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Chapter Introduction

Section 1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia

Section 2 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”

Section 3 New Centers of Civilization

Section 4 The Rise of New Empires

Chapter Summary

Chapter Assessment

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Click the Speaker button to listen to the audio again.


Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of Southwest Asia and Egypt.

• The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were among the first groups to build a civilization, and they were the first to develop a system of writing.

• Due in large part to the Nile, early Egyptian civilization was stable and prosperous. Massive monuments, the pyramids, were built to honor the deaths of the pharaohs.

Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the information.Click the mouse button or press the

Space Bar to display the information.

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of Southwest Asia and Egypt.

• The Israelites emerged as a distinct people.



• Of the other empires that came into being in Southwest Asia, the longest lasting and most powerful were the Assyrian and Persian Empires.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.



• The peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt built cities and struggled with the problems of organized government.

• The Israelites developed a major world religion, which influenced the development of Christianity and Islam and has a continuing effect on Western civilization.

Chapter ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:



• explain the impact of geography. • describe the significance of religion. • list major sets of laws. • name the first empires and explain their

transitory natures. • list characteristics of life in these

societies.

• describe the effects of wars and conquests.

Chapter ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• identify the importance of early inventions on ancient civilizations.

• Mesopotamia, one of the first civilizations, began between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

• The Sumerians formed city-states and created forms of communication that affect our lives today.

Main Ideas



Civilization in Mesopotamia Begins

Key Terms• city-state

• ziggurat • theocracy • empire

• patriarchal • polytheistic

• cuneiform

• Sumerians

People to Identify• Sargon • Hammurabi

• Tigris River

Places to Locate• Fertile Crescent • Uruk

• Babylon• Euphrates River • Mesopotamia




• Akkadians

• How did geography affect the civilizations in Mesopotamia?

Preview Questions

• How did the Akkadian Empire begin?




Preview of Events


One of the most interesting objects discovered by archaeologists in the Mesopotamian city of Ur was the so-called “Standard of Ur,” a wooden box decorated with images of peace on one side and images of war on the other. The box’s beauty testifies to the artistic talent of the Sumerians.

(pages 37–38)(pages 37–38)

The Impact of Geography • Mesopotamia is at the eastern end of the

Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf.

• Mesopotamia (“between the rivers”) is the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

• These rivers often overflow and leave silt, which makes the soil rich for a flourishing agricultural economy.

• Mesopotamian civilization was one of history’s important early civilizations to grow in a river valley.





The Impact of Geography (cont.)

• People in Mesopotamia, therefore, developed a system of drainage ditches and irrigation works.

• The resulting large food supply made possible significant population growth and the emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia.

• Developing consistent agriculture required controlling the water supply.

(pages 37–38)(pages 37–38)



• Mesopotamian civilization involved many peoples.

• The Sumerians developed the first Mesopotamian civilization.

• Ancient Mesopotamia covered three general areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. Several peoples lived in these areas.


(pages 37–38)(pages 37–38)


(pages 37–38)(pages 37–38)

Consider the area where you live. What roles has geography played in how your area has developed physically, commercially, and culturally?



• These states controlled the surrounding countryside politically and economically.

• City-states were the basic political unit of the Sumerian civilization.

• By 3000 B.C. the Sumerians had formed a number of city-states centered around cities such as Ur and Uruk.

The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia

(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)



The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia (cont.)

• Using them they invented the arch and the dome and built some of the largest brick buildings in the world.

• The most important building in each city was the temple.

• Often it was built on top of a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat.

• The Sumerians built largely with mud bricks.

(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)



• The Sumerian state was a theocracy, then–a government by divine authority.

• Priests and priestesses were important figures politically as well as religiously.

• Eventually, ruling power passed more into the hands of kings, who traced their authority back to the divine.

• Sumerians believed gods and goddesses owned and ruled the cities.


(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)



• The invention of the wheel around 3000 B.C. facilitated trade.

• The Sumerian economy was principally agricultural, but industry (metalwork and woolen textiles, for example) and trade were important.


(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)



• Nobles included the royal family, royal officials, priests, and their families.

• Commoners worked for large estates as farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople. Around 90 percent of the people were farmers.

• Slaves principally worked on large building projects, wove cloth, and worked the farms of the nobles.

• The Sumerian city-states had three classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves.


(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)

Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answer.


The Sumerian city-states were theocracies (theo meaning “god” and cracy meaning “rule”). In a theocracy, government authority is founded upon divine authority. The United States is a democracy. On what authority is its governmental power based?Governmental authority in a democracy [demo meaning “the people”] is based on the consent of the people governed.


(pages 38–40)(pages 38–40)



(pages 40–41)(pages 40–41)

Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia • The Akkadians lived north of the

Sumerian city-states.

• The Akkadians are called a Semitic people because they spoke a Semitic language.

