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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

fisheries

STATUS ALERTFisheries

The supply of fish throughout the world is becoming scarce. As the supply continues to decrease, itwill become increasingly difficult to meet the food requirements of the world�s population. More than60 percent of the world�s 200 major fish stocks are fully exploited, over-exploited, or depleted. Theworld catch of fish peaked in 1989 and has declined ever since despite increased numbers of, and moreefficient, fishing vessels and gear. The answer to this decrease in the amount of fish available as food isnot to increase pressure on the resource by allowing more fishing, but to reduce pressure and allow thestocks to recover.

The Philippines is facing the beginning of a crisis in the security of food from coastal waters. Thetotal amount of fish available as food from capture fisheries and aquaculture has remained relativelystatic since 1987, with dramatic declines in municipal fisheries catch. With population growing atapproximately 2.5 percent per year, this translates to a net loss of locally derived fish protein toFilipinos.

Fisheries-Related Food Production for 1988-1996 (BFAR 1997)Note: Does not include seaweed production which primarily is used for industrial purposes.

Prod

uctio

n (M

etric

Ton

s)

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0

1988 1990 1993 19961989 1992 19951991 1994

Municipal

Commercial

Other aquaculture

Brackishwater aquaculture

Total

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

fisheries

Although fisheries-related food production has been relatively static for the 10-year period inquestion, a slow and continuous decline is apparent when total production is evaluated as kilograms of�fish� available per person per year as shown in the figure below (fish is defined here as all ediblemarine products and includes both animals and plants). This decline is driven by population growth,increased fishing pressure, destructive fishing practices, and unsustainable fisheries and aquaculturedevelopment.

In small island communities, such as Olango Island, Cebu, the catch per fisherman is lower thannational averages. Olango fishers have estimated that their current daily fish catch per fisher is 2 kgper person. A similar tren is reported by Katon et al. (1998). They report that fishers in Cogtong,Candijay, Bohol found their catch decreasing from 20 kg/day in the 1960s to around 3 kg/day in the1990s.

Use of finemesh nets

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

19601950 1970 1980 1990 1998 2000

Introduction ofsodium cyanide anddynamite fishing

Trend of Estimated Daily Fish Catch per Municipal fisher for One Barangay,Olango Island, Cebu (Result of community assessment of coastal resourcesconducted by the Coastal Resource Management Project 1998)

Cat

ch (

Kilo

gram

s/Fi

sh/D

ay)

40

35

30

25

1987

1988

1990

1992

1994

1989

1991

1993

1995

1996

Per Capita Fisheries-Related Food Available for Consumptionfor 1987-1996 (Based on production data from BFAR 1997 andpopulation data from Bernascek 1994)

Avai

labl

e Fi

sher

ies-

Rela

ted

Food

(Ki

logr

ams/

Pers

on)

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

fisheries

Factors contributing to the decline in fisheries-derived food:w Open access to fishery resourcesw Continued increases in commercial and municipal fishing effort resulting from increased

number of fishers, fishing vessels, and overly efficient gearw Increased population growth in and migration to coastal areasw Slow economic development in coastal areas providing few alternatives to municipal fishersw Use of fishing practices and gear destructive to habitats and fisheriesw Illegal commercial fishing in municipal watersw Degradation of coastal habitatsw Loss of mangrove forests from conversion to fish and shrimp pons and other usesw Overall lack of implementation of coastal management programs at local and national levels

Signs of overfishingw Decreasing catch per fisher per dayw Decreasing size of a fish species caughtw Change in types of fish caught to species composition low on the food chain

Other factors contributing to the decline of fisheriesw Pollution from land-based sources of industrial and agriculture waste dumped into rivers and

carried to the coastal areas, including pesticides, fertilizer run-off, and sewage, oil from sea-based sources, toxic wastes, and excess nutrients from marine transportation operations ormariculture activities

w Habitat degradation resulting from siltation of coral reefs from deforested upland areas,conversion of mangrove areas for ports and harbors, fish ponds and other shoreline develop-ment

w Spatial conflict where coastal fisheries and aquaculture have insecure property rights and aregradually squeezed from their traditional areas by other coastal developments such as urbansprawl and tourism development

Overfishing is the single most devastating factor facing the management of fish stocks in thePhilippines. The Philippines, like the rest of the world, must take a course of action that will reducefishing pressure to enable fish stocks to rehabilitate.

