Pride in Family and City Rome from Its Origins through the Republic, 753-44 B.C.E.

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Pride in Family and City Rome from Its Origins through the Republic, 753-44 B.C.E.

Transcript of Pride in Family and City Rome from Its Origins through the Republic, 753-44 B.C.E.

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Pride in Family and City

Rome from Its Origins through the Republic, 753-44 B.C.E.

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Pride in Family and City

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The Big Picture

500 B.C.E. 100 B.C.E.300 B.C.E.

Struggle of the Orders (509 to 287 B.C.E.)

Alexander the Great Hellenistic Kingdoms (r. 337-323 B.C.E.) (337 B.C.E.-31 B.C.E.)

Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E.)

Civil Wars(123-46 B.C.E.)

Reforms of the Gracchi(133-123 B.C.E.)

First Triumvirate:Pompey, Caesar & Crassus(60-49 B.C.E.)

Roman Monarchy(753-509 B.C.E.)

Italy under Roman Control (263 B.C.E.)

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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E

A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Romulus & Remus

A royal female descendant of Aeneas, a hero of the Trojan War who travels to Italy, is impregnated by the god of war, Mars, and gives birth to twins, Romulus & Remus. The king, the boys’ uncle, saw them as threat to his rule and throws them into the Tiber River. A shepherd found the two being suckled by a she-wolf and raised them as his own. When they had grown to adulthood, Romulus killed his brother in a quarrel and then became the founding king of a new city. The traditional founding date was 753 B.C.E.

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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E

A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Romulus & Remus

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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E

A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Cincinnatus

In the spring of 458 B.C.E., nearby tribe threatened Rome and the Senate offered the position of dictator, a position of supreme power given to one individual during emergencies, to a humble farmer/soldier named Cincinnatus. He led the Roman army against the enemy and soundly defeated them, and in gratitude, the citizens asked him to continue to be Rome’s absolute ruler. Instead, Cincinnatus preferred to step down and return to his plow and humble farm. What does this story tell us about the ideals of the early Roman republic?

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The Rise of Rome

The Geography & People of Rome– Commanding Position: Located on hills overlooking a fertile

plain with the Tiber River at its center. The Tiber offered connection to the Mediterranean but also the interior regions.

– Ideal for Agriculture and Trade: The Apennine Mountains in the center of the peninsula supplied ample rain on the western plains, which were ideal for large-scale agriculture. The flat coastal regions and good harbors encouraged trade.

– A Farming People: The original Romans were Indo-Europeans from the Black Sea region who were known as sturdy farmer/soldiers.

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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans

– Etruscan Mysteries: The Etruscans, who dominated the region before the rise of the Romans, remain somewhat mysterious to modern scholars. They did not speak an Indo-European language and remains mostly untranslated. DNA and other research has shown that they came from modern-day Turkey, having even brought their own cattle. They became a very wealthy culture through trade.

– Etruscan Artwork: The art of the Etruscans gives us the most clues about their society since their writing remains untranslatable. The statuary did show a prosperous society with surprising gender equity.

– Etruscan Influences on Romans: The Romans later adopted the Etruscan kingship, many of their engineering techniques like sewer building, architectural innovations like arches and vaults, religious practices like animal divination, the woolen garment known as the to toga, and the symbol of government power know as the fasces. Most importantly, the Romans adopted the Etruscan alphabet (now our own!) 7

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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans

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An Etruscan sarcophagus lid

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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans

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Fasces – a symbol of government power thatoriginated with the Etruscans and was adopted by the Romans

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The Rise of Rome

The Monarchy, ca. 753-509 B.C.E.– Myth and History: Origins of the Roman monarchy are a mixture

of the two. Romulus by tradition ruled from ca. 753-715 B.C.E. and was followed by four more kings. Etruscan kings appear to have ruled from 616 to about 509 B.C.E.

– Overthrow of Etruscans: Roman aristocrats came to resent the Etruscan kings. According to tradition, the violation of a respected Roman matron named Lucretia by Sextus, the son of the Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, set off the rebellion. She committed suicide, rallying the Romans to rebel under the leadership of her husband, Collatinus, and a Etrsucan nobleman named Brutus. In reality, not all Romans supported the revolts. The lower classes had looked to the kings to check the power of the noble families, known as the patricians. 10

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The Rise of Rome

Governing an Emerging Republic, 509-287 B.C.E.– A Republic Founded: A government called a republic was formed to replace

the monarchy. The word comes from the Latin “res publica,” meaning “public matter” or “public thing.” It is often rendered as “commonwealth” in English.