• Around 2340 B.C., the leader of the Akkadians, Sargon, conquered the Sumerian city-states and set up the world’s first empire.



Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia

• In 1792 B.C., Hammurabi of Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad, established a new empire over much of both Akkad and Sumer.

• An empire is a large political unit that controls many peoples and territories.

(pages 40–41)(pages 40–41)

(cont.)

Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia

(pages 40–41)(pages 40–41)

Building empires is a constant feature of history. What might have motivated Sargon to create the first empire? Compare and contrast that with the motivations for the British Empire and the attempt by the Nazis to build an empire.

(cont.)



• It calls for harsh punishments against criminals.

• The principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”) is fundamental in Hammurabi’s code.

(pages 41–42)(pages 41–42)

• The Code of Hammurabi is one of the world’s most important early systems of law.

The Code of Hammurabi



The Code of Hammurabi (cont.)

• A crime committed against a noble brought a harsher punishment than the same crime committed against a commoner.

• Hammurabi’s code punished public officials who failed in their duties or were corrupt.

• It also had what we would call consumer protection provisions, for example, holding builders responsible for the quality of their work.

• Punishments varied according to social status.

(pages 41–42)(pages 41–42)




• The largest group of laws in the code covered marriage and the family.

• Parents arranged marriages, and the bride and groom had to sign a marriage contract to be officially married.

• If a building collapsed and killed someone, the builder was executed. Damages had to be paid to people injured.

(pages 41–42)(pages 41–42)




• Women had fewer privileges and rights than men.

• The code also enforced obedience of children to parents.

• A father could cut off the hand of a son who had hit him, for example.

• Hammurabi’s code expresses the patriarchal nature of Mesopotamian society.

(pages 41–42)(pages 41–42)



Hammurabi’s code was applied differently to different classes of people. Where in the U.S. Constitution is this practice forbidden? Give reasons for why the unequal application of the law is unjust. If you think it is just, explain why.

The U.S. Constitution forbids applying law differently to different classes of people in the Fourteenth Amendment, where it calls for the “equal protection of the laws.” Answers will vary on the justice question. Try to get students to consider the question of what is relevant to justly applying the law and what is not. Presumably, social and economic standing are not.


(pages 41–42)(pages 41–42)



(page 42)(page 42)

The Importance of Religion • Due to the harsh physical environment

and famines, Mesopotamians believed that the world was controlled by often destructive supernatural forces and deities.

• The Mesopotamians were polytheistic because they believed in many gods and goddesses.

• They identified three thousand of them.



The Importance of Religion (cont.)

• Sumerians believed that human beings were created to do the manual labor the gods and goddesses were not willing to do.

• As inferior beings, people could never be sure what the deities might do to help or hurt them.

• Human beings were to serve and obey the gods and goddesses.

(page 42)(page 42)


(page 42)(page 42)

How did Sumerians view their place in the world?

They were at the mercy of unpredictable forces.





• They created a system of writing called cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”).

• They used a reed stylus to make wedge-shaped markings on clay tablets, which were then baked in the sun.

(pages 42–43)(pages 42–43)

• The Sumerians were important inventors.

The Creativity of the Sumerians



The Creativity of the Sumerians (cont.)

• A new class of scribes (writers and copyists) arose.

• Being a scribe was the key to a successful career for an upper-class Mesopotamian boy.

• Writing also passed on cultural knowledge from generation to generation, sometimes in new ways.

(pages 42–43)(pages 42–43)

• Writing was used for record keeping, teaching, and law.



• Gilgamesh is wise and strong, a being who is part human and part god.

• Gilgamesh befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu.

• When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh feels the pain of his friend’s death, and he searches for the secret of immortality.

• He fails.

• The Epic of Gilgamesh, the most important piece of Mesopotamian literature, teaches the lesson that only the gods are immortal.


(pages 42–43)(pages 42–43)



• In mathematics they invented a number system based on 60, and they made advances in applying geometry to engineering.

• In astronomy, the Sumerians charted the constellations using their number system of 60.

• The Sumerians invented important technologies, such as the wagon wheel.


(pages 42–43)(pages 42–43)


(pages 42–43)(pages 42–43)

What tool of measurement based on 60 do we use today?

Watches and clocks measure time using a system of 60.



__ 1. having many gods

__ 2. dominated by men

__ 3. a massive stepped tower on which was built a temple dedicated to the chief god orgoddess of a Sumerian city

__ 4. government by divine authority

__ 5. a city with political and economic control over the surrounding countryside

A. city-state

B. patriarchal

C. polytheistic

D. theocracy

E. ziggurat

Define Match each definition in the left column with the appropriate term in the right column.

C

B

E

D

A

Checking for Understanding

Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answers.Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answers.

Explain what the Mesopotamians believed was the relationship between gods and mortals.


Gods were all-powerful, while humans were created to serve the gods.






List the three areas of ancient Mesopotamia.

