1. Dr.Akshada Sabnis

2. study of learning can be traced back to roughly the turn of the 20th century, when two great traditions in biology began to focus on behavior and learning. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov first saw the importance of what is now called classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning. 3. Also working at the turn of the 20th century, Edward Thorndike . In the late 1930s, B. F. Skinner expanded Thorndike's method by enclosing rats in a box and allowing them to operate a lever attached to the wall to earn a food-pellet reward. 4. DEFINITION OF LEARNING: A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience ( Witting and Hilgard) Learning may be through training, experience, reading, observation, discussions, electronic media including internet, experimentation, facing the new challenges, travel and exploration etc. hence training and development is more tools for learning. 5. Learning is the one of the important psychological process determine the human behavior. learning is the process of accumulation of knowledge, skills and attitudes. (KSA) Learning is not a one time activity or an annual, half yearly, quarterly or monthly activity. Learning is a continues process. 6. Changes resulting from maturation such as growing, innate tendencies like reflexes and conditions caused by fatigue, drugs and diseases are strictly not considered as learned behaviour. 7. Association: Horn-Car, Symbol- Direction, Smoke-Fire Reinforcement: that strengthen the association of stimulus. Positive or negative consequences of a behavior. Continuity: Faster presentation of unconditioned stimulus after the presentation of conditioned stimulus Motives: a precondition for any type of learning 8. Laws (principles) of learning are: Readiness Exercise Effect Primacy Intensity Recency Freedom 9. Law of effect. learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling. learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. learning takes places properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. School activities should be organized in increasing difficulty order so that the students may progress without any failure.. 10. The law of exercise This principle states that the S-R connection is strengthened by use and weakened with disuse. It has two parts: law of use and law of disuse. Things most often repeated are best remembered. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals. 11. Law of readiness This principle states that motivation is needed to develop an association or display changed behavior. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. 12. Law of Primacy Things learned first create a strong impression. What is taught must be right the first time. Unteaching wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. Law of Recency things most recently learned are best remembered. frequent review and summarization help fix in the mind the material covered. 13. Law of Intensity the more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. Law (Principle) of Freedom things freely learned are best learned. the greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the class, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by them. 14. 1.Environmental a)bad family atmosphere b)work related problems c)locality related 2.Motivational a)intrinsic b)extrinsic 3.Physiological a)organic defects b)age related c)fatigue d)time of the day e)drugs like alcohol,caffeine,tobacco. 15. Classical learning Operant learning/instrumental learning Cognitive learning Social learning 16. Pavlovs Contribution Classical Conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (CS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) 17. It is One of the best known aspects of behavioural learning theory.(discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov) It is a learning process that occurs in association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Pavlovs classic example involves measuring how much a dog salivates in response to food or other things in the environment. 18. Unconditioned stimulus(US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically would evoke a response. Eg:the smell of the food. Conditioned stimulus or neutral stimulus(CS): Except for an alerting or attentional response the first few times it is presented, it doesnt evoke a response. Eg: a sound of the bell in pavlovs experiment 19. Conditioned response: It is that learned response that eventually occurs to the previously neutral stimulus, after a neutral conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus . Unconditioned response:the response that follows the unconditioned stimulus. 20. The 2 stimuli are paired separated by a second or several seconds a number of times (each pairing called a trial) , until presentation of the originally neutral stimulus evokes a response called conditioned response. As more trials are given the conditioned response grows stronger and are more likely to occur. 21. Acquisition: it is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. Extinction: occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone without the unconditioned stimulus for a number of trials. The strength and magnitude of conditioned response gradually decreases. The response is said to be forgotten over time. 22. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or a period of lessened response, it states that extinction does not completely erase conditioning. Reconditioning which is usually more rapid than the original conditioning ; when the CS and US are paired again. 23. Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned response to occur in response to other stimuli similar to the original conditional stimulus. Eg ; the dog salivated with the sound of the bell would do the same at the sound of a buzzer. Discrimination: the process of learning to make one response to one stimulus and a different response to another stimulus. eg: tell the difference between the bell and other sounds. 24. Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Delay conditioning: In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US. Trace conditioning: The CS is presented, a period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the US is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the conditioning interval. 25. Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time. Temporal conditioning: The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval between US presentations. 26. Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditional stimulus immediately follows an unconditional stimulus. the conditional stimulus serves as a signal that the unconditional stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional stimulus. Unpaired conditioning: The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization. 