Principles of forest management for conserving populations of harvested

forest fungi and sustaining or enhancing their fruit-body production.

Oral presentation by David Pilz

Tuesday, August 19, 2003

At the 3rd International Workshop on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms

University of Victoria

British Columbia, Canada

[With support and contributions by Eric Jones, Becky Kerns, and Randy Molina]

Abstract: A Non-Timber Forest Product database, hosted by the Institute for Culture

and Ecology (http://www.ifcae.org/) now lists 104 edible, 19 medicinal, and 191

decorative fungus species that are commercially-harvested in US forests. Many more

species are likely collected for personal or recreational use. Forest managers are

increasingly aware that their choices influence the occurrence and abundance of these

fungi, but they often lack understanding of how such fungi respond to collection, or to

forest conditions, disturbances, and management. We discuss how the mode of

nutrition, growth substrate, forest habitat, and reproductive strategies of each fungus

species can be used to derive general principles about how mushroom harvesting and

forest management are likely to affect them. Such principles will be presented for

ectomycorrhizal, soil-saprobic, and wood-saprobic fungi and their responses to (1) forest

conditions such as stand age, stand density, tree species composition, presence of

snags, and coarse woody debris; (2) forest disturbances such as fire, wind-throw, or

pollution; (3) forest management activities such as clearcut harvesting, tree planting,

thinning, yarding, slash disposal, prescribed fire, fertilization, or snag creation; and (4)

harvesting impacts such as picking, raking, or trampling.

Contact Information for Contributors

David Pilz Forest Mycologist Department of Forest Science Oregon State University 321 Richardson Hall Corvallis OR 97331-5752 USA Office: Room 014, Forestry Sciences Laboratory Phone: 541.750.7362 Fax: 541.737-1393 Email: david.pilz@oregonstate.edu Web: http://www.fsl.orst.edu/mycology/PilzPage.html Eric Jones Institute for Culture and Ecology P.O. Box 6688 Portland, Oregon 97228-6688 USA Phone: 503.331.6681 etjones@ifcae.org Becky Kerns Pacific Northwest Research Station 3200 S.W. Jefferson Way Corvallis, OR 97331 USA Phone: 541.750.7497 Fax: 541.750.7329 bkerns@fs.fed.us Randy Molina Pacific Northwest Research Station 3200 S.W. Jefferson Way Corvallis, OR 97331 USA Phone: 541.750.7391 Fax: 541.750.7329 rmolina@fs.fed.us

Commercially-harvested forest fungi of the United States and its territories:

provisional tables of species and their nutritional substrates.

On-Line Source: Non-Timber Forest Product Database, Institute for Culture and

Ecology, Portland, OR (http://www.ifcae.org/). Eric Jones, Database Manager.

Entries compiled by: David Pilz

Owner/Consultant

PilzWald: Forestry Applications of Mycology

P.O. Box 2238

Corvallis, OR 97339-2238.

shroom@peak.org

541.753.6209

Forest Mycologist

Department of Forest Science

321 Richardson Hall

Corvallis OR 97331-5752.

david.pilz@oregonstate.edu

541.750.7362

Caveat: This is a provisional listing based on reference books, field guides, web sites,

and the author’s experience. It has not been peer-reviewed or published, hence it is

considered a work in progress. Users are cautioned to verify information in this table

before using or citing it. Feedback is welcomed.

Suggested citation for provisional tables: Pilz, D., Jones, E., Molina, R. 2003.

Commercially-harvested forest fungi of the United States and its territories: provisional

tables of species and their nutritional substrates. Fungal records in the Non-Timber

Forest Product Database of the Institute for Culture and Ecology, Portland, OR

(http://www.ifcae.org/). Presented August 19, 2003 at the Third International Workshop

on Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms. University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia.

About the Tables The commercially-harvested fungi we list are arbitrarily divided into three tables: edible,

medicinal, and decorative fungi. Where species are used for more than one purpose,

they are repeated in the relevant tables.

Scientific Names: Many scientific (Latin) names are in the process of being modified or

reassigned as genetic analyses provide new information. We consulted two online

authorities for current fungal names, but included many previously accepted names. We

suggest you also consult these databases as they are updated periodically. These two

sources are not in complete agreement because they are operated by different

individuals and institutions, but each cooperates extensively with taxonomic experts

around the world.

The CABI Bioscience International Mycological Institute and the Fungal Biodiversity

Center of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences host the web based

IndexFungorum, also known as the “ “Funindex”. It is a searchable database of all

fungal names globally and also lists higher level taxonomic classifications and prior

synonyms for each species.

Information about the database can be found at:

http://www.indexfungorum.org/

and the database can be searched at:

http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NAMES.ASP

The United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA-

ARS), Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland hosts the

most definitive source of U.S. fungal names. Their databases allow searches of

nomenclature, host tree species, collection locations, bibliographic information, and

synonyms. Their data is extensive for saprobic (decay) and parasitic fungi, but lack most

ectomycorrhizal mushrooms.

The USDA-ARS home page is: http://nt.ars-grin.gov/index.htm

And the databases may be searched at:

http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/all/GenericSelectionFrame.cfm

Common names: The North American Mycological Association (NAMA) is undertaking

a project to compile common names for American fungi.

Commission on Common Mushroom Names The Mycophile 41:6, Nov/Dec 2000

http://www.namyco.org/publications/mycophile2000.html

The common names listed are from the reference materials used and from web-based

resources such as:

Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database, [Very complete, but slow]

http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/Plantnames/Sorting/search.html

Foreign names of mushrooms from the cookbook page of the Mycological Society of

San Francisco, [Some selected species, non-English names]

http://www.mssf.org/cookbook/foreign.html

Japanese mushroom names

http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/Plantnames/Sorting/Fungi_Japindex_kat1.html

Dutch mushroom names, Netherland's Mycological Society

http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/users/kap/internet/index2.html

Société Mycologique de France, Les noms français, [French names]

http://www.mycofrance.org/

PilzGalerie, [German mushroom names and photos]

http://www.pilzepilze.de/piga/

Language codes for common names are those listed by the International

Organization for Standardization ISO 639. Code for the representation of the names

of languages.

