many different types of research

methods that sociologists use as systematic plans for conducting research What you use depends on the questions you want

to answer Qualitative Analysis

This measurement deals with descriptions, where the data can be observed but not measured

Quantitative Analysis This measurement deals with numbers, where the

data can be measured

Research Method - Experiment Experiment

It is a research method used to investigate cause and effect relationships under highly controlled conditions

Specifically used to test a hypothesis This is an unverified statement of a relationships

between two or mor variables

Gathering Evidence Measure the dependent variable (the “effect”) Expose the dependent variable to the independent

variable Measure the dependent variable again to see

what, if any, changes took place

Research Method - Experiment Applications

For explanatory research that specifies the relationships among variables

Generates quantitative data Advantages

Provides the greatest ability to specify cause and effect

Replication is very easy Limitation

Control is easiest in a laboratory but those have an artificial quality

Unless the environment is carefully controlled, results may be biased

Research Methods - Survey Survey

Subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview

How to do a survey: Select a sample of the population

Sample – A selection of the population intended to represent the population to be studied

Select the type of questions to be used Questions should always be neutral to prevent bias Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended Questions

Research Methods - Survey Applications:

Gathering information that cannot be directly observed (values, beliefs, attitudes)

It is useful for descriptive and explanatory research It generates quantitative or qualitative data

Advantages Sampling allows surveys of large populations using

questionnaires Interviews provide in-depth responses

Limitations Questionnaires must be carefully prepared to avoid

bias and may produce a low-return rate Interviews are expensive and time consuming

Research Methods - Fieldwork Participant Observation

Researcher observes the subjects while joining in their regular activities

Goal is to gain entry into a setting without disturbing the normal routine behaviors of others

Cultural anthropologists use this method calling it “fieldwork”

Uses Exploratory and descriptive study of people in a

“natural” setting Produces qualitative data

Research Methods - Fieldwork Applications:

For an exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural” setting

Generates qualitative data Advantages

Allows study of “natural” behavior Rather inexpensive

Limitations Very time consuming Difficult to reproduce findings Researcher must balance the roles between being

an observer and a participant

Research Methods – Existing Sources Existing Sources – “Secondary Analysis”

The analysis of data that someone else has already collected

Application For any type of research where suitable data is

unavailable Advantages

Saves time and effort on collecting original data Allows historical research

Limitations Researcher has no control over possible biases in the

data The data may not be suitable for current research needs

Ethics in Research

Ethics in Research Sociologists must remember that their

research can be used to both help and hurt their subjects and communities

The American Sociological Association (ASA) has set down guidelines for conducting ethical research Professional Competence

Sociologists should be technologically competent and fair-minded in their work

Professional and Scientific Responsibility They must present their findings without omitting data Are ethically bound to share their studies with other

sociologists who want to replicate their research

Ethics in Research Professional Integrity

Sociologists must conduct themselves in ways that inspire trust

Ensure the safety of their subjects Informed consent Avoid deception Avoid conflicts of interest, especially in regards to

funding