Assyria, Akkad, and Sumeria are the three areas of ancient Mesopotamia.

Critical Thinking



Explain Which type of government–separate city-states or an empire–would have been most advantageous to the people living in Mesopotamia?

City-states are easier to govern but are relatively defenseless against invaders. Empires have size, diversity, and power, but they tend to be unstable.

Analyzing Visuals



Examine the photograph of t Royal Standard of Ur on page 40 of your textbook. What facts about Mesopotamian life can you identify by studying the picture? How does this box reflect the values of the Sumerian civilization?

The photograph shows the king and his nobles. It reflects the importance of military victories to society.

Close

Write a paragraph about each of the three civilizations in this section– Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian. The paragraph should begin with this sentence: We influenced the course of human history.

Summarize the contributions of each of these civilizations in your paragraphs. Volunteer to read your paragraph aloud in class.



Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile

• The Nile was crucial to the development of Egyptian civilization.

• Egyptian history is divided into three major periods.

Main Ideas

Key Terms• dynasty

• pharaoh • bureaucracy • vizier

• mummification • hieroglyphics

• hieratic script




• Menes

People to Identify• Tutankhamen • Ramses II • Cleopatra VII

• Nile River

Places to Locate• Upper Egypt

• Giza• Lower Egypt

• Hyksos • Hatshepsut • Akhenaton

• What was the “Black Land”?

Preview Questions

• Why were the pyramids built and how were they used?




Preview of Events


The funeral boat used to transport the body of King Khufu from Memphis to Giza was 141 feet long. Archaeologists have reassembled the craft according to the shipwright’s original instructions, which were discovered with the craft’s pieces next to Khufu’s tomb.



(pages 45–46)(pages 45–46)

The Impact of Geography • Running over 4,000 miles, the Nile is the

longest river in the world. • It begins in the heart of Africa and runs

north to the Mediterranean. • The northern part is called Lower Egypt

and the southern part is called Upper Egypt.

• The most important fact about the Nile is that it floods each year, enriching the soil around it.

• The surplus of food Egyptian farmers could grow in this fertile soil made Egypt prosperous.



(pages 45–46)(pages 45–46)


• In these ways the Nile was a unifying influence on Egypt.

• Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt had geographical barriers that protected it from invasion: the deserts to the west and east, the Red Sea to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and rapids in the southern Nile.

• The Nile also served as a great highway that enhanced transportation and communication.

• Geography gave the Egyptians a sense of confidence and added to the noteworthy continuity of Egyptian civilization for thousands of years.

(pages 45–46)(pages 45–46)


(pages 45–46)(pages 45–46)


Consider important geographical influences on the United States, like rivers, mountain ranges, and deserts. For two of them, explain how they affected the development of the United States.

Possible answers: Cities began along major rivers, like the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Agriculture developed around such rivers and the rivers served as a highway for trade, transportation, and communication. The cities of the Southwest have needed extensive irrigation systems and water works to grow.





• The Egyptians were also polytheistic.

• Two groups of gods–the land gods and sun gods–were especially important.

• The sun was worshipped as the source of life.

• The sun god was named Atum or Re.

• The Egyptian ruler was called Son of Re, the sun god in earthly form.

(pages 46–47)(pages 46–47)

• Religion gave the Egyptians a sense of security and timelessness.

The Importance of Religion



• Isis brought Osiris back to life after his brother, Seth, had cut up his body into 14 pieces.

• Osiris had an important role as a symbol of rebirth, whether after physical death or through the rebirth of the land when flooded by the Nile.

• Isis’s bringing together the parts of Osiris’s body each spring symbolized the new life that the floods brought.

• Two important river and land gods were Osiris and Isis. They were husband and wife.


(pages 46–47)(pages 46–47)

(pages 46–47)(pages 46–47)

Why were the Mesopotamian and ancient Egyptian religions polytheistic?

Possible answer: Polytheism reflects the idea that the divine is in or controls different forces of nature. Different deities are identified with the different forces. Later, contrast this view with the Hebrew God, who creates nature but is not in it.






(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)

• Historians divide Egyptian history into three major periods of stability, peace, and cultural flourishing: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. Periods of upheaval fell between them.

• Egyptian history began around 3100 B.C. when Menes created the first royal dynasty in Egypt.

• A dynasty is a family of rulers. Their right to rule is passed on through the family.

The Course of Egyptian History



The Course of Egyptian History (cont.) • The Old Kingdom lasted from 2700 to

2200 B.C.

• Egyptian rulers became known as pharaohs. Pharaoh means “great house” or “palace.”

• Egyptian pharaohs had absolute power.

• However, they were aided first by their families and then by a large bureaucracy–an administrative organization of officials and regular procedures–that developed during the Old Kingdom.

(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• The vizier (“steward of the whole land”) held the most important position next to the pharaoh.

• The vizier headed the bureaucracy and reported directly to the pharaoh.