http://xml.coverpages.org/iso639a.html

Nutritional substrates: In some cases we do not know for sure whether a particular

species is saprobic or ectomycorrhizal. Much of this information is not based on

experimental trials but on careful observations and what is currently considered true for

species of a particular genus. Some species, such as Morchella elata and Tricholoma

magnivelare exhibit characteristics of more than one mode of nutrition and many

ectomycorrhizal fungi exude enzymes that decompose organic matter. We use the term

“pathogen” in the sense that the fungus will colonize the interior of live trees, fruit before

the tree dies, and contribute to breakage or toppling (regardless of whether the fungus

attacks living tissue or kills the tree directly). If this term is not used for a wood saprobe,

then fruiting bodies are typically observed after the tree dies, although the timing of

original infection remains unclear in many cases. Sources for mode of nutrition include:

Allen, E.; Morrison, D.; and Wallis, G. 1996. Common tree diseases of British

Columbia. Victoria, B.C.: Natural Resources Cananda, Canadian Forest Service.

178 p.

Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms demystified. Second edition. Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed

Press. 959 p.

Burns, R. M.; Honkala, B.H. tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers;

2. Hardwoods. [Appendices entitled Checklist of Organisms Causing Tree

Diseases] Agriculture Handbook 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Washington, DC. vol, 1, 675 p. vol. 2, 877 p.

Farr, D.F.; Bills, G.F.; Chamuris, G.P.; Rossman, A.Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and

plant products in the United States. St. Paul, MN: APS Press. 1252 p.

Manion, P.D. 1981. Tree disease concepts. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 399

p.

Sinclair, W.A.; Lyon, H.H.; Johnson, W.T. 1987. Diseases of trees and shrubs. Ithica,

NY: Cornell University Press. 574 p.

Tainter, F.H.; Baker, F.A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. New York: John Wiley

& Sons. 805 p.

Table 1: Edible forest fungi

About the data: There exists many more edible species of mushrooms in the United States than those listed in this table. We have provided information for forest species that we know are harvested and sold, or that are likely to be harvested and sold because they resemble choice edible species (for instance, Leccinum species that resemble King boletes in stature and light-colored pores).

We have excluded species that have been commercially harvested in the past, but are now considered dangerous to eat. These include the early morels (Verpa species), the false morels (Gyromitra species) and man-on-horseback (Tricholoma flavovirens). We have also excluded edible Amanita species due to the danger of misidentification and consumption of poisonous or deadly species. The “Lobster mushroom” is actually two fungi in one. Hypomyces lactiflorum parasitizes and completely encases other mushrooms. There is always a risk that Hypomyces is colonizing a poisonous mushroom, but on the west coast it almost always colonizes the edible Russula brevipes and is widely collected and sold. There might be a greater risk of Hypomyces colonizing inedible mushrooms in the eastern United States. Although many species names are subject to revision, morel taxonomy is especially unresolved. Many previous names are incorrect or not published appropriately. Both scientific names and common names overlap among species and some likely species have yet to be described. Fortunately, all true morels (in the genus Morchella) are choice edibles and commercially harvested throughout the United States.

Scientific Name Common Name(s) Substrate and likely mode of nutrition

Agaricus augustus Prince soil saprobe

Agaricus bitorquis Tork, Banded Agaricus, Urban Agaricus

soil saprobe

Agaricus subrutilescens Wine-colored Agaricus soil saprobe

Armillariella mellea [species complex], (Armillaria mellea)

Honey mushroom, Oak root fungus wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Auricularia auricula, (Tremella auricula)

Wood ear, Tree ear, Judas' ear, Brown ear fungus

wood saprobe

Boletus abieticola fir bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus aereus Queen bolete, Moretti (IT) ectomycorrhizal

Boletus appendiculatus Butter bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus atkinsonii None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus barrowsii White king bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus chippewaensis None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus edulis King bolete, Cep (FR), Steinpilz (DE), Porcini (IT)

ectomycorrhizal

Boletus fibrillosus, (Boletus None known ectomycorrhizal

olivaceobrunneus)

Boletus hortonii None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus huronensis None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus longicurvipes None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus mirabilis Admirable bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus nobilis None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus pinophilus, (Boletus pinicola)

Spring bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus regius Red-capped butter bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus speciosus None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus subcaerulescens None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus variipes None known ectomycorrhizal

Calvatia sculpta Sierran puffball, Sculptured puffball, Pyramid puffball

soil saprobe

Cantharellus cibarius var. roseocanus

Rainbow chanterelle ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus cibarius Golden chanterelle, European golden chanterelle

ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus cinnabarinus Cinnabar chanterelle, Red chanterelle ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus formosus, (Cantharellus cibarius)

Pacific golden chanterelle, (Golden chanterelle)

ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus lateritius, (Craterellus cantharellus)

Smooth chanterelle ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus minor Small chanterelle ectomycorrhizal

Cantharellus subalbidus White chanterelle ectomycorrhizal

Catathelasma imperialis Imperial mushroom ectomycorrhizal

Catathelasma ventricosa Mock matsutake, Swollen-stalked cat ectomycorrhizal

Clitocybe nuda, (Lepista nuda), (Tricholoma nudum)

Blewit, Wood blewit soil saprobe

Coprinus comatus Shaggy mane, Shaggie, Shag, Lawyer's wig

soil saprobe

Craterellus cornucopioides, (Craterellus fallax)

Horn of plenty, Trumpet of death, Black chanterelle

ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus foetidus Fragrant black trumpet ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus lutescens, (Cantharellus lutescens), (Cantharellus xanthopus)

Yellow foot craterelle, (Yellow foot chanterelle), (Yellow stemmed chanterelle)

ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus odoratus, (Cantharellus odoratus)

Fragrant craterelle, (Fragrant chanterelle)

ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus tubaeformis, (Cantharellus tubaeformis), (Cantharellus infundibuliformis)

Winter craterelle, (Winter chanterelle), (Funnel chanterelle)

ectomycorrhizal

Fistulina hepatica, (Boletus hepaticus)

Beefsteak fungus, Ox tongue wood saprobe (on lower bole and stump)

Flammulina velutipes, (Agaricus velutipes)