For immediate actionw Say �NO� to programs that encourage intensification of fishing effort by promoting more

vessels and gearw Preserve municipal waters for municipal fishers using low-impact fishing techniquesw Establish marine sanctuaries to enable fish stocks and coral reef habitat to regenerate and

multiplyw Stop illegal commercial fishing intrusion into municipal waters

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

fisheries

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

water quality

STATUS ALERTWater quality

The trends in coastal and marine pollution in the Philippines are not encouraging, with the incidenceof pollution-related problems increasing dramatically over 20 years ago. There are more records ofecosystem failure due to pollution in areas close to urban development or areas near humansettlements of any size because of domestic waste. Algal blooms are occurring more frequently andcausing red tide events that kill or make shellfish and some fish species toxic. Heavy metals are beingimplicated in fish and human poisoning in some bays where mining occurs now, or occurred in thepast. We see increasing amounts of plastics on beaches. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals fromaquaculture, agriculture and other land-based activities are increasingly being detected in marinesediments. These chemicals can affect the reproduction of certain marine organisms and can be passedon to humans. The result of all this will be an increasing drain from societal welfare and economies.

The types of pollution common in the Philippines are numerous, but there are a few which arepervasive and are causing increasing harm to coastal ecosystems and fisheries production. These are:

a. Domestic sewage liquid/waste with high nutrient loads, pathogens and some toxic chemicalsfrom coastal cities and municipalities, most of which go into the sea

b. Domestic solid waste from coastal cities and municipalities, and ships, much of which isdumped into shoreline areas or rivers and ends up in the sea

c. Sediments from upland and coastal erosion, construction sites, deforestation, poor agriculturepractices which flow through rivers or directly into the sea

d. Mine tailings and sediments from quarrying and mining both in the coastal and upland areas,much of which flows to the sea through stream and rivers

e. Industrial organic and toxic wastes (heavy metals), which although often treated or restricted,end up being dumped into rivers and eventually the sea

f. Agriculture chemicals such as nitrates, phosphorus and pesticides, which mostly pollutenearby rivers, streams and ground waters, some of which go to the coastal waters

g. Aquaculture development which causes increasing acid levels in soil and water and releasesnutrients from fertilizers and pesticides into nearby coastal waters

h. Oil and fuel leaks, spills and dumping from ships

About 50% of the coastal and marine pollution in the Philippines comes from runoff and land-based discharges. A sizable but undetermined amount comes through the atmosphere from land-basedsources. If world trends are reflected in the country, maritime transportation and dumping mayaccount for about 20% of the pollution.

For immediate actiona. Stop discharging untreated domestic waste into coastal waters to minimize the

overfertilization of marine water, particularly in enclosed or restricted bays and lagoons and tocontrol, to the extent possible, the introduction of human pathogens.

b. Implement laws against dumping of wastes into the sea by ocean-going and other sea vessels.c. Site industries away from productive coastal ecosystems and concentrate them at one

particular area so that less of the coast is disturbed.d. Implement all relevant anti-pollution laws.

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

water quality

31

Primer on Coastal Resource Management

national legal framework for CRM

NATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR CRM

CRM is built on a national legal framework founded on the Philippine Constitution itself, whichprovides, under Article 10, Section 2, for local autonomy and declares under Article 12:

Section 1. �The goals of the national economy are a more equitable distribution of opportunities,income and wealth��

Section 2. �The State shall protect the nation�s marine wealth in its archipelagic waters, territorialsea, and exclusive economic zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to Filipino citizens.�

as well as national laws and policies such as Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local GovernmentCode of 1991, and Republic Act No. 8550 or the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998, which assign theprimary responsibility for managing municipal waters and associated coastal resources to the localgovernment, and many other national laws which protect specific coastal areas and resources.