– The Republic’s Working PartsConsuls: two male citizens who wielded executive power of the state and who were annually elected to the position.

Senate: A body of elder statesmen from noble families who advised the consuls.

Assemblies: Outdoor gatherings of all male citizens in which groups voted on issues presented by leading statesmen.

Patricians: Old noble families recognized as socially and legally superior to everyone else; they made up about 6 percent of the population.

Plebeians: The working people of the republic who were the majority and had representation through the assemblies, but in reality, not much influence.

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The Roman Republic12

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The Rise of Rome

Governing an Emerging Republic,

509-287 B.C.E.– Struggle of the Orders: The plebian majority had little power since

the patricians dominated the Senate and wealthy men dominated the Assembly of Centuries. By the fifth century, relations between plebs and patricians had deteriorated. The poor wanted to stop abuses against them and wealthy plebs wanted more of a government voice. These demands lead to a series of reforms imposed on the aristocracy from roughly 509-287 B.C.E. that avoided civil war. Historians have called the reforms the “Struggle of the Orders.”

– Plebeian Withdrawal: The Plebeians withdrew from the politics of the official city order creating their own temples and even their own elected officials to represent their interests, called tribunes. Plebes also refused military service unless their demands were met.

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The Rise of Rome

Governing an Emerging Republic, 509-287 B.C.E.– The Twelve Tables: The plebes won their fight for a written law

code between 451-449 B.C.E. Laws thus could be consistently enforced, creating a strong tradition of Roman law and order.

– Tribal Assembly: A new assembly was put in place that represented the plebeians and passed laws that applied to plebeians and patricians alike, rich or poor. This reform produced a new social order:

Patricians – old noble families as before

Equestrians (or knights) – wealthy plebeians who could afford to be members of the cavalry

Plebeians – working and poor people who were the vast majority in Roman society

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The Rise of Rome

Informal Governance: Patrons and Clients– Patrons: Powerful figures known as “patrons” surrounded themselves

with less powerful “clients” with whom they created important and highly influential ties. Patrons provided “kindnesses”—anything from food to political favors—in exchange for loyalty, usually in the form of financial or political support.

– Clients: They provided their patrons with visible proof of their power and authority.

– The Forum: This large public gathering space surrounding by temples and public buildings, including the Senate chamber, was where influential men could address the public. Men with hundreds of clients would be cheered bolstered by his entourage. Fights might also break out between competing patron/client groups.

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Rome During the Republic

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The Rise of Rome

Dominating the Italian Peninsula– Italian Wars: As the Republic became stronger, wars began to break

out between it and its neighbors. Rome claimed its expansion was for self-defense, but it also felt the need to expand to establish colonies and provide more land for its plebians.

– Latin League: By the fifth century, the republic led a defensive league with other Latin tribes known as the Latin League. By 340 B.C.E., the other members became resentful of Roman leadership and revolted. Rome defeated these rivals and became the dominant power on the Italian peninsula. Instead of treating the revolting tribes as conquered peoples, it offered them citizenship.

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Italy, 265 B.C.E.

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Family Life and City Life

A Pious, Practical People– Importance of Religion: Romans believed that their

success and prosperity relied on proper religious observance, which included offerings to the gods. Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were especially important to Rome.

– Household Gods: Lesser gods known as lares and penates protected individual neighborhoods and households.

– Public Presence of Religion: The Temple of Vesta—virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family—and the temple of the supreme god Jupiter, were next to the Forum.

– Seriousness: Romans valued moral seriousness and sense of duty, and puzzled at the Greek sense of individualism.

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Family Life and City Life

–Lares Familiares in a Pompeii householdLares

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Lares Familiares in a Pompeii Household, ca. 79 C.E.

Model of the Temple of Vesta in Rome, ca. 180 C.E.

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Family Life and City Life

Religion and the State– Colleges of Priests: The Romans had an elaborate religious apparatus

attached to the state, including four colleges of priests and priestess: the pontificate, the augurate, the keepers of the Sibylline prophecies, and the epulones.