Velvet foot, Winter mushroom, Enokitake (JA)

wood saprobe

Gomphus clavatus Pig’s ear, Pig’s ear gomphus ectomycorrhizal

Grifola frondosa, (Polyporus frondosus)

Hen of the woods, Sheep's head wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Hericium abietis Bear's head wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Hericium americanum Bear's head tooth wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Hericium coralloides, (Hericium laciniatum), (Hericium ramosum)

Coral hedgehog, Bear's head tooth, Waterfall hydnum

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Hericium erinaceus Lion's mane, Bearded hedgehog, Bearded tooth

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Hericium ramosum, (Hydnum ramosum), (Hericium laciniatum)

Comb hericium, Comb tooth wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Hydnum repandum, (Dentinum repandum)

Spreading hedgehog, Sweet tooth ectomycorrhizal

Hydnum umbilicatum, (Dentinum umbilicatum)

Belly-button hedgehog ectomycorrhizal

Hypomyces lactifluorum, Russula brevipes

Lobster mushroom fungal pathogen and ectomycorrhizal host fungus

Lactarius deliciosus, (Agaricus deliciosus)

Saffron milkcap, Delicious milkcap, Orange latex milky,

ectomycorrhizal

Lactarius fragilis, (Lactarius camphoratus subsp. fragilis)

Candy cap, Aromatic milky ectomycorrhizal

Lactarius rubrilacteus Bleeding milk-cap ectomycorrhizal

Laetiporus sulphureus, (Polyporus sulphureus)

Sulfur shelf, Chicken of the woods, Chicken mushroom

wood saprobe (bole and root pathogen)

Langermannia gigantea (Calvatia gigantea)

Giant puffball soil saprobe

Leccinum alaskanum None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum arctostaphylos None known, (bearberry bolete), (kinnikinnick bolete)

ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum aurantiacum red-capped scaber stalk, orange-capped bolete

ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum discolor None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum fallax None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum fibrillosum None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum insigne, (Leccinum aurantiacum)

Aspen bolete, Aspen scaber stalk ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum largentii None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum manzanitae Manzanita bolete, Madrone bolete ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum ponderosum None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum scabrum Birch bolete, Common scaber stipe, ectomycorrhizal

Brown birch bolete

Leccinum snellii None known ectomycorrhizal

Leccinum subalpinum None known ectomycorrhizal

Leucangium carthusianum, (Picoa carthusiana)

Oregon black truffle ectomycorrhizal

Lycoperdon perlatum Common puffball, Gemmed puffball, Gem-studded puffball

soil saprobe

Lyophyllum decastes, (Lyophyllum multiceps), (Clitocybe decastes), (Clitocybe multiceps), (Tricholoma aggregatum)

Fried chicken mushroom, Clustered Lyophyllum, Shimeji (JA), Hatake shimeji (JA)

soil saprobe

Morchella (unnamed species)

Grey morel, Gray morel soil saprobe

Morchella (unnamed species)

White morel soil saprobe ectomycorrhizal?

(Morchella angusticeps) Burn morel, Narrow-head morel soil saprobe

(Morchella atrotomentosa) Burnsite morel, Grey morel, Gray morel

soil saprobe

(Morchella conica) Burn morel, Narrow-headed black morel

soil saprobe

Morchella crassipes Thick-footed morel soil saprobe

Morchella deliciosa White morel soil saprobe

Morchella elata Natural, Fat-headed black morel soil saprobe ectomycorrhizal?

Morchella elata group, (Morchella angusticeps), (Morchella conica), (Morchella atrotomentosa)

Black morels soil saprobe ectomycorrhizal?

Morchella esculenta Yellow morel, Merkel, Sponge mushroom, Honeycomb morel, Land fish, Pine cone mushroom

soil saprobe

Morchella esculenta group, (Morchella deliciosa), (Morchella crassipes)

Light-colored morels soil saprobe

Morchella semilibra, (Morchella hybrida), (Mitrophora semilibera)

Half-free morel soil saprobe

Neolentinus ponderosus, (Lentinus ponderosus)

Ponderous Lentinus, Large Lentinus, wood saprobe

Pleurocybella porrigens, (Pleurotus porrigens), (Nothopanus porrigens), (Pleurotellus porrigens)

Angel wings, Angel's wings, wood saprobe (on logs and snags)

Pleurotus ostreatus, (Pleurotus limpidus), (Pleurotus salignus), (Pleurotus sapidus)

Oyster mushroom, Tree oyster, Tree mushroom

wood saprobe (on logs and snags)

Polyozellus multiplex, Blue chanterelle, Black chanterelle, ectomycorrhizal

(Cantharellus multiplex) Grey chanterelle

Polyporus umbellatus, (Grifola umbellata), (Polypilus umbellatus), (Dendropolyporus umbellatus)

Umbrella polypore wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Ramaria botrytis, (Clavaria botrytis)

Pink-tipped coral mushroom, Cauliflower coral, Clustered coral

ectomycorrhizal

Rozites caperata, (Rozites caperatus)

Gypsy mushroom, Gypsy nightcap soil saprobe

Sarcodon imbricatus, (Hydnum imbricatum)

Hawk wing, Scaly hydnum, Scaly tooth, Shingled hedghog

ectomycorrhizal

Sparassis crispa, (Clavaria crispa), (Sparassis radicata)

Cauliflower mushroom, Ruffles wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Sparassis spathulata, (Sparassis herbstii), (Sparassis crispa)

Eastern cauliflower mushroom, Ruffles wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Suillus [species] Slippery-jacks ectomycorrhizal

Suillus borealis None known ectomycorrhizal

Suillus brevipes, (Boletus brevipes)

Short-stalked Suillus, Short-stemmed slippery jack

ectomycorrhizal

Suillus granulatus, (Boletus granulatus)

Dotted-stalk Suillus, Granulated slippery Jack

ectomycorrhizal

Suillus luteus The Slippery Jack ectomycorrhizal

Tricholoma caligatum, (Armillaria caligata)

Brown matsutake, Fragrant Armillaria ectomycorrhizal

Tricholoma magnivelare, (Tricholoma ponderosum), (Armillaria ponderosa)

American matsutake, Pine mushroom, Matsi

ectomycorrhizal pathogenic and saprobic characters

Tricholoma populinum Poplar Tricholoma, Poplar Trich, The Sandy

Tuber gibbosum Oregon white truffle ectomycorrhizal

Ustilago maydis, (Lycoperdon zeae)

Cornsmut corn pathogen

Xanthoconium separans, (Boletus separans, Boletus pseudoseparans)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Sources for edible forest fungi

Literature:

Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms demystified. Second edition. Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed Press. 959 p.