27. Stimulation Substitution: originated by Pavlov The CS as a result of repeated pairing with the US acquires the capacity to substitute for the US in evoking a response. He theorized that 2 areas in the brain are become activated during the procedure of conditioning , as a result of pairing the CS acquires the ability to excite the US area, thus leading to the reflex response. 28. Information & Expectation: CS becomes a signal for the US When CS is presented the US is expected producing a response. Thus in reality behavior , actions engaged by the learner are in expectation of a future event 29. It is used by many dog trainers to help train pets. Eg: Teachers apply it in class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome fear or anxiety. pairing an anxiety provoking situation like performing infront of a group , with pleasant surroundings thus help the child to stay calm. It can be used to increase or decrease certain behaviours. 30. Repetition of Advertisements: increases strength of Association between CS & US Slows the process of forgetting Many of our behaviors today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Eg remembering someone with the smell or the perfume he or she uses. 31. Operant conditioning - the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses. Key feature is a reinforcer/ reinforcement an environmental event that is the consequence of an instrumental response and that makes the response more likely to occur again 32. Reinforcement - any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again. Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch. Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars. Types: Positive reinforcer Negative reinforcement Punishment Omission 33. Positive reinforcement - the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus. Negative reinforcement - the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus 34. Thorndikes contribution 35. Behaviorist; wanted to study only observable, measurable behavior. Gave operant conditioning its name. Operant - any behavior that is voluntary. Learning depends on what happens after the response the consequence 36. Skinners box - lever which activates the food delivery system - positive reinforcement is contingent upon pressing the lever - at first, food pellets given for a while - press lever accidentally; food released - eventually presses the lever more rapidly 37. 1)Shaping - the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior. 2)Extinction takes place when the reinforcement for a particular response is withdrawn. Eg :old lady with dermatitis 38. 3)Conditioned positive reinforcers a. Learned reinforcers : learner must have experience with them for them to work. b. Stimuli become conditioned reinforcers by being paired with primary reinforcer. c. Similar to pairing of US and CS. d. Undergo extinction. 39. 4) Reinforcement schedules: Continuous schedule: Applying the reinforcement every time the behavior occurs (getting a raise after every successful project or getting spanked after every negative behavior) is called a Continuous Schedule. This is the best approach when using punishment. Inconsistencies in the punishment of children often results in confusion and resentment. A problem with this schedule is that we are not always present when a behavior occurs or may not be able to apply the punishment. 40. Fixed Ratio. A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific number of responses or behaviour. Fixed Interval. Applying the reinforcer after a specific amount of time is referred to as a fixed interval schedule. The characteristic pattern of responses in fixed interval type is that of a gradual acceleration of responding during the interval to produce what is known as the fixed interval scallop 41. Variable Ratio. This refers to applying a reinforcer after a variable number of responses. for example. Imagine walking into a casino and heading for the slot machines. After the third coin you put in, you get two back. Two more and you get three back. Another five coins and you receive two more back. And you find it extremely difficult to stop playing. Variable Interval. Reinforcing someone after a variable amount of time is the final schedule. If you have a boss who checks your work periodically, you understand the power of this schedule. 42. Stimulus Generalization Skinners box Gradient of Generalization Discrimination Positive reinforcement following the stimulus-increases likelihood of response No reinforcement following the stimulus decreases likelihood of response. Stimulus control of behaviour Go no go discrimination 43. There are two main categories of behavior under aversive control: avoidance behavior and escape behavior. Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced(reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). Eg :rat in a compartment. 44. Escape conditioning is converted into avoidance conditioning by giving a signal before the aversive stimulus starts. If the animal receives a cue or signal that an aversive stimulus is coming, then after one or two occurrences of the punishing stimulus the cue will trigger an avoidance behavior. This kind of learning occurs quickly and is very durable. For example, if you sounded a buzzer before you electrified the platform, after one or two trials the rat would respond to the tone by jumping into compartment B..It would not wait for the shock 45. This is a form of stimulus control, because it puts behavior under control of a stimulus Avoidance learning may also be learned because of safety signals- the absence of the noxious stimulus like the shock in the safe compartment of the box acts like a positive reinforcement . Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. As the animal is in a vicious circle: avoidance responses results in safety signals that reinforce the tendency to make more avoidance responses , which in turn produce more safety signals and so on. 46. Stimulus or an event, which, when its onset is contingent on a response, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again Different from negative reinforcement Effectiveness : i. Intensity ii. Consistency iii. Contingent upon occurrence of response iv. Response tendency v. Adaptation vi. Concurrent reinforcement 47. Omission training Positive reinforcement is withdrawn following a response Decreases the likelihood that the response will be made again. 48. Not all cases of learning can easily be captured by classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Learning would be extremely inefficient if we had to rely completely on conditioning for all our learning. Human beings can learn efficiently by observation, taking instruction, and imitating the behavior of others. Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes including creating mental representations of physical objects and events, and other forms of information processing. 