– Prestige: The priests and priestesses were from patrician families. The pontificate was the most important college, and its leader, the pontifex maximus, was the chief state religious officer. The colleges of the augurate and Syblline priests were next in prestige, with the epulones, who were in charge of preparing the games and feasts of Jupiter, at the bottom. The top two colleges advised the Senate on religious matters and had a great deal of influence in Roman politics and society.

– Vestal Virgins: These highly honored priestesses kept an eternal flame burning in tribute to Vesta, the goddess of hearth and home, and were members of the pontifical college. 21

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Family Life and City Life

Greek Gods Roman Equivalent

Zeus Jupiter

Hera Juno

Apollo Apollo

Ares Mars

Poseidon Neptune

Aphrodite Venus

Athena Minerva

Hermes Mercury

Demeter Ceres

Artemis Diana

Hephaestus Vulcan 22

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Family Life and City Life

Loyalty to the Family– Loyalty: Loyalty was a trait that was highly valued by the

Romans, as seen in the patron/client relationship, but it first and foremost started with family.

– Patriarchy: At least in theory, the father had complete control over all members of the household: his wife, children, slaves, and even ex-slaves.

– Household Loyalty: Family members shared the responsibility of worshipping household spirits and ancestors, who they believed were the source of that household’s prosperity.

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Family Life and City Life

Loyalty to the Family: Marriage Patterns– Arranged: Marriages in early Rome were arranged to

create and maintain political alliances between families.

– Control of a Marriage: A woman could be given over to her new husband’s family completely, or remain under her father’s “hand” and remain more financially and politically tied to her family of origin.

– Women’s Authority: Evidence shows that mothers had nearly the same amount of authority over children as fathers, and many women exerted considerable political influence through their sons.

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Family Life and City Life

The Challenges of Childhood– Surviving Infancy: Midwives would often kill imperfect

children by cutting the umbilical too closely, and if a father was displeased when a newborn was laid at his feet, the child would be “exposed” or sold into slavery. Infant mortality was exceedingly high even for healthy children.

– Education: Formal education for patrician children started at 6 or 7 with tutors. At 12, boys started a broad curriculum of literature, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy, and logic. If a boy had talent, he learned advanced rhetoric at 16 to prepare him for speaking publicly in a career of public service.

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Family Life and City Life

Life in the City– Population: By the late Republic (ca. 50 B.C.E.), Rome had

reached the astounding figure of 1,000,000—a huge size for a city in the ancient world (and still big today).

– Topography of Wealth: The wealthy lived on villas on the hills, away from the bustle of the city center, while the poor lived in the overcrowded lowlands.

– Smells of the City: Rome had sewers, but the disposal of waste and garbage was not good by modern standards. Wealthy men wore a bouquet of flowers to protect their noses from the stench.

– The Forum: It served not only as the political center, but the economic and social one as well. Two rows of shops lined the square. In afternoon when works was done, men gathered to gossip and talk politics. 26

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Family Life and City Life

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An artist’s rendering of the Roman Forum in the late Republic.

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Expansion and Transformation,265 – 133 B.C.E.

The Romans’ Victorious Army– Soldier/Citizens: When the Republic’s leaders saw a threat, they

raised a red flag in the Forum. Free householders—tax-paying men between the ages of 17 and 46—had to report to Rome and potentially be selected for military service.

– Organization: In the early Republic, the army was organized into legions of 4,000 men, with 40 companies of 100 each.

– Discipline: All soldiers took an oath binding them until death or the end of the war. The practice of “decimation”—every tenth soldier was killed by commanders if orders were disobeyed or if a unit failed—made disobedience rare. Soldiers only ate wheat bread and water, fearing that eating meat would soften them.

– Italian Conquest: The Roman fighting machine had unified nearly all of the Italian peninsula by 265 B.C.E.

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Expansion and Transformation,265 – 133 B.C.E.

Wars of the Mediterranean: Carthage– History: Founded around the same time as the city of Rome (ca.

800 B.C.E.) by Phoenician colonists, this city-state became the other great power of the Western Mediterranean. The city had a population of 400,000 at its height.

– Master Traders: Through trade and conquest, the Carthaginians became prosperous and gained control of much of the coast of the Western Mediterranean, setting themselves up for conflict with expanding Roman power. They were excellent sailors and traders like their Phoenician ancestors. They obtained much gold from the North Africans who were their principal trading partners.