Arora, D. 1991. All that the rain promises and more... A hip pocket guide to western mushrooms. Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed Press. 263 p.

Alan E. Bessette, William C. Roody, and Arleen R. B 2000. North American boletes : a color guide to the fleshy pored mushrooms / Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press

Bandoni, R.J.; Szczawinski, A.F. 1976. Guide to common mushrooms of British Columbia. Handbook No. 24. Victoria, Canada: British Columbia Provincial Museum. 242 p.

Barron, G. 1999. Mushrooms of Ontario and Eastern Canada. Lone Pine Field Guide. Edmonton, Alberta: Lone Pine Publishing. 336 p.

Bessette, A.; Sundberg, W. 1987. Mushrooms: a quick reference guide to mushrooms of North America. Macmillan Field Guide Series. New York, NY: Collier Books. 170 p.

Bessette, A.E.; Bessette, A.R.; Fischer, D.W. 1997. Mushrooms of northeastern North America. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. 582 p.

Biek, D. 1984. Mushrooms of northern California. Redding, CA: Spore Prints. 302 p.

Bigelow, Howard E. 1974. The mushroom pocket field guide Imprint New York, Macmillan

Courtenay, B.; Burdsall, H.H. Jr. 1982. A field guide to mushrooms and their relatives. New York, NY: Van Norstrand Reinhold. 144 p.

Desjardin, D. E. Hemmes, D. E. 2002. Mushrooms of Hawaii: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed Press 212 p.

Evenson, V.S. 1997. Mushrooms of Colorado and the southern Rocky Mountains. Denver Botanic Gardens & Denver Museum of Natural History. Englewood, CO: Westcliffe Publishers. 207 p.

Fischer, D.W.; Bessette, A.E. 1992. Edible wild mushrooms of North America: a field-to-kitchen guide. Austin, TX: University of Austin Press. 254 p.

Glick, P.G. 1979. The mushroom trail guide. New York, NY: Holt Rinehart Winston. 247 p.

Groves, J. W.; [Addendum by Redhead, S. A.]. 1979. Edible and poisonous mushrooms of Canada. Publication 1112. Ottawa, ON: Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. 326 p.

Hosford, D.; Pilz, D.; Molina, R.; Amaranthus, M. 1997. Ecology and Management of the Commercially Harvested American Matsutake Mushroom. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-412. Portland, OR: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 68 p.

Huffman, D.M.; Tiffany, L.H., Knaphus, G. 1989. Mushrooms & other fungi of the midcontinental United States. Ames, IO: Iowa State University Press. 326p.

Kibby, G. 1992. American nature guides. Mushrooms and other fungi. New York: Smithmark Publishing. 192 p.

Lincoff, G.H. 1981. The Audubon Society field guide to North American mushrooms. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 926 p.

McKenny, M.; Stuntz D.E.; Ammirati, J.F. 1987. The new savory wild mushroom. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 249 p.

McKnight, K.H.; McKnight, V.B. 1987. Peterson field guide. A field guide to mushrooms. North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 429 p.

Miller, O.K. Jr. 1978. Mushrooms of North America. New York: E. P. Dutton. 360 p.

Molina, R.; O'Dell, T.; Luoma, D.; [and others] 1993. Biology, ecology and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest: a preface to managing commercial harvest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-309. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 42 p.

Orr, R.T.; Orr, D.B. 1979. Mushrooms of western North America. Berkeley,CA: University of California Press. 293 p.

Phillips, R. 1991. Mushrooms of North America. Boston, MD: Little, Brown and Co. 319 p.

Pilz, David; Norvell, Lorelei; Danell, Eric; Molina, Randy. 2003 Ecology and management of commercially harvested chanterelle mushrooms. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-576. Portland, OR: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 83 p.

Redhead, S.A.; Norvell, L.; Danell, E. 1997. Cantharellus formosus and the Pacific golden chanterelle harvest in western North America. Mycotaxon. 65: 285-322.

Schalkwijk-Barendsen, H.M.E. 1991. Mushrooms of western Canada. Edmonton, Alberta: Lone Pine Publishing. 414 p.

Smith, A.H. 1949. Mushrooms in their natural habitats. Vols. 1 & 2. Portland, OR: Sawyer’s Inc. 626 p.

Smith, A.H. 1975. A field guide to western mushrooms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 280 p.

Smith, A.H.; Weber, N.S. 1980. The mushroom hunter’s field guide; all color and enlarged. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 316 pages.

States, Jack S. 1990. Mushrooms and truffles of the Southwest. Flagstaff, AZ: University of Arizona Press. (Published with the assistance of Transition Zone Horticultural Institute,Tucson and Arboretum at Flagstaff)

Tylutki, E.E. 1987. Mushrooms of Idaho and the Pacific Northwest. Vol. 2. Non-gilled Hymenomycetes. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho Press. 232 p.

Weber, N.S.; Smith, A. 1985. A field guide to southern mushrooms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 280 p.

Web sites

North American Mycological Societies http://www.mykoweb.com/na_mycos.html

Mushroom links (The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology by Kathie Hodge) http://www.keil.ukans.edu/%7Efungi/ MykoWeb by Micheal Wood http://www.mykoweb.com/

Table 2. Medicinal forest fungi About the data: Most medicinal fungi currently being marketed are cultivated rather than collected in the wild. The species listed in this table have a long history of human use. They also are important enough and sufficiently common that either wild harvests are known to have occurred or harvesting could be commercially viable. Although many fungi are being tested for pharmacological properties and the published literature is replete with information, much commercial research also remains proprietary. Even the cultivated medicinal mushrooms can be considered Nontimber Forest Products in the sense that companies frequently collect and test wild strains for superior properties. With two exceptions, (Grifola frondosa and Polyporus umbellatus) the medicinal mushrooms we list are not considered food. Many edible fungi can be considered “nutraceuticals”, however, because they have been shown to have healthful properties or compounds.

