Principles of Biology
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Transcript of Principles of Biology
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Principles of Biology
ByFrank H. Osborne, Ph. D.
Cells and Tissues
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Cells and Tissues• Living things exhibit structure and organization. The basic unit of structure and function is the cell.• Cells are organized into units containing similar cells. These are called tissues.• Different types of tissues are found in an organ. Organs are organized into units of structure called organ systems.
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Cells and TissuesA living creature, such as a human, is an organism containing various organ systems with their component organs.
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PLANT TISSUESI. Meristematic tissues
A. Shoot tipB. Root tipC. Cambium
II. Permanent tissuesA. Surface tissues
1. Epidermis2. Periderm
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PLANT TISSUESB. Fundamental tissues
1. Parenchyma2. Collenchyma3. Sclerenchyma4. Endodermis
C. Vascular tissues1. Xylem2. Phloem
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PLANT TISSUES
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Meristematic Tissues•Meristematic tissues have embryonic, undifferentiated cells. Undifferentiated means that these cells have not changed into other cells yet. When they do change, the process is called differentiation because the cells become different.• The shoot tip meristem is found on the end of each branch. It is protected by a bud. This meristem produces all the tissues in the branch.
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The Shoot Tip Meristem
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The Root Tip Meristem
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Meristematic Tissues• The root tip meristem is found on the tip of each root. It divides and produces all the cells found in the root.• The cambium is found between the xylem (wood) and phloem (bark) of the tree. It is active only during the growing season, producing new xylem and phloem cells. This annual growth forms in rings.
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Permanent Tissues• Epidermis contains living cells and is found on the surfaces of young stems and leaves.• The lower epidermis of leaves contains specialized occlusive cells called guard cells that surround openings in the leaves called stomates. •The stomates permit exchange of gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) with the air outside of the leaf. The guard cells prevent loss of water.
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Onion skin epidermis
Low Power (100x) High Power (400x)
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Permanent Tissues• Periderm contains non-living cells that have thick secondary walls. The walls are made waterproof with a material called suberin.• Periderm tissue replaces epidermis on older stems of the plant. It prevents loss of water.
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Periderm
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Fundamental Tissues• Parenchyma contains living cells that are capable of cell division. It is the least specialized of the plant tissues. These cells have thin primary walls. Parenchyma is used as a filler tissue in such plant structures as corn stalks.
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Fundamental Tissues• Collenchyma cells are usually alive. They have cell wall material that is deposited in the corners giving them a characteristic microscopic appearance. It serves as a support tissue in certain types of stems.
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Parenchyma and Collenchyma
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Fundamental Tissues• Schlerenchyma cells are dead. They have thick secondary walls.
–Fibers are very long with thick walls and very small lumens. They provide vertical support structure in stems.–Sclereids are also dead. They have thick walls with very tiny interior spaces. They are parts of such plant structures as peach pits.
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Sclerenchyma cells Sclerenchyma fibers Sclereids
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Fundamental Tissues• Endodermis is a layer of living cells found in the root. It has a waterproofing layer known as the Casparian strip containing lignin and suberin.• The plant uses the endodermis to regulate what materials enter the plant and are transported up to the stem and leaves.
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Endodermis
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Endodermis
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Vascular TissuesVascular tissues are specialized transport tissues. There are two kinds: xylem and phloem.• Xylem cells are dead. Xylem transports water and nutrients upward in the plant.• Phloem has living cells. Phloem cells come in pairs, the sieve tube and the companion cell. The sieve tube transports conducts materials both upwards and downwards in the plant. Phloem is the major component of the bark of the tree.
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Xylem
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Phloem
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ANIMAL TISSUESI. Epithelium
A. Simple epithelium1. Simple squamous epithelium2. Simple cuboidal epithelium3. Simple columnar epithelium
B. Stratified epithelium1. Stratified squamous epithelium2. Stratified cuboidal epithelium3. Stratified columnar epithelium
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ANIMAL TISSUESII. Connective tissue
A. Tissues that connect body structures1. Loose connective tissue (areolar)2. Dense connective tissue3. Adipose (fat) tissue4. Cartilage
B. BoneC. Vascular tissue
1. Blood2. Lymph
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ANIMAL TISSUESIII. Muscle
A. Smooth muscleB. Striated muscleC. Cardiac muscle
IV. Nerve
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Simple EpitheliumSimple epithelium always contains a single layer of cells attached to a membrane. As this membrane is underneath the cells, it is called the basement membrane. There are three kinds of epithelium that differ in their shapes.
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Simple EpitheliumSimple Squamous Epithelium"Squamous" means flat. Simple squamous epithelium contains a single layer of flat cells attached to a basement membrane. An example is peritoneum, the tissue that surrounds and suspends the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity.
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Simple EpitheliumSimple Cuboidal Epithelium"Cuboidal" means having the shape of a cube. This tissue contains a single layer of cube-shaped cells on a basement membrane. An example of this type of tissue is the lining of the collecting duct in the kidney.