Local Government Code of 1991

The passage of the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act 7160) is of a majorsignificance in local governance in the country. It enhanced the governmental and corporate powersof the local government units, particularly on political autonomy and decentralization, and resourcegeneration and mobilization.

The following are the salient features of the Code with regards to CRM:1. The expansion of the scope of municipal waters to 15 km from 3 nautical miles

(approximately 5.5 kilometers). This means that local government units have greaterjurisdiction over the usage and conservation of the area.

2. The repeal of anti-conservation policy of the state, as established by Section 2 of PD 704,such as optimum utilization of fishery resources and exportation of fish and fishery products.

3. Devolution of some powers and functions of the Department of Agriculture, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources, and other concerned national line agencies to the localgovernment units.

4. Assigning to the municipality and cities the right to issue licenses, leases, or permits for theuse of the municipal waters.

5. Preferential treatment to the municipal fishers in the grant of fishery licenses.

Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998

The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 (Republic Act 8550) repealed Fisheries Decree of 1975(PD 704). Compared to the previous law, it is more consistent with the provisions of the Constitutionand opens up hope for a more pro-municipal fishers, pro-local autonomy and pro-CRM law.

The overriding policies embodied in the Code are the following:1. Food security as the primary goal and consideration in the utilization, management and

conservation of the coastal and fisheries resources2. Limiting access of the fisheries resources for the exclusive use and enjoyment of Filipino

citizens

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

national legal framework for CRM

3. Rational and sustainable development, management and conservation of coastal and fisheryresources

4. Protection of the rights of fishers, especially the coastal communities, with priority given tomunicipal fishers in the preferential use of the municipal waters. To operationalize this policy,coastal municipalities and cities are mandated to organize Fisheries and Aquatic Resourcesand Management Councils (FARMC).

5. Management of coastal and fisheries resources in light of the concept and principle ofintegrated coastal area management.

Other National Laws Related to CRM

Presidential Decree 705 (Forestry Decree of 1975) � governs the utilization, developmentand conservation of all forest lands and forestry products, including mangroves.

Presidential Decree 1067 (Water Code of the Philippines) � established the frameworkrelating to the appropriation, control and conservation of the water resources to achieve optimumdevelopment and rational utilization of these resources.

Presidential Decree 1586 (Establishment of Philippine Environmental Impact AssessmentSystem) � mandates all government agencies, including government-owned and controlledcorporations, as well as private corporations, firms and other entities to conduct environmental impactassessment before establishing or implementing projects that would affect the environment

Republic Act 6969 (Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of1990) � regulates the importation, manufacture, processing, sale, distribution, use and disposal ofchemical substances and mixtures that present unreasonable risk and/or injury to health or theenvironment.

Republic Act 7586 (National Integrated Protected Area System) � governs the classificationand administration of all designated protected areas to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems, preserve genetic diversity, ensure sustainable use of the resources found therein, andmaintain their natural condition to the greatest extent possible.

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

CRM process overview

THE CRM PROCESSCRM Process Overview

Coastal resource management (CRM) is the process of planning, implementing, and monitoringsustainable resource use through sound decision-making and collective action. It is a coherent, multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary process within a legal and institutional framework that assures equitableinvolvement and participation in the use and management of coastal and marine resources. It is adynamic process that combines the bio-physical, socio-economic, cultural and political aspects of thecoastal environment to develop and implement a coordinated strategy for the allocation of theseresources to achieve the conservation and sustainable multiple use of the coastal zone.