Scientific Name Common Name(s) Substrate and likely mode of nutrition

Agaricus sylvaticus Royal Agaricus® soil saprobe

Fomes fomentarius Tinder polypore, Touchwood, Punk, Punkwood, Hoof fungus, Amadou (FR), Amadouvier (FR), Surgeon's agarick, German tinder

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Fomes pinicola, (Fomitopsis pinicola), (Polyporus pinicola), (Fomes ungulatus), (Ungulina marginata), (Polyporus ponderosus), (Boletus pinicola)

Red-belted polypore, tsugasaruno-hoshikake (JA)

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Ganoderma applanatum Artist's conk, Artist's fungus wood saprobe (occasional bole pathogen)

Ganoderma lucidum, (Polyporus curtisii), (Polyporus lucidus)

Ling-Zhi (ZH), Reishi (JA), ("plant of immortality (ZH)), shi ri ("mushroom which grows on stone" (ZH)), ("ten thousand year mushroom" (ZH)), ("herb of spiritual potency" (ZH)), ("phantom mushroom (JA)), varnished conk

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Ganoderma oregonense Oregon varnished conk wood saprobe (bole and root pathogen)

Ganoderma tsugae, (Polyporus tsugae)

Hemlock varnished conk wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Grifola frondosa, (Polyporus frondosus)

Hen of the woods, Sheep's head wood saprobe (root pathogen?)

Inonotus obliquus, (Polyporus obliquus), (Poria

Pilat, Chaga, Black birch touchwood, Birch mushroom, Clinker polypore,

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

obliqua) tschagapilz (DE), crooked Schiller-porling, Kofukisaruno-koshikake (JA), sketaugen (Ojibwa)

Laricifomes officinalis, Fomitopsis palustris, (Fomitopsis officinalis), (Fomes officinalis), (Fomes laricis), (Microdiplodia bonnayae), (Polyporus palustris), (Tyromyces palustris)

Quinine conk, Quinine fungus, Panacea mushroom, Brown trunk rot, Agarick, Agaricum, White agaric, Purging agaric, Larch agaric

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Lenzites betulina, (Daedalea betulina), (Lenzites ochraceus), (Lenzites variegata), (Agaricus betulina)

Gilled polypore, Kaigaratake (JA) wood saprobe

Phellinus igniarius, (Fomes igniarius), (Polyporus igniarius)

False tinder polypore, False tinder conk, Nisehokuchitake (JA)

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Piptoporus betulinus, (Polyporus betulinus)

Birch conk, Birch polypore wood saprobe

Polyporus umbellatus, (Grifola umbellata), (Polypilus umbellatus), (Dendropolyporus umbellatus)

Umbrella polypore wood saprobe (on roots and stumps)

Pycnoporus sanguineus, (Polyporus sanguineus), (Polystictus sanguineus), (Trametes cinnabarina var. sanguinea)

Red fungus, Red polypore wood saprobe

Schizophyllum commune, (Schizophyllum radiatum)

Split-gill, Common split-gill, Split-fold mushroom

wood saprobe (occasional pathogen)

Trametes versicolor, (Coriolus versicolor), (Polyporus versicolor), (Polystictus versicolor)

Turkey tail, Many-colored polypore wood saprobe

Tremella fuciformis White Auricularia, Trembling fungus, white fungus, Bai Mu Erh [snow fungus](ZH), Yin er (ZH)

wood saprobe

Wolfiporia cocos, (Pachyma hoelen), (Poria cocos), (Macrohyporia cocos), (Daedalea extensa)

Tuckahoe (Algonquin), Tockawhoughe, Tawkee, Tuckah, Indian bread, Hoelen (ZH), Fuling (ZH), Matsuhodo (JA),

wood saprobe

Sources for medicinal forest fungi

Literature

Benjamin, D.R. 1995. Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas. A handbook for naturalists, mycologists, and physicians. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. 422 p.

Hobbs, C.L.Ac. 1995. Medicinal mushrooms: an exploration of tradition, healing, & culture. Santa Cruz, CA: Botanica Press. 251 p.

Stamets, P.; Yao, C.D.W. 2002. Mycomedicinals: an informational treatise on mushrooms. Olympia, WA: MycoMedia Productions. 96 p.

Web sites

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms http://www.begellhouse.com/ijmm/ijmm.html Commercial sites marketing medicinal fungi and information about medicinal fungi

Fungi Perfecti http://www.fungi.com/mycomeds/index.html

Mushroom Nutraceutical Products http://www.gmushrooms.com/health/index.htm

Nammex (North American Medicinal Mushroom Extracts) http://www.nammex.com/Affiliates-NAMMEX.html

Table 3. Decorative forest fungi About the data: With a few exceptions, most of these fungi are used for natural dyes. All of the forest-inhabiting fungal species that are known in the literature to be used as sources of natural dyes are listed on the assumption that the products dyed will also be sold. Ganoderma applanatum, the artist’s conk, is unique in that it is used for sketching images (the white underside darkens when scratched). Most species of mushrooms can be used for making mushroom paper, a specialty product with a niche market in greeting cards. Almost any mushroom can be dried for decorative displays. Freeze-drying preserves the shape and color of a mushroom best, but the specimens can become brittle.