49. It refers to processing information about the environment that is received through senses. It involves 1)selection of information. 2)the making of alterations. 3)forming associations of information selected. 4)elaboration of information in thought 5)storage of information in memory and 6)retrieval of the information when required 50. Types of Cognitive Learning Latent Learning Insight Learning Imitation 51. Latent learning:(Hidden) is the learning that occurs but is not evident in behaviour until later when conditions for its appearance are favourable. Ex:experimental rats allowed to live in and experience a maze, and control rats allowed to live in a plain box unlike the maze. so that when the need arises. when reinforcement provided to both the rats in the maze. The experimental rats moved faster and with a fewer errors than the control rats. 52. Insight learning: a typical insight situation , a problem is posed, a period follows during which no progress is made , and then suddenly the solution comes. Human beings experience a good feeling! Note that:1)solution comes suddenly after a period of during which various response strategies are tried 2)involves perceptual rearrangement and 3)the solution once you have it. What has been learned can also be applied to other similar situations,involving a great deal of generalizations of insightful situations to similar problems. 53. Imitations: when we model our behavior on that of someone else. Defined as a response that is like the stimulus triggering the response. Eg: chidren learning learning to say their first words or do things that their parents do. 54. Social learning theory posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement 55. Early Social Learning Theory Neil Miller and John Dollard Bridge the gap between dynamic and learning perspectives on personality Late Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura and Walters Focus is on observational learning/imitation Vicarious reinforcement Bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theorie 56. Holistic Theory - individual personality consists of several elements all of which require activation if learning is to be effective Facilitation Theory - learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator - Facilitative teacher and the learner - changing ones concept of oneself Action learning - action learning sets learning with and from each other 57. Experiental Learning - Kolb - can begin at any stage - continuous - likelihood of developing one mode of learning more than the other Adult Learning - student centered - experience based - problem oriented - collaborative 58. Watsons theory of behaviourism: Stated that through conditioning a child since birth one can create a desired adult . 59. Prepared behavior Certain species are predisposed to learn some things easily. Unprepared behavior Behavior that can be learned with a moderate amount of difficulty. Contraprepared behavior Behavior which can be learned only with great difficulty, if at all. 60. Based on - Operant Conditioning - Classical Conditioning - Cognitive Learning 61. Parents, schools and other agents of society may not deliberately, but do shape our behavior with reinforcements in society.. Instrumental or operant conditioning may be used deliberately to shape desired behaviours. 62. Programmed learning: the material to be learned is broken down into small easy steps. The leaner makes fewer errors , feels a sense of accomplishment. This also minimizes the frustration that might lower motivating and result in a dislike for learning. Reinforcement is contingent at each step . The learner makes responses at his own pace. It is Effective in learning facts , rules , formulas. 63. Personalised system of instruction.: The material in the course is divided into small units , that have to be mastered before the next unit is attempted. For ex: students may have to attain a certain grade before going to the next unit. They may set their own pace and answer the examination only after they are prepared. Being allowed to go to the next level act as a positive reinforcement. Also students on mastering certain number of units may be rewarded with a prize. 64. In business operations: use of positive reinforcement in the form of praise and prize can increase the employee productivity ,which reinforce the supervisors ,and the bosses by greater profits. Also having a role in changing the behavior of a well adjusted person in eliminating bad habits like smoking, taking care of health, temper and developing greater self control. 65. Omission training - Time out from reinforcement - withdrawal of the reinforcer Differential reinforcement - giving positive reinforcement for desired behaviour and withholding it in its absence Shaping - sample of the desired behaviour - reward successive approximations - gradual nurturing of correct responses 66. Token economies - Tokens can be earned following appropriate behaviour and exchanged for certain privileges - Advantages Punishment - may interfere with effective learning - used as a last resort Covert sensitisation - unwanted behaviour is imagined together with its imaginary punishing consequences 67. Systematic desensitization - relaxation and pleasant feelings are learned as conditioned responses to stimuli that once acted as fear producers - relaxation training essential prerequisite - Reciprocal Inhibition- gradually pair the feared stimulus with a relaxed body state - Fear gradient / hierarchy - duration of each session usually 15-30 mins - Problems that may arise during the process - Example : elimination of phobias (Mary Cover Jones) 68. Flooding - Direct presentation of a fear producing stimulus either in imagination or in reality - risk : worsen the unwanted conditioned response Aversion Therapy - involves the induction of feelings of fear/revulsion, specifically in relation to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviour - differs from punishment - applicable in establishing impulse control Assertive training - method of desensitization as well as means of developing more effective coping techniques - difficulties in interpersonal relationships 69. Modeling - based on observational learning - necessary conditions for effective modeling Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation 70. Elliss Rational Emotive Therapy - reveal and breakdown irrational beliefs that lead to distress Becks Cognitive Therapy - primarily for the treatment of depression - root out depressed peoples faulty depressogenic cognitions Meichenbaums Self-instructional Training - to help subjects replace their maladaptive cognitions with rational positive thoughts 71. Morgan and kings textbook of psychology Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry kaplan and saddock. Abnormal Psychology Coleman Educational psychology by Kundu and Tattoo