Increasing populations, along with rapidly advancing technologies, are making increasingdemands on shrinking coastal and marine resources. An estimated 3.5 billion people, or about 63% ofthe total global population, live in the coastal region. Their sheer number and activities have resultedin increasing impacts on coastal ecosystems, thus impairing the ability of these ecosystems to replenishthemselves and provide goods and services vital to sustaining human life. Already, a great number ofcoastal communities have been reduced to artisanal fishing and other subsistence activities, even asgovernments pursue development in the coastal zone to provide jobs and earn foreign exchangethrough mariculture, tourism, industrialization and mineral extraction. Clearly, there is a need torationalize the use and development of coastal resources to ensure that not only are present humanneeds provided for, but also that coastal environments and habitats are adequately protected andmanaged so that development is sustainable and benefits the greatest possible number of people forthe longest possible time. This is the primary goal of CRM.

The CRM process is facilitated by activities that promote community participation:w Community Organizingw Information, Education and Communication (IEC)w Multi-sectoral Collaboration/Partnerships

A detailed diagram illustrating the CRM process is shown below:

DATABASE PLANNINGCOMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

I.E.C.

PARTNERS BUDGET

COMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

IEC

PARTNERS BUDGET

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

CRM process review

CRM begins with the compilation of a coastal environmental profile for an area. This profile isused as a basis for planning and monitoring CRM interventions. After the profile is completed, theprocess moves on to a cycle of preparing and maintaining a database, planning, implementation,monitoring and evaluation. CRM involves a host of organizations from different sectors performingvarious roles, including:

CommunityPlanningProject implementationLaw enforcementMonitoring and evaluation

Non-government organizationsCommunity organizingTrainingResearchEducation

Colleges and other academic institutionsEducationResearchNetworkingMonitoring and evaluation

National government agenciesFinancingTechnical assistanceTrainingNational policy reformsResearchMonitoring and evaluation

Local government unitsPlanning/local policy reformLaw enforcementInfrastructure supportLicensingProject implementationLinkagingMonitoring and evaluation

The CRM process is applied to space and time horizons appropriate to the area and resourcesthat need to be managed. Spatial considerations include physical configuration of the shoreline andthe presence of offshore inland and bays. Time horizons cover short-, medium-, and long-termplanning goals.

To be effective, CRM must:w be holistic, integrated and multi-sectoral in approachw be consistent with, and integrated into, development plansw be consistent with the national environmental and fisheries policiesw build on, and integrate into, existing institutionalized programsw be participatoryw build on local/community capacity for sustained implementationw build self-reliant financing mechanisms for sustained implementationw address quality of life issues of local communities as well as conservation issues

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

coastal environmental profile overview

THE CRM PROCESSCoastal Environmental Profile

Overview

A coastal environmental profile is a document which presents secondary information as well as datagathered from the assessment of coastal resources in an organized and integrated form that can beused for CRM planning. The profile provides a baseline � that is, a starting point � for CRM planningand implementation, as well as for doing comparative analysis on �with� and �without� projectscenarios. An outline for a comprehensive coastal environmental profile is shown below:

List of Tables and FiguresList of Acronyms and AbbreviationsAcknowledgmentsI. Introduction

A. location D. summary of issuesB. physiognomy or any short E. objectives

description of the area/geography F. scopeC. historical background G. general definitions, if any

II. Physical Features (data by municipality, with maps, tables and visuals)A. land area D. soilB. topography E. land usesC. hydrology F. climate

III. Natural Resources (including species, area, condition, with tables, maps and other visuals)A. mineral resources C. forest resourcesB. coastal resources (description and maps)

1. mangrove 4. seaweed (if present; may also be included in fisheries)

2. seagrass 5. fisheries3. coral 6. others (beaches, endangered species, etc.)