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Expansion and Transformation,265 – 133 B.C.E.

Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War– First Punic War (264 – 241 B.C.E.): The war was mostly

about the control of Sicily, specifically the city of Messana, which sat on the strait that divided Italy and Sicily. In 264, both sides sent troops to the disputed island.

– New Roman Navy: The Romans were not traditionally an ocean-going people, but they developed new tactics that allowed them to use their effective foot-soldiers at sea. Earlier strategy involved ramming, but the Romans used a spiked catwalk that they lowered on to the enemy vessel, allowing the soldiers to board the enemy ship and engage in hand-to-hand combat, at which they excelled.

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Expansion and Transformation,265 – 133 B.C.E.

Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War

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Expansion and Transformation,265 – 133 B.C.E.

Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War– “Punic”: The Romans used the word “Punic” to describe the

Carthaginians, since this was the Latin word for “Phoenician,” taking note of their Phoenician origins.

– Roman Victory: In 241, the Romans won a decisive sea victory and were able to declare victory. The Republic seized control of Sicily and imposed a heavy war indemnity on Carthage.

– Future Conflict: The larger question of who would control the western Mediterranean remained unanswered, making future conflict between the two powers almost inevitable.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)

– Cause of the War: The fight began over the city of Saguntum in what is now Spain, which lay in the Carthaginian sphere of influence, but was traditionally an ally of Rome.

– Hannibal Barca: A brilliant Carthaginian general, Hannibal Barca, started the war by attacking Sarguntum. Hannibal’s fight was made more difficult than before because Rome controlled the seas.

– Crossing the Alps: Hannibal “brought the war to Italy” by crossing the Alps with 30,000 or 40,000 troops, 6,000 horses, and 35 war elephants.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)

– Hannibal’s Expectations: Hannibal thought that many of the Italian tribes would rise up against the Romans, and some did, but for the most part the alliance system the Romans built up stayed in place.

– Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.E.): Hannibal was able to give the Romans their worst defeated ever at the Battle of Cannae, in which approximately 30,000 Romans were killed by a brilliant encircling movement. Hannibal’s forces roamed up and down the Italian peninsula for virtually seventeen years while the Romans adopted a defensive position.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)

– Publius Cornelius Scipio (236 – 183 B.C.E.): Rome finally produced a general brilliant enough to match Hannibal, Scipio. He was able to take Carthage’s Spanish possessions, and then sailed to North Africa where he brought the war directly to Carthage, leaving Rome almost unprotected.

– Carthage’s Defeat: Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202, forcing the Carthaginians to sign a treaty that relinquished claims on Spain and made them promise to ask Rome for permission to wage war. Rome’s navy was able to keep Carthage’s ally, Philip V of Macedonia, from sending troops to aid Carthage. He was given the name “Africanus” to celebrate his victory.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Third Punic War (149 – 146 B.C.E)– Cause of the Third War: Rome’s ally in North Africa, Numidia,

encroached on Carthaginian territory, and Carthage applied to Rome for permission to wage war. Rome denied it.

– Cato the Elder (234 – 149 B.C.E.): The elder statesman who was virulently anti-Carthaginian made an impassioned speech calling for war, ending it by saying “Carthage must be destroyed.” Cato soon died, but got his wish.

– Roman Victory: Roman forces under another Scipio, Scipio Aemilianus, crushed Carthage and leveled the city. The city would lay in ruins for a hundred years until the Romans later re-colonized the site.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Wars with Macedonia and Greece– Wars with Macedonia: Rome fought three wars against

Macedonia from ca. 215 to 168 B.C.E. The first was inconclusive; in the second Rome aided Greek poleis against Macedonia and won, and in the third Macedonia tried to reassert its authority over Greece and was crushed decisively by the Romans.

– Greece: The “freed” Greeks did not act as obedient Roman clients, so a Roman commander set an example by burning Corinth and enslaving its population, bringing rich plunder back to Rome.

– Asia: By 137 B.C.E., the Romans had established a province in Asia Minor, with the last king of Pergamum deeding his lands to Rome.

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©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Expansion of the Roman Republic, 264-44 B.C.E.

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Expansion and Transformation

Wars of the Mediterranean: Administering the Provinces– “Client States”: Rome did not always annex territory directly, but

left the administration to “client states,” leaving local leaders in place but in the pocket of Rome.