Scientific Name Common Name(s) Substrate and likely mode of nutrition

Agaricus augustus The prince soil saprobe

Agaricus pattersonae None known soil saprobe

Agaricus sylvaticus Red-staining mushroom, Wood mushroom, Forest mushroom

soil saprobe

Amauroderma [species] None known wood saprobe (root pathogen)

Amylocystis lapponica, (Polyporus lapponicus), (Polyporus ursinus)

None known wood saprobe

Anthracophyllum lateritium None known wood saprobe

Apiosporina morbosa, (Dibotryon morbosum), (Plowrightia morbosa)

Black knot wood saprobe (pathogen)

Bankera fuligineo-alba, (Hydnum fragile), (Hydnum friabile), (Hydnum fuligineo-album)

Grayish white Hydnum ectomycorrhizal

Bankera violascens, (Bankera carnosa)

Fleshy Hydnum ectomycorrhizal

Boletopsis subsquamosa Kurokawa (JA) ectomycorrhizal

Boletus aereus Queen bolete, Moretti (IT) ectomycorrhizal

Boletus carminiporus None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus edulis King bolete, Cep (FR), Steinpilz (DE), Porcini (IT)

ectomycorrhizal

Boletus hypocarycinus None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus illudens, (Xerocomus illudens)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus inedulis None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus miniato-olivaceus None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus mirabilis Admirable bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus projectellus, (Boletellus projectellus)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus pulcherrrimus, (Boletus eastwoodiae)

Red-pored bolete ectomycorrhizal

Boletus rubripes None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus spadiceus None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus speciosus var. brunneus

None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus subvelutipes None known ectomycorrhizal

Boletus zelleri Zeller's bolete ectomycorrhizal

Bulgaria inquinans, (Bulgaria polymorpha), (Phaeobulgaria inquinans)

Poor man's licorice, Black jelly drops wood saprobe

Chalciporus piperatus, (Boleuts piperatus), (Leccinum piperatum)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Chalciporus rubinellus None known ectomycorrhizal

Chroogomphus rutilus, (Gomphidius rutilus), (Gomphidius viscidus)

Pine spike ectomycorrhizal

Chroogomphus vinicolor Pine spike ectomycorrhizal

Clavariadelphus ligula Strap coral, Strap-shaped coral ectomycorrhizal

Clavariadelphus occidentalis

Western club coral ectomycorrhizal

Clavariadelphus pistillaris,(Clavaria pistillaris)

Common club coral, Pestle-shaped coral

ectomycorrhizal

Clavariadelphus truncatus Flat-topped coral, Truncate club coral ectomycorrhizal

Collybia acervata Clustered Collybia, Clustered coin cap

soil saprobe

Collybia iocephala, (Gymnopus iocephalus), (Marasmius iocephalus)

Purple coincap, Violet Collybia soil saprobe

Coltricia perennis, (Polyporus perennis), (Polystictus perennis)

None known soil saprobe

Coprinus atramentarius Alcohol inky cap, Alcohol inky, Inky cap

soil saprobe

Coprinus micaceus Glistening inky cap, Mica cap soil saprobe

Cortinarius armillatus Bracelet Cortinarius ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius aureifolius None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius badius None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius bolaris None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius brunneus None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius cinnamomeus, (Dermocybe cinnamomea)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius corrugatus None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius cotoneus Scaly Cortinarius ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius croceofolius, (Cortinarius malicorius)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius croceus None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius limonius, (Cortinarius whitei)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius marylandensis None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius phoeniceus var. occidentalis

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius sanguineus, (Dermocybe sanguinea)

Blood-red Cortinarius ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius scaurus None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius semisanguineus, (Cortinarius cinnamomeus var. semisanguineus)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius tubarius var. luteofolius

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius tubarius var. tubarius

None known ectomycorrhizal

Cortinarius violaceus Violet Cortinarius ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus cornucopioides, (Craterellus fallax)

Horn of plenty, Trumpet of death, Black chanterelle

ectomycorrhizal

Craterellus tubaeformis, (Cantharellus tubaeformis), (Cantharellus infundibuliformis)

Winter craterelle, (Winter chanterelle), (Funnel chanterelle)

ectomycorrhizal

Cystostereum murrayi, (Stereum murrayi), (Thelephora murrayi), (Stereum tubeculosum)

False turkey tail wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Daedalea quercina Thick-walled maze polypore wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Daldinia concentrica, (Sphaeria concentrica)

Cramp ball, Carbon ball wood saprobe

Daldinia grandis, (Daldinia grande), (Sphaeria concentrica)

Cramp ball, Carbon ball, King Alfred's cakes

wood saprobe

Dermocybe californica, (Cortinarius californicus)

California red-dye ectomycorrhizal

Diplomitoporus rimosus, (Phellinus robineae), (Poria rimosa)

Cracked-cap polypore, Rimosus decay

wood saprobe

Echinodontium tinctorium Indian paint fungus, Toothed conk wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Fistulina hepatica, (Boletus hepaticus)

Beefsteak fungus, Ox tongue wood saprobe

Flammulina velutipes, (Agaricus velutipes)

Velvet foot, Winter mushroom, Enokitake (JA)

soil saprobe

Fomes fomentarius Tinder polypore, Touchwood, Punk, Hoof fungus, White spongy trunk rot, Amadou (FR), Amadouvier (FR), Ice man fungus

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Fomitopsis cajanderi, (Fomes subroseus)

Rosy conk, Rosy polypore wood saprobe (occasional pathogen)

Fuscoboletinus paluster, (Suillus paluster)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Ganoderma applanatum Artist's conk, Artist's fungus wood saprobe (occasional bole pathogen)

Ganoderma curtisii, (Polyporus curtisii)

Stalked polypore wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Ganoderma tsugae, (Polyporus tsugae)

Hemlock varnished conk wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Gastroboletus turbinatus Bogus Boletus, Gastroid bolete, Bolete false truffle

ectomycorrhizal

Gloeophyllum sepiarium, (Gloeophyllum hirsutum), (Lenzites sepiaria)

Rusty-gilled polypore wood saprobe

Gomphidius glutinosus Glutinous Gomphidius ectomycorrhizal

Gomphidius subroseus Rosy Gomphidius ectomycorrhizal

Gomphus clavatus Pig’s ear, Pig’s ear gomphus ectomycorrhizal

Gymnopilus junonius, (Gymnopilus spectabilis), (Pholiota spectabilis)

Big laughing mushroom, Big laughing Gym, Giant Gymnopilus

soil saprobe

Gymnopilus liquiritiae None known soil saprobe

Gymnopilus luteofolius None known soil saprobe

Gymnopilus luteus None known soil saprobe

Gymnopilus penetrans, (Flammula penetrans)