• Egypt was divided into 42 provinces, each with its own governor.

The Course of Egyptian History (cont.)

(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• The pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom.

• They served as tombs for the pharaohs and their families.

• They contained food, weapons, artwork, and household goods for the person in the afterlife.

• Egyptians believed that a person’s spiritual body (ka) could survive the death of the physical body if the physical body were properly preserved through mummification.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)

• In mummification a body was slowly dried to keep it from rotting. It was done in workshops that priests ran for wealthy families.

• Workers would first remove certain internal organs, placing them in four special jars put in the tomb with the mummy.

• They also removed the brain through the nose.

• Then the body was covered with salt to absorb moisture.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)





• This process took about 70 days.

• Then a lifelike mask of the deceased was placed over the head and shoulders of the mummy.

• Finally, the mummy was sealed in a case and placed in its tomb.

• Later, workers filled the body with spices and wrapped it in resin-soaked linen.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• Symbols of Osiris decorate his coffin. • The largest pyramid was for King Khufu,

built around 2540 B.C. in Giza. It covers 13 acres.

• Historians are still amazed at the builders’ precision.

• Huge stones are fitted so closely that a hair cannot be pushed between them.

• The mummy of Ramses the Great has remained intact for 3,000 years.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• It has the body of a lion and head of a man; some historians believe it is there to guard the sacred site.

• The Middle Kingdom was between 2050 and 1652 B.C. Egyptians later portrayed this time as a golden age.

• Egypt expanded into Nubia, and trade reached into Mesopotamia and Crete.

• The Great Sphinx is also at Giza.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• The pharaoh was now portrayed as a shepherd of the people.

• He was expected to build public works and provide for the people’s welfare.

• Swampland was drained and a new canal connected the Nile River and the Red Sea.

• The pharaohs had a new concern for the people during the Middle Kingdom.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• Egyptians learned to use bronze and horse-drawn war chariots from the Hyksos.

• The New Kingdom lasted from 1567 to 1085 B.C.

• During this period Egypt created an empire.

• Invasion by the Hyksos people of Western Asia ended the Middle Kingdom.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• The first female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, and others built fabulous temples. Hers is at Deir el Bahri, near Thebes.

• Akhenaton tried to make Egyptians monotheistic and worship only the sun god.

• Many believed this change would upset the cosmic order and destroy Egypt.

• The New Kingdom pharaohs were tremendously wealthy.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• Akhenaton’s religious reforms caused upheavals that led the Egyptians to lose their empire.

• Ramses II, who reigned from 1279 to 1213 B.C., regained some of the empire.

• New invasions by the “Sea Peoples” then ended the Egyptian Empire once and for all. The New Kingdom collapsed in 1085 B.C.

• After Akhenaton’s death, the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen restored the old gods and polytheism.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



• The pharaoh Cleopatra VII unsuccessfully tried to reassert Egypt’s independence.

• Her alliance with Rome brought defeat, her suicide, and Roman rule over Egypt.

• For the next thousand years, Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and Macedonians dominated Egypt.


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)

of your textbook has a brief profile of Hatshepsut. Read the inscription she left at Deir el Bahri, expressing her anxiety about what people in the future will think of her. From what you know of Hatshepsut, what do you think of her?


(pages 47–51)(pages 47–51)



(pages 51–52)(pages 51–52)

• Egyptian society was organized like a pyramid.

• The pharaoh was at the top.

• He was surrounded by a ruling class of nobles and priests.

• They ran the government and managed their extensive land and wealth.

Society in Ancient Egypt and Daily Life in Ancient Egypt



Society in Ancient Egypt and Daily Life in Ancient Egypt (cont.) • The next class was made up of merchants

and artisans.

• Below them was a class of peasants, who usually worked land held by the upper class, and provided revenues, military service, and forced labor for the state.

(pages 51–52)(pages 51–52)



• Egyptians married young.

• The husband was the master, but the wife ran the household and educated the children.

• Women kept their property, even in marriage.

• Marriages could end in divorce, which included compensation for the women.

• Some women were merchants, priestesses, and even pharaohs.

Society in Ancient Egypt and Daily Life in Ancient Egypt (cont.)

(pages 51–52)(pages 51–52)



• Parents arranged marriages.

• Their chief concerns were family and property.

• However, remaining Egyptian poetry and advice books suggest that romance and caring were important parts of Egyptian marriages.


(pages 51–52)(pages 51–52)



Most societies have given more power, rights, and privileges to men than to women. Why do you think that is?

Possible answer: Biological differences between men and women, the social effects of bearing and nursing children, and a need to control might be reasons that societies have given more power, rights, and privileges to men.

(pages 51–52)(pages 51–52)




(pages 52–53)(pages 52–53)

• Writing emerged in Egypt around 3000 B.C. Egyptians used a system called hieroglyphics (“priest-carvings”), which used pictures and abstract forms.