IV. Socio-political Setting (with tables, charts, graphs, etc.)A. political/administrative boundariesB. demographics (by municipality)

1. population size, density, distribution, growth rate 5. education2. household (number, members/nuclear or extended) 6. dialects3. age and gender composition 7. labor and/or employment, income4. urban and rural distribution 8. religion and/or ethnic groups

C. health, sanitation and medical careD. settlements (type and ownership)E. roads, transportation and communication, other related infrastructure or support systems

(e.g. cooperatives, fishing ports)

DATABASE PLANNING

COMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

I.E.C.

PARTNERS BUDGET

COMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

IEC

PARTNERS BUDGET

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

coastal environmental profile overview

V. Economic Sector (by municipality or barangay)A. fisheries

1. capture fisheriesa. capture methods (fishing gear, type of boat and number, ownership)b. number of fishersc. catch per unit effortd. catch per species (weight) per geare. historical trends in catch levels and composition (species caught, market value, production levels)

2. aquaculturea. cadastral maps to depict fishpond areas by municipality/barangayb. areas eligible for reversionc. mariculture types and production levels by municipality/barangayd. historical trends in production

B. tourism1. classification and location of existing and potential tourist areas2. number of employees per activity3. revenues generated4. description of environmental, social, cultural impacts

C. industry1. types of industry, location 3. number of employees by industry2. revenues generated 4. environmental, social, cultural impacts

D. others (e.g. agriculture, forestry; similar parameters as above)VI. Institutional and Legal Framework

A. introductionB. current state of the Philippine Coastal Zone Law (includes related policies/laws)C. local government (provincial, municipal, barangay, other government organizations)

1. types, structures 3. development plans/activities or projects2. budget allocated for CRM

D. non-governmental organizations involved in CRM1. names 3. types of activities2. funding levels 4. future plans

E. community organizations (similar parameters as above)VII. Management Issues and Opportunities (include stakeholders and appropriate analyses)

A. environmentalB. economicC. political/institutional

Like any management process, CRM requires planning and decision-making, whichmust be based on correct and timely information. Done well, a coastal environmental profile

greatly facilitates � and is in fact essential to � formulating a CRM plan and implementing it.The basic descriptive information provided by profiles is useful, but the value of a good profile

lies also in the compilation and analysis of the information it provides. One kind of information �for example, decreased levels of live coral cover � must be considered in relation to other kinds ofinformation � for instance, low fish harvest and high siltation rates � to help ensure that the processresults in meaningful conclusions which point to problems and opportunities for CRM. Often,ecological and other environmental factors must also be considered in association with socio-economicvariables, thus providing useful conclusions regarding such factors as the conditions of various habi-tats, potential for fisheries production, and social constraints that hinder the CRM process. A profileproduced using participatory coastal resource assessment (PCRA) methods � that is, with the resourceusers� participation � is particularly useful, since local resource users are more likely to consider intheir planning decisions information that they helped generate than information that came fromoutside sources. If other stakeholders also had significant input, a profile can serve as the commonreference for everyone involved in planning.

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

coastal environmental profile overview

A profile should ideally be produced using a process that facilitates and encourages feedbackfrom local resource users. A good general procedure is to conduct a preliminary analysis of the PCRAresults and produce a draft profile for community, review, feedback, verification and correction, asshown in the flow chart below:

Data and information collected for the coastal environmental profile should be entered in adatabase. The municipal coastal databse can be used as a starting point for the coastal envrironmentalprofile.

Academic or research institutions can assist the community in gathering information on thebiophysical status of the coastal environment.

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

coastal environmental profile overview

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

secondary data compilation

THE CRM PROCESSCoastal Environmental Profile

Secondary Data Compilation

�Secondary information� refers to information produced previously in some form of material medium� reports, planning documents, legal documents, maps, satellite images, photographs. Collecting suchinformation is almost always the best way to start the production of a coastal environmental profile.