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Simple EpitheliumSimple Columnar Epithelium"Columnar" means that the cells are tall like columns. This tissue contains a single layer of tall cells on a basement membrane. An example of this type of tissue is the intestinal lining.
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Stratified Epithelium"Stratified" means that the cells of the tissues are found in layers. All three types of stratified epithelium start out as several layers of cuboidal cells on a basement membrane. The other layers determine which type of tissue it is.
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Stratified EpitheliumStratified Squamous EpitheliumStratified squamous epithelium contain several layers of cuboidal cells that flatten as you proceed away. An example is skin.
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Stratified EpitheliumStratified Cuboidal EpitheliumIn stratified cuboidal epithelium, the cells in all layers of the tissue are cuboidal. An example is the lining of the ducts of the sweat glands.
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Stratified EpitheliumStratified Columnar EpitheliumIn stratified columnar epithelium, all layers are cuboidal except for the top layer which contains tall cells. An example is the lining of the ducts of the mammary glands.
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Connective TissueConnective implies holding things together or joining things. Thus we expect to find tendons, ligaments and cartilage classified as connective tissue. In addition, the category of connective tissue also contains body-wide tissues such as bone, blood and lymph. In most cases, the cells that make up the tissue are surrounded by some kind of matrix or material characteristic of the tissue.
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Connective TissueAreolar (Loose) Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue contains cells surrounded by a matrix of collagenous fibers, elastic fibers and lymph. Collagenous fibers are made of collagen, a type of structural body protein. Lymph is also called tissue fluid. It is a liquid that is found in between the different parts of the body in the spaces known as connective tissue spaces.
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Connective TissueAreolar (Loose) Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiberElastic fiber
Fat cellLymphoblastLymph
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Loose Connective Tissue
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Connective TissueDense Connective Tissue Dense connective tissue is made of collagenous fibers. It is found in the dermis of the skin, tendons and ligaments. A tendon connects a muscle to a bone while a ligament connects one bone to another bone.
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Dense Connective Tissue
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Connective TissueAdipose Tissue (= Body Fat)Adipose tissue is made of fat cells. Each cell has a thin ring of cytoplasm that surrounds a large vacuole containing a fat droplet.
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Connective Tissue
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Connective TissueCartilageThere are three kinds of cartilage. Each consists of cells surrounded by a matrix of small fibers.• Yellow elastic cartilage is found in the arteries and between the rungs of the trachea.• Hyaline cartilage forms the ridge of the nose and the rungs of the trachea.• Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear, the epiglottis and the Eustachian tube.
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Elastic Cartilage
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Connective TissueCartilage• Hyaline cartilage forms the ridge of the nose and the rungs of the trachea.
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Connective TissueBoneBone cells are surrounded by a matrix of calcium phosphate. There are tunnels in the bone called Haversian canals that contain the blood supply. Bone has the most mineral matter.
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Connective TissueBoneThere are two types of bone called spongy bone and compact bone. • The ends of the long bones are made of spongy bone. "Spongy" means having the appearance of a sponge. • Compact bone does not have spaces in it that give it a spongy appearance. The long parts of the long bones are made of compact bone tissue.
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Connective TissueVascular TissueVascular tissue consists of cells surrounded by a liquid matrix. There are two types of vascular tissue called blood and lymph.• Blood is found in blood vessels. It is carried by the circulatory system.• Lymph consists of fluid that is found outside of the blood vessels. It is also known as tissue fluid. It is collected via the lymphatic system and eventually returns to the circulatory system.
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Blood
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MuscleSmooth MuscleSmooth muscles are found in all involuntary organs except the heart. Examples of organs include the diaphragm and the arteries. Smooth muscle does not contain striations.
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Smooth Muscle
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MuscleStriated Muscle•Striated muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton. Each striated muscle cell is multinucleate because it has many nuclei. • Striated muscles contain striations, which are lines that produce a cross-banding effect. These lines result from the orientation of the muscle proteins within the cells. The striated muscle cells are also known as voluntary muscles.
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MuscleStriated MuscleStriated muscles contain striations, which are lines that produce a cross-banding effect.
NucleusStriation
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Striated Muscle
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MuscleCardiac MuscleThe heart is the only organ that contains cardiac muscle. This muscle cell type has distinct cells that are separated by intercalated discs. The intercalated discs partition the muscle into cells. Cardiac muscle cells also contain striations.
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Muscle
Cardiac (Heart) MuscleProperties• One nucleus per cell• Striations• Involuntary
NucleusStriation
Intercalated disc
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Cardiac Muscle
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NerveNerve cellsThe neuron is the cell of the nervous system. Each axon is surrounded by a sheath of membranes.
Dendrites
Nucleus
AxonTerminalBranches
SheathCell Body
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Nerve Tissue Art
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Nerve Tissue
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The End
Principles of BiologyCells and Tissues