– Governors: Governors were appointed to oversee a province and make sure that tax collectors didn’t abuse their privileges and make sure that justice was administered properly for Roman citizens.

– Wealth and Corruption: The administration of the provinces made officials and others wealthy through the sale of land and slaves, but also through opportunities for corruption.

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Expansion and Transformation

An Influx of Slaves– Wars and Slaves: New conquests brought not only

expansion of lands, but also of captured people in bondage. The Second Punic War alone had brought more than 200,000 into Italy as slaves. This influx permanently changed the nature of Roman society. Rich households could have hundreds of slaves rather than just two or three.

– Slave Occupations: The most undesirable occupations—mining, garbage collection, acting, and prostitution—were done by slaves. But some Greek slaves served as tutors and in some high-ranking jobs, even including physician.

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Expansion and Transformation

An Influx of Slaves– Slave Revolts: With more and more slaves coming in,

Romans began to worry more about the possibility of slave revolt. Three great slave revolts disrupted Italy and Sicily between 135 and 71 B.C.E., the most famous being led by the gladiator and slave Spartacus, who gathered an army of roughly 70,000 before his uprising was crushed.

– Terence (Publius Terentius Afer, ca. 190 – 159 B.C.E.): One of Rome’s most successful playwrights, an author of several popular comedies, began his life as a slave in North Africa. His master, a senator, realized his talent and freed him, allowing him to pursue his career.

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Expansion and Transformation

• Economic Disparity and Social Unrest– Increasing Disparity in Wealth: Roman conservatives

decried the loss of the old Roman agricultural way of life, based on farmer/soldiers. The upper classes had reaped much of the wealth of the conquered provinces, but the poor found their opportunities for betterment decrease.

– Soldiers: Soldiers were at war as long as seven years during the Punic Wars, leading many to lose their small farms. Rich men would buy up the land, creating big plantations called latifundia, which were worked by slaves.

– Urban Poor: The landless poor migrated to the cities, where they became property-less day laborers. Elites worried they might be a revolutionary class. 42

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The Hellenizing of the Republic

Resisting Change– Cato the Elder: In the office of censor, he tried to stem the

increasing display of wealth and love of things Greek, trying to impose taxes on luxury items and penalizing those who neglected their farms, but it was a losing battle.

Roman Engineering: Fusing Utility and Beauty– Engineering: Greek aesthetics and scientific learning mixed

with Roman engineering to create buildings of stunning beauty and practicality. Roman engineering also supported military forces by creating pontoon bridges and war engines.

– Aqueducts: The Roman skill at building arches lent itself to bringing running water to cities via aqueducts, with the first being built around 312 B.C.E., carrying water from 8 miles away.

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The Hellenizing of the Republic

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A Roman aqueductPhoto credit: Joyce Salisbury

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The Hellenizing of the Republic

Concrete: A New Building Material– Concrete: Roman engineers discovered a new building

material by mixing volcanic brick-earth with lime and water, creating a durable and waterproof substance.

– Pantheon: The Romans used this material to build temples as well as practical structures. One of the most famous concrete structures is the Pantheon, a temple built to all of the gods, built around 125 C.E. and still standing today. The porch and columns in front demonstrate the Hellenistic influence, but its massive concrete dome is a purely Roman invention.

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The Hellenizing of the Republic

Latin Comedy and the Great Prose Writers, 240-44 B.C.E.– Comic Plays: The earliest surviving Roman literature are

examples of comic plays. Plautus (205-185 B.C.E.) and Terence (190-159 B.C.E.) used Greek models, but modified them for Italian audiences.

– Cicero: The great orator’s career coincided with the Republic’s decline, and his varied prose writings show him to be concerned with public matters and issues of morality. Though they show him to be self-centered and vindictive, he was a master Latin stylist whose writings were used in textbooks.

– Caesar’s Writings: Wrote detailed accounts of his conquest of Gaul, which is written in clear and concise Latin. These accounts helped to further his political career.

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The Twilight of the Republic

The Reforms of the Gracchi, 133-123 B.C.E.– The Gracchi Brothers: These two me, Tiberius and Gaius

Gracchi, were of noble birth, but made it their mission to aid the Roman poor.