• Later, Egyptians used a simplified version called hieratic script. Hieratic script was written on papyrus.

• Hieratic script was used for record keeping, business transactions, and the general needs of daily life.

• Because of these tasks, the class of scribes was very important in Egypt.

Writing and Education and Achievements in Art and Science



Writing and Education and Achievements in Art and Science (cont.) • Upper-class boys trained to be scribes

from age 10. The training took many years.

• Pyramids, temples, and other monuments show the architectural and artistic achievements of the Egyptians.

• Artists followed a distinctive style.

• For example, human bodies were shown as a combination of profile, semiprofile, and frontal views to get an accurate picture.

(pages 52–53)(pages 52–53)

• For their monumental building projects and their vital surveys of flooded land, Egyptians made important advances in geometry. They calculated area and volume.

Writing and Education and Achievements in Art and Science (cont.)

(pages 52–53)(pages 52–53)



• Because of mummification, Egyptians became experts in human anatomy.

• Archaeologists have discovered directions from Egyptian doctors about using splints, bandages, and compresses for treating fractures and wounds.

• Other ancient civilizations acquired medical knowledge from the Egyptians.


(pages 52–53)(pages 52–53)



The word geometry means “land measuring.” This etymology refers to the Egyptian practice of surveying lands around the Nile. Why was land surveying so important to the Egyptians?

All classes of Egyptian society depended on the success of Egypt’s abundant agriculture, which depended on knowing the flood patterns of the Nile. The Egyptians would plan their fields geometrically according to these patterns.


(pages 52–53)(pages 52–53)

__ 1. a family of rulers whose right to rule is passed on within the family

__ 2. simplified version of hieroglyphics used in ancient Egypt for business transactions, record keeping, and the general needs of daily life

__ 3. the most common of the various titles for ancient Egyptian monarchs; the term originally meant “great house” or “palace”

__ 4. a high government official in ancient Egypt or in Muslim countries

__ 5. a process of slowly drying a dead body to prevent it from decaying

A. pharaoh

B. dynasty

C. mummification

D. hieratic script

E. vizier


B

D

A

E

C



Explain the significance of the Egyptian ruler’s title “Son of Re.”


The ruler was seen as an earthly form of Re. This gave him divinity, so he ruled by divine right.






List the various peoples who dominated Egypt after the collapse of the New Kingdom.

Libyans, Nubians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans all dominated Egypt after the collapse of the New Kingdom.

Critical Thinking

Describe In what ways are the customs of ancient Egypt similar to the customs in your society today?

Possible answer: Today’s rituals associated with death are similar to those of ancient Egypt.



Describe what the artifacts pictured on page 52 of your textbook tell you about royal Egyptian life. How do the Egyptian tools compare to the Paleolithic tools shown on page 23 of your textbook?

Analyzing Visuals

Egyptian royalty could afford items that were beautiful and useful. They are much more sophisticated than the crude Paleolithic tools.



Close

List factors that account for the growth and longevity of civilization along the Nile River. Discuss which of these factors can be found in any river valley and which are unique to Egypt’s location or unrelated to geography.



New Centers of Civilization

• The decline of the Hittites and Egyptians allowed a number of small kingdoms and city-states to emerge.

• The Israelites did not create an empire, but they left a world religion, Judaism, that influenced the later religions of Christianity and Islam.

Main Ideas

Key Terms• pastoral nomad

• monotheistic

• Indo-Europeans

People to Identify• Israelites • King Solomon • Isaiah

• Palestine

Places to Locate

• Jerusalem

• Hittites • Phoenicians




• How did nomadic peoples affect the centers of civilization?

Preview Questions

• What factors caused the decline of the Hittite kingdom?




Preview of Events


To this day, more than 2,400 years after it was written, strict rules govern the production and treatment of the Torah. Every copy of the Torah is written in Hebrew by a calligrapher on vellum or parchment. When reading from the Torah, Jews use a pointer called a yad; no one is allowed to touch the scrolls.



(pages 54–55)(pages 54–55)

• Another ancient civilization flourished in central Asia around 4,000 years ago in what are now Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

• These people built mud-brick buildings, used bronze tools, built irrigation works, and probably had writing.

The Role of Nomadic Peoples



The Role of Nomadic Peoples (cont.) • Pastoral nomads lived on the fringes of

these civilizations.

• These groups hunted and gathered, did small farming, and domesticated animals.

• They moved along regular routes to pasture their animals.

• Sometimes they overran settled communities and established states.

(pages 54–55)(pages 54–55)



• One of the most important groups of pastoral nomads was the Indo-Europeans.

• The term Indo-European refers to peoples who spoke languages derived from the same parent language.

• Indo-European languages include Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and the Germanic languages.

• One Indo-European group melded with natives in Anatolia–modern-day Turkey–to form the Hittite kingdom.

The Role of Nomadic Peoples (cont.)