None known soil saprobe

Gymnopilus sapineus Common Gymnopilus, Boring Gymnopilus

soil saprobe

Gymnopilus ventricosus Common Gymnopilus, Boring Gymnopilus

soil saprobe

Gyrodon merulioides, (Boletinellus merulioides)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Gyromitra esculenta False morel, Conifer false morel, Brain mushroom

soil saprobe

Gyromitra infula Hooded false morel, Saddle-shaped false morel

soil saprobe

Gyroporus cyanescens var. violaceotinctus

None known ectomycorrhizal

Gloeophyllum rutilans, (Hapalopilus nidulans), (Polyporus nidulans), (Polyporus rutilans)

Tender nesting polypore wood saprobe

Hebeloma mesophaeum Veiled Hebeloma ectomycorrhizal

Hericium erinaceus Lion's mane, Bearded hedgehog, Bearded tooth

Hydnellum aurantiacum, Orange Hydnellum soil saprobe

(Hydnum aurantiacum)

Hydnellum caeruleum, (Hydnum caeruleum), (Calodon caeruleum)

Blue-gray Hydnellum, Blue spine, Bluish tooth

soil saprobe

Hydnellum peckii, (Hydnellum diabolus)

Strawberries and cream, Bleeding Hydnelleum, Red-juice tooth

soil saprobe

Hydnellum pineticola None known soil saprobe

Hydnellum regium None known soil saprobe

Hydnellum scrobiculatum var. zonatum, (Hydnellum zonatum), (Hydnellum ferrugineum var. scrobiculatum), (Hydnum scrobiculatum), (Hydnum velutinum var. scrobiculatum)

Rough Hydnellum soil saprobe

Hydnellum spongiosipes Spongy-footed tooth soil saprobe

Hydnellum suaveolens Fragrant Hydnellum soil saprobe

Hydnum repandum, (Dentinum repandum)

Spreading hedgehog, Sweet tooth ectomycorrhizal

Hygrocybe calciphila, (Hygrophorus miniatus), (Hygrocybe miniatus)

Miniature waxy cap, Fading scarlet waxy cap, Vermilion waxycap

soil saprobe

Hygrocybe psittacina, (Hygrophorus psittacinus)

Parrot waxy cap, Parrot mushroom soil saprobe

Hygrocybe punicea, (Hygrophorus puniceus), (Hygrocybe coccinea), (Hygrophorus coccineus)

Scarlet waxy cap, Scarlet hood soil saprobe

Hygrophorus conicus, (Hygrocybe conica)

Witch's hat, Conical waxy cap ectomycorrhizal

Hygrophorus hypothejus Olive-brown waxy cap, Winter herald ectomycorrhizal

Hypholoma capnoides, (Naematoloma capnoides)

Conifer tuft, Smoky-gilled Naematoloma, Orange stump mushroom

wood saprobe

Hypholoma fasciculare, (Naematoloma fasciculare)

Sulfur tuft, Sulphur tuft wood saprobe

Hypholoma sublateritium, (Naematoloma sublateritium)

None known wood saprobe

Hypomyces lactifluorum, (Russula brevipes host)

Lobster mushroom fungal pathogen and ectomycorrhizal host fungus

Inocybe angustispora None known ectomycorrhizal

Inocybe maculata Brown Inocybe ectomycorrhizal

Inonotus hispidus, (Polyporus hispidus)

Hispidus canker wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Inonotus obliquus, (Polyporus obliquus), (Poria obliqua)

Pilat, Chaga, Black birch touchwood, Birch mushroom, Clinker polypore, tschagapilz(DE), crooked Schiller-porling, Kofukisaruno-koshikake (JA), sketaugen (Ojibwa)

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Inonotus rheades, (Inonotus rickii)

Inonotus heartrot, trunk rot wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Inonotus tomentosus, (Coltricia tomentosa), (Onnia tomentosa), (Polyporus tomentosus), (Polystictus tomentosus), (Mucronoporus tomentosus)

Tomentosus root disease wood saprobe (root and bole pathogen)

Ischnoderma resinosum, (Polyporus benzoinus), (Polyporus resinosus), (Trametes benzoina)

Resinous polypore wood saprobe

Lacrymaria velutina, (Psathyrella velutina)

None known wood saprobe (from soil)

Lactarius deliciosus, (Agaricus deliciosus)

Saffron milkcap, Delicious milkcap, Orange latex milky,

ectomycorrhizal

Lactarius rubrilacteus, (Lactarius sanguifluus)

Bleeding milk cap, Red juice milk cap ectomycorrhizal

Laetiporus sulphureus, (Polyporus sulphureus)

Sulfur shelf, Chicken of the woods, Chicken mushroom

wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Leccinum manzanitae Manzanita bolete, Madrone bolete ectomycorrhizal

Lentinus torulosus, (Lentinus conchatus), (Panus torulosus), (Panus conchatus)

Smooth Panus, Conch Panus wood saprobe

Leptoporus mollis, (Polyporus mollis), (Tyromyces mollis)

None known wood saprobe

Microglossum viride, (Geoglossum viride), (Leotia viridis), (Mitrula viridis), (Clavaria viridis), (Leptoglossum viride)

Green earth tongue soil saprobe

Omphalotus olivascens, (Clitocybe illudens)

Jack-o-lantern mushroom, Western Jack-o-lantern mushroom

wood saprobe (on roots and stumps)

Paxillus atrotomentosus, (Tapinella atrotomentosa)

Velvet pax wood saprobe? ectomycorrhizal?

Paxillus involutus Poison pax, Inrolled pax wood saprobe (root pathogen) ectomycorrhizal?