– Tiberius’s Reforms: Tiberius became tribune of the plebeians in 133 B.C.E. He saw Rome’s problems as linked to the decline of small farmer-soldiers.

– The Land Issue: Tiberius proposed a law that would redistribute land to landless Romans. The law passed, but only a small amount of money was disbursed to execute it.

– Political Murder: When Tiberius declared that he was running for a second term as tribune (even though this was not the custom), a riot ensued and he and 300 of his followers were killed. 47

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The Twilight of the Republic

The Reforms of the Gracchi, 133-123 B.C.E.– Gaius’s Reforms: Tiberius’s law continued to operate after his

death, but not effectively. In 123, Gaius became tribune to continue his brothers’ work. He built granaries, roads, and bridges to better the distribution of grain in the city. He put price caps on grain. He allowed the equestrians (wealthy plebeians) to become tax collectors in the provinces, giving them more influence.

– The Senate Threatened: The Senate viewed Gaius’s reforms as threatening their power, with cheapening grain prices weakening patron/client relations. Gaius and 250 of his followers were assassinated by allies of senate, the deed being arranged by on of the consuls.

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The Twilight of the Republic

Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars, 123-46 B.C.E.– Death of Gracchi: The death of Gracchi did not solve problems,

but started a cycle of disorder and violence. But the brothers had started a new republican style of government, with more wealth and influence spread among the equestrians and plebeians.

– Populares vs. Optimates: The continuing struggle was between the populares (those who supported giving the plebeians and equestrians more power) and the optimates (those who wished to preserve the traditional power of the Senate).

– Marius:

– First Triumvirate

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Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars, 123-46 B.C.E.– Marius: In the chaos after the Gracchi, Gaius Marius (ca.

157 – 86 B.C.E.) was the first general to come to power with the support of the army. There was a shortage of soldiers, so he did away with the property requirement for soldiers and promised them land in return for service. In campaigns in Africa and Europe, he and his second-in-command, Sulla, had smashing success.

– Sulla: Lucius Cornelius Sulla (ca. 138 – 78 B.C.E.), an aristocrat and student of Marius, resented that his mentor received all the credit for his military victories.

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Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars, 123-46 B.C.E.– Sulla vs. Marius: After Marius retired, Sulla became the

leading military figure, commanding six legions and becoming governor of the wealthy Asia Minor province. The assembly thought Sulla too powerful, and called Marius out of retirement to challenge him. Sulla marched on Rome, and the Forum itself became a battleground.

– Sulla’s Dictatorship: Sulla restored the long-dormant office of dictator, but illegally did away with the time limit, and took up the cause of the optimates.

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Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars, 123-46 B.C.E.– The First Triumvirate (60-49 B.C.E.): After Sulla’s fall,

three leaders circumvented the usual institutions to declare a private alliance between the three of them: Pompey, beloved of the optimates; Julius Caesar, a noble defender of the populares; and Crassus, a fabulously wealthy businessman who had also crushed Spartacus’s uprising. Caesar’s daughter, Julia, married Pompey to seal the alliance, but she soon died in childbirth. Crassus died while fighting in the east.

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Julius Caesar, 100-44 B.C.E.– Civil War: After Julia’s death, there were no bonds holding

Caesar and Pompey together, so civil war soon broke out, with battles taking place around the Roman world.

– Pompey’s Defeat: After losing a decisive battle in Greece in 48 B.C.E., Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated. Caesar had followed Pompey to Egypt, where he became involved with Queen Cleopatra VII (r. 51-30 B.C.E.), who bore him a son.

– Caesar’s Return: In 46 B.C.E., Caesar made a triumphant return to Rome, and used his brilliant administrative capacities to plan out major reforms and projects.

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The Roman Republic Ends– Governing the Republic: Caesar could not figure out how to

govern the Republic. He took the title of dictator, but refused to step down at the end of the emergency. He denied the title of king, but often wore royal garments and put his image on coins, breaking the tradition of not doing so for living Romans.

– Caesar’s Murder: Caesar’s rise greatly pleased the populares, but even his supporters were outraged by his increasingly royal trappings. He had shrunken the role of the optimates, leading to a plot that ended in Caesar’s death. Even his friend and protégé, Brutus, joined. On March 15, the “ides” as the Roman termed it, he was stabbed to death as he approached the Senate chamber.

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