(pages 54–55)(pages 54–55)



• Between 1600 and 1200 B.C., the Hittites created an empire in western Asia.

• Its capital was Hattusha, in modern Turkey.

• They were the first Indo-Europeans to use iron.

• When the Hittite Empire was destroyed, smaller city-states and kingdoms emerged in the area of Syria and Palestine.


(pages 54–55)(pages 54–55)



The Hittites were the first Indo-European people to use iron. What are the advantages of using iron over bronze or stone for tools and weapons? What metal has been so important in modern production?

The chief advantage of iron is that it is stronger. Iron tools and weapons, therefore, are more effective and last longer than bronze or stone tools and weapons. Steel is the most important modern metal.


(pages 54–55)(pages 54–55)



(pages 55–56)(pages 55–56)

• The Phoenicians were an important new group in the area of Palestine.

• The Phoenicians lived on a narrow band of the Mediterranean coast only 120 miles long.

• After the downfall of the Hittites and the Egyptians, the Phoenicians began to assert their power.

• That power was based on trade.

• The Phoenicians were such prominent traders because of their ships and seafaring skills.

The Phoenicians



The Phoenicians (cont.) • Trading took the Phoenicians as far as

Britain and Africa’s west coast.

• The Phoenicians set up colonies.

• Carthage in North Africa is the most famous Phoenician colony.

(pages 55–56)(pages 55–56)



• The Phoenicians are most known for their alphabet of 22 characters, or letters.

• They could spell out all the words in the Phoenician language.

• This alphabet was passed on to the Greeks.

• The Roman alphabet we use is based on Greek.

The Phoenicians (cont.)

(pages 55–56)(pages 55–56)



The Phoenician alphabet was phonetic. What are advantages and disadvantages of a phonetic writing system?

Possible answer: If each letter has a corresponding sound, any word can be written by combining the letters. Disadvantages might include that the visual representation of an idea [a written word] has no relationship to its meaning.

The Phoenicians (cont.)

(pages 55–56)(pages 55–56)



(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)

• The Israelites were a Semitic people living in Palestine along the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

• Some interpretations of archaeological evidence indicate they emerged as a distinct group between 1200 and 1000 B.C.

• The Israelites soon established a kingdom known as Israel.

The “Children of Israel”



The “Children of Israel” (cont.) • The Israelites were not particularly

important politically.

• The Israelites’ main contribution to history was their religion, Judaism.

• Judaism still flourishes as a major religion, and it influenced both Christianity and Islam.

(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• The Israelites ruled Palestine. Their capital was Jerusalem.

• King Solomon, who ruled from 970 to 930 B.C., was Israel’s first great king.

• Solomon was known for his wisdom.

• Most importantly, he built the temple in Jerusalem.

• The Israelites viewed this temple as the symbolic center of Israel and Judaism.

The “Children of Israel” (cont.)

(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• After Solomon, the kingdom divided into two parts.

• The Kingdom of Israel was made up of ten tribes.

• The Kingdom of Judah to the south was made up of two tribes.

• In 772 B.C., the Assyrians conquered and scattered the ten northern tribes of Israel.

• These “ten lost tribes” lost their Hebrew identity.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• The Chaldeans conquered Assyria and the Kingdom of Judah, destroying Jerusalem in 586 B.C.

• Many upper-class captives were sent to Babylonia.

• After the Persians conquered the Chaldeans, the people of Judah were permitted to return to Jerusalem.

• The Kingdom of Judah was reborn and the temple rebuilt.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• The people of Judah survived even conquest by Alexander the Great, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism.

• Jewish belief says there is one God, Yahweh.

• The belief in only one God is called monotheism.

• Yahweh created and ruled the world.

• God, however, was not in nature; natural phenomena were not divine.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• All people were Yahweh’s servants, not just a certain tribe or nation.

• Three important aspects of the Jewish religion were the covenant, the law, and the prophets.

• The covenant was the agreement between God and his people.

• The Jews could fulfill the covenant by obeying the law of God, stated in the Ten Commandments.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• The Jews believed that religious teachers, called prophets, were sent by God.

• The prophets believed that unjust actions would bring God’s punishment.

• The prophets also added a new element to the Jewish tradition.

• Prophets like Isaiah expressed concern for all humanity and the hope that someday all people would follow the law of the God of Israel in a time of peace.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• People would show compassion to one another.

• They also would care for social justice and the condition of the poor and unfortunate.

• The religion of Israel was unique among the religions of western Asia and Egypt.

• Its most distinctive feature was its monotheism.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



• Further, the ideas of Judaism were written down, so people besides priests and rulers could have religious knowledge and know God’s will.

• The Jews also would not accept the gods or goddesses of their neighbors.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)



Much of the history in this section is based on the Bible. How is the Bible similar to and different from other historical sources?

Possible answer: Many people consider the Bible to be divinely inspired, unlike most histories. For example, Jewish belief says Yahweh revealed the Ten Commandments, recorded in the Old Testament, directly to Moses.