Documented information for CRM planning typically falls under two basic categories:1. Government/institutional documents (ordinances, regulations, plans and other documents

related to the legal CRM regime)2. Scientific documents (studies in ecology and socio-economics; coastal environmental profiles)

Existing information materials are valuable. Often, a great deal of good quality informationalready exists, allowing the researcher to substantially reduce or redirect efforts in the preparation ofthe profile:

1. Government documents are important indicators of past and present governmentinvolvement or non-involvement in CRM. The information they provide is useful inidentifying government management strategies and evaluating the success of previous andcurrent government CRM activities.

2. Scientific studies provide information on the status of coastal ecosystems and the living andworking conditions in coastal communities. For coastal resource assessment purposes, thisinformation is considered �baseline,� that is, a starting point in determining the long-termimpact of CRM efforts.

Plans for coastal resource assessment efforts in the field should therefore be kept open until afteran appraisal of existing documented information has been completed.

DATABASE PLANNING

COMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

I.E.C.

PARTNERS BUDGET

COMMUNITY

ORGANIZING

IEC

PARTNERS BUDGET

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

secondary data compilation

If a coastal environmental profile or similar document has not been produced previously,collecting existing documented information is usually not easy. Potential sources of informationunder general profile content headings are listed below:

There is no detailed methodology for gathering information, which is mostly a matter of writingletters, making telephone calls, visiting offices and libraries, interviewing officials, teachers, scientistsand researchers. The best strategy is to use the table above as guide, �leave no stone unturned,� andalways be vigilant for information from an unexpected source. Often, aid organizations sponsorplanning, development and conservation projects and may be good sources of previous, ongoing orplanned studies. Always keep a record of and reference the source of the secondary information.Although it may be difficult to track down all the existing information available, the mere effort isgood for all concerned. In addition to gathering data, it allows the community worker to establishcontact with other informants and experts who have something to offer the CRM process. Thecommunity worker might view the activity as contributing to the development of a broader definitionof community, or institutional strengthening. In accomplishing this task, therefore, the communityworker should have a twofold objective:

1. Gather extensive, good quality information (as practical � it is also critical to evaluate existinginformation and to use relevant and current but not obsolete reports or data).

2. Develop relationships with and between scientists, government and other stakeholders whocan contribute to the CRM process.

(Adapted from: Participatory Coastal Resource Assessment: A Handbook for Community Workers andCoastal Resource Managers, By J.S. Watlers, J. Maragos, S. Siar and A.T. White. CRMP, 1998)

General ProjectIndicator Type

Environmental/Ecological

Socio-economic/Institutional/Legal,Resource Users,Issues

Possible Information Sources

DA, DENR, DPWH, universities, research institutions,NAMRIA,existing mapsPAGASA, DA, DENRNAMRIA, PAGASA, MARINA, universities, research institu-tions DA, DENR, universities, researchinstitutionsDA, DENR, universities, research institutions, museumsDA, DENR, universities, research institutions, NGOsDA, DENR, DTI, universities, research institutions, NGOs

DA, DENR, DTI, DSWD, universities, researchinstitutions, NGOsRDCs, all involved government agencies, NGOs, LGUsRDCs, all involved government agencies, NGOs, LGUsRDCs, all involved government agencies, NGOs, LGUs

RDCs, all involved government agencies, NGOs, LGUs

General Profile ContentHeading

Physical setting

ClimateOceanographyImportant habitatsNatural resourcesFisheriesOther coastal resource users(tourism, shipping, etc.)Local resource users

Past and present CRMOther stakeholdersManagement issues andalternatives for develop-ment,monitoring and mitigationRecommendations

41

Primer on Coastal Resource Management

secondary data compilation

While gathering assessment information from a variety of sources, the community worker cansimulataneously build professional relationships and facilitate institutional strengthening.(Adapted from: Participatory Coastal Resource Assessment: A Handbook for Community Workers andCoastal Resource Managers, By J.S. Watlers, J. Maragos, S. Siar and A.T. White. CRMP, 1998)

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Primer on Coastal Resource Management

secondary data compilation