Paxillus panuoides Fan pax wood saprobe

Phaeolus schweinitzii, Dye polypore, Dyer's polypore, Red- wood saprobe

(Polyporus schweinitzii) brown butt rot, Schweinitz's polypore (root pathogen)

Phellinus chrysoloma, (Fomes pini var. abietis), (Polyporus chrysoloma), (Phellinus pini)

Golden spreading polypore wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Phellinus everhartii, (Fomes everhartii), (Mucronoporus everhartii), (Pyropolyporus everhartii)

White spongy rot wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Phellinus gilvus, (Hapalopilus gilvus), (Polyporus gilvus), (Polyporus licnoides)

Oak conk wood saprobe

Phellodon alboniger None known soil saprobe

Phellodon atratus Blue-black Phellodon soil saprobe

Phellodon confluens, (Hydnum confluens)

Fused-cork Hydnum soil saprobe

Phellodon melaleucus, (Hydnum melaleucum), (Hydnum graveolens)

None known soil saprobe

Phellodon niger, (Hydnum nigrum), (Calodon nigrum)

Black tooth, Dusky cork Hydnum soil saprobe

Phellodon tomentosus, (Hydnum tomentosum)

Zoned Phellodon, Zoned cork Hydnum

soil saprobe

Phlebia incarnata, (Merulius incarnatus), (Phlebia tremellosa), (Merulius tremellosus)

Coral woodcrust wood saprobe

Pholiota albocrenulata None known wood saprobe

Pholiota aurivella, (Agaricus aurivellus), (Dryophila aurivella), (Pholiota aurivella var. cerifera), (Pholiota cerifera)

Golden Pholita wood saprobe

Pholiota flammans, (Pholiota kauffmaniana)

Flamming Pholita, Yellow Pholita wood saprobe

Pholiota malicola var. macropoda

Forgettable Pholita wood saprobe

Pholiota squarrosoides None known wood saprobe

Pholiota velaglutinosa None known wood saprobe

Phylloporus leucomycelinus, (Phylloporus rhodoxanthus var. albomycelinus)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Phylloporus rhodoxanthus Gilled bolete ectomycorrhizal

Pisolithus tinctorius, (Pisolithus arrhizus), (Pisolithus arenarius), (Polysaccum pisicarpium),

Dead man's foot, Dye maker's false puffball, Stone puffball, Bohemian truffle

ectomycorrhizal

(Scleroderma tinctorium)

Polyozellus multiplex, (Cantharellus multiplex)

Blue chanterelle, Black chanterelle, Grey chanterelle

ectomycorrhizal

Polyporus badius, (Polyporus fissus), (Polyporus picipes)

Black leg wood saprobe

Polyporus melanopus None known wood saprobe

Postia caesia, (Oligoporus caesius), (Polyporus caesius), (Tyromyces caesius)

Blue cheese polypore wood saprobe (bole pathogen)

Postia fragilis, (Oligoporus fragilis), (Polyporus fragilis), (Spongipellis fragilis), (Tyromyces fragilis)

Rusty-staining cheese polypore wood saprobe

Pulveroboletus ravenelii, (Boletus ravenelii)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Pycnoporellus fulgens, (Hydnum fulgens), (Phaeolus fibrillosus), (Polyporus fibrillosus)

None known wood saprobe

Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, (Polyporus cinnabarinus), (Polystictus cinnabarinus), (Trametes cinnabarina)

Red polypore wood saprobe

Pycnoporus sanguineus, (Polyporus sanguineus), (Polystictus sanguineus), (Trametes cinnabarina var. sanguinea)

Red fungus, Red polypore wood saprobe

Ramaria abietina, (Ramaria ochraceovirens), (Clavaria abietina)

Green-staining coral mushroom wood saprobe

Rhizopogon [species] Pogies ectomycorrhizal

Russula ventricosipes None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon fennicus, (Hydnum fennicum)

Bitter hedgehog ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon fuligineoviolaceus, (Hydnum fuligineo-violaceum)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon fuscoindicus, (Hydnum fuscoindicum)

Violet hedgehog ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon imbricatus, (Hydnum imbricatum), (Sarcodon scabrosus)

Hawk wing, Scaly Hydnum, Scaly tooth, Shingled hedghog

ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon joeides, (Hydnum jonides)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon scabrosus, (Hydnum scabrosum)

Bitter hedgehog, Scaber Hydnum ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon stereosarcinon, (Hydnellum stereosarcinon), (Hydnum stereosarcinon)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon subincarnatus, (Hydnum subincarnatum)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodon underwoodii None known ectomycorrhizal

Sarcodontia setosa, (Hydnum setosum)

Ochre tooth wood saprobe

Scleroderma meridionale, (Scleroderma macrorhizon)

None known soil saprobe

Scleroderma polyrhizon, (Scleroderma geaster)

Dead man's hand soil saprobe

Stropharia ambigua Questionable Stropharia soil saprobe

Stropharia aurantiaca, (Hypholoma aurantiacum), (Naematoloma aurantiacum)

Orange Naematoloma soil saprobe

Suillus americanus None known ectomycorrhizal

Suillus cothurnatus None known ectomycorrhizal

Suillus granulatus, (Boletus granulatus)

Dotted-stalk Suillus, Granulated slippery Jack

ectomycorrhizal

Suillus grevillei, (Boletus grevillei), (Suillus clintonianus)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Thelephora palmata, (Merisma foetidum), (Merisma palmatum)

Fetid false coral ectomycorrhizal

Thelephora terrestris f. concrescens

Earth fan, Fiber base ectomycorrhizal

Thelephora terrestris, (Thelephora laciniata), (Thelephora tristis)

Earth fan, Fiber base, Common fiberbase, Groundwart

ectomycorrhizal

Thelephora vialis Vase Thelephore ectomycorrhizal

Trametes versicolor, (Coriolus versicolor), (Polyporus versicolor), (Polystictus versicolor)

Turkey tail, Many-colored polypore wood saprobe

Tricholoma vaccinum None known ectomycorrhizal

Tricholomopsis rutilans, (Agaricus rutilans)

Plums and custard wood saprobe

Tylopilus alboater, (Boletus alboater)

None known ectomycorrhizal

Tylopilus atronicotianus None known ectomycorrhizal

Xerocomus badius, (Boletus badius)

Bay bolete ectomycorrhizal

Sources for decorative forest fungi

Literature

Bessette, A.R.; Bessette, A.E. 2001. The rainbow beneath my feet: a mushroom dyer’s field guide. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. 176 p.

Rice, M.C.; Beebee, D. 1980. Mushrooms for color. Eureka, CA: Mad River Press. 153 p.

Web sites

Art of Mushroom Dyeing http://www.sonic.net/dbeebee/index.html International Symposia on dyeing with mushrooms http://hem.passagen.se/hjordis/