(pages 56–60)(pages 56–60)

__ 1. a person who domesticates animals for food and clothing and moves along regular migratory routes to provide a steady source of nourishment for those animals

__ 2. having one god

A. monotheistic

B. pastoral nomad


B

A



Explain why some Israelites came to be known as the “ten lost tribes.” How did the fate of the “ten lost tribes” compare to that of the other Israelite kingdom, Judah, at the time?


Assyrians forced many Israelites to merge with neighboring peoples. People of Judah were enslaved but then allowed to rebuild Jerusalem.






List the areas reached by Phoenician traders. Also list the areas that were colonized by the Phoenicians.

The Phoenicians reached Britain and the west coast of Africa. They colonized areas in the western Mediterranean and Carthage.

Critical Thinking



Evaluate How did nomadic peoples both contribute to and slow down the development of civilization?

Nomadic peoples contributed to the development of civilization because they spread their languages and were the first people to use iron. However, they slowed down the development of civilization because they overran settled communities.

Analyzing Visuals



Examine the Torah shown on page 59 of your textbook. Why is the Torah so important to the Jewish religion? What does the book’s appearance tell you about how the book was read?

The Torah is the record of Jewish history, God’s word, and the basis of male education. The pages were unrolled as it was read.

Close

Name three ways in which the history or religion of the ancient Israelites still affects life today.



The Rise of New Empires

• The Hittites and Egyptians were eventually overshadowed by the rise of the Assyrian and Persian Empires.

• The Persian Empire brought many years of peace to Southwest Asia, increasing trade and the general well being of its peoples.

Main Ideas

Key Terms• satrapy

• satrap

• monarchy

• Assyrians

People to Identify• Darius • Immortals • Zoroaster

• Assyrian Empire

Places to Locate

• Persian Empire

• Royal Road

• Nebuchadnezzar • Persians • Cyrus




• What caused the downfall of the Assyrian Empire?

Preview Questions

• Why did the people of his time call Cyrus “the Great”?




Preview of Events




(pages 61–62)(pages 61–62)

• The Assyrians of the upper Tigris River formed the Assyrian Empire by 700 B.C.

• They were known for their military prowess.

• Their military power came from using iron and a large, well-disciplined army of infantry, cavalry, and archers, often on chariots.

• They also used terror to subdue people, laying waste to people’s lands and torturing captives.

The Assyrian Empire



The Assyrian Empire (cont.) • A king with absolute power ruled the

Assyrian Empire.

• The empire was organized well with local officials directly responsible to the king.

• The Assyrians developed an efficient communication system in order to administer their empire.

• They set up a network of posts with horses carrying messages.

• It was said that a message could go from a governor anywhere in the empire to the king and be answered back in one week.

(pages 61–62)(pages 61–62)



• The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal founded one of the world’s first libraries.

• This library has provided a great deal of information about Southwest Asian civilizations.

The Assyrian Empire (cont.)

(pages 61–62)(pages 61–62)

The Assyrian Empire (cont.)

(pages 61–62)(pages 61–62)

The Assyrians were known as lethal warriors. One of the reasons they were successful in war was the terror tactics they used, devastating conquered populations and committing atrocities on captives. Should armies follow moral standards as they fight wars, or should anything go as long as it serves victory?



(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)

• After the Assyrian Empire collapsed, the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar made Babylonia the leading state of western Asia.

• Babylon became one of the greatest cities of the ancient world. Babylonia did not last long; the Persians conquered it in 539 B.C.

The Persian Empire



The Persian Empire (cont.) • The Persians were a nomadic, Indo-

European people living in what is today southwest Iran.

• One family unified the different groups.

• One member, Cyrus, created a powerful Persian state from Asia Minor to western India.

• Cyrus ruled from 559 to 530 B.C.

• He captured Babylon, treating his new subjects with noteworthy restraint, and he allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem.

(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• His sons extended the Persian Empire.

• Cambyses successfully invaded Egypt.

• Darius (521–486 B.C.) extended the empire into India and Europe.

• He created the largest empire the world had known.

• Darius strengthened the Persian government by dividing the empire into 20 provinces, called satrapies.

• A governor, or satrap (“protector of the kingdom”), collected taxes, handled legal matters, and recruited soldiers.

The Persian Empire (cont.)

(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• The Persians established a communication system using horses and way stations along the Royal Road, from Lydia to the empire’s chief capital at Susa.

• Much of the Persian Empire’s power was due to its military.

• The Persian kings had a standing army of professional soldiers from all over the empire.

• At its core was an elite group called the Immortals because anyone who was killed was immediately replaced.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• The Immortals were made up of ten thousand cavalry and ten thousand infantry.

• The Persian Empire declined for a set of reasons common to the decline of empires.

• The kings became more isolated at court and lived lives of tremendous luxury.

• They levied high taxes that weakened the people’s loyalty.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• At the same time, factions were struggling for control of the throne.

• Of the nine rulers after Darius, six were murdered in plots.

• These bloody struggles weakened the Persian monarchy (rule by a king or queen), and Alexander the Great conquered Persia during the 330s B.C.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• The most original Persian cultural contribution was its religion of Zoroastrianism.

• Persian tradition says that Zoroaster was born in 660 B.C.

• He had visions that caused him to be declared a prophet.

• His teachings were written in the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, the Zend Avesta.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



• Zoroaster taught monotheism. • To Zoroaster, the universe was permeated

by the good of the supreme god Ahuramazda, who brought all into being.

• There was an evil spirit named Ahriman, however.

• People had free will to choose between the two, but eventually, good would triumph over evil.

• In the last judgment at the end of the world, good and evil would separate.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)



Both Judaism and Zoroastrianism teach monotheism. What might be a reason for believing in monotheism and not polytheism?

Possible answer: If the concept of God is of a being who is omnipotent, then logically there can be only one God.


(pages 62–64)(pages 62–64)

__ 1. government by a sovereign ruler such as a king or queen

__ 2. “protector of the Kingdom,” the governor of a province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire under Darius

__ 3. one of the 20 provinces into which Darius divided the Persian Empire

A. satrapy

B. satrap

C. monarchy


C

B

A



Describe Who were the Immortals? What was their significance to the Persian Empire?


The Immortals were an army of professional soldiers. Their number never varied; when one member was killed, he was replaced. Persian kings used them to maintain power.






List the duties of the satraps of the Persian government.

Satraps collected taxes, provided justice and security, and recruited soldiers for the royal army.

Critical Thinking



Compare How were the Assyrian and Persian systems of government different?

The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of warfare, laid waste to lands in which they were fighting, and committed atrocities. The Persians respected conquered civilizations and showed mercy.

Analyzing Visuals



Examine the relief of Darius and Xerxes on page 63. Describe what you see in this image. What can you tell about the Persian court from this depiction? Why do you think images such as this were made of the Persian rulers?

The clothing and jewelry suggest wealth. The images were made to promote and record their rule.

Close

Reflect on the transitory nature of the empires built by the Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. What remains of the original empire in each case?

Chapter Summary

Below are examples of how peoples discussed in Chapter 2 utilized their environment and invented new technologies.

1. In a _______________ society, women have fewer privileges and rights than men.

2. The basic units of Sumerian civilization were _______________.

3. If citizens believe their city is ruled by gods, they might call their government a _______________.

4. A _______________ was a government official directly responsible to the Pharaoh.

5. An administrative organization with officials and regular procedures is known as a _______________.

Insert the key term that best completes each of the following sentences.

Using Key Terms


patriarchal

city-states

theocracy

vizier

bureaucracy

Geography How was the spring flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers both beneficial and harmful?

Reviewing Key Facts

It was beneficial in that it created fertile land for farming. It was harmful in that it could cause catastrophic damage.



Reviewing Key Facts



Science and Technology When was the wheel invented? Explain at least one way in which the invention of the wheel affected the Mesopotamian economy.

The wheel was invented around 3000 B.C. The wheel made it easier to transport people and goods.

Reviewing Key Facts



History Name at least four reasons why the Assyrians were good at conquering others.

The Assyrians were effective military leaders; had a large, disciplined army; used war chariots for shooting arrows; and used iron weapons.

Reviewing Key Facts



Culture What religion began in the Persian Empire? How was it similar to the Jewish religion?

Zoroastrianism began in the Persian empire. It was monotheistic.

Reviewing Key Facts



Science and Technology Who were the first Indo-Europeans to use iron? In what way was the use of iron advantageous to this group of people?

The Hittites were the first Indo-Europeans to use iron. The use of iron allowed them to create stronger and cheaper weapons, allowing them to create an empire.

Critical Thinking



Interpreting Restate in your own words the meaning of William Loftus’s phrase, “the cradle of civilization.”

“The Cradle of civilization” is the place where civilization began.

Critical Thinking



Making Generalizations Identify two projects undertaken by the Egyptians at the direction of Middle Kingdom pharaohs. Explain how these projects would have affected the Egyptian economy.

Draining swampland increased food production. Digging a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea aided trade.



Standardized Test Practice

Directions: Use the map below and your knowledge of world history to choose the best answer to the following question.

How did geography influence both Egypt and Sumeria?

F Geography provided natural borders for protecting these civilizations.

G Floods from nearby rivers irrigated crops.

H Challenges helped people unite and work together.

J The flooding rivers caused people to have a dark outlook on the world.

Test-Taking Tip This question asks for an example of how geography influenced history. Eliminate any answer choices that do not mention anything about geography or geographic features. Then study the map thoroughly and choose from the answer choices that remain.



Standardized Test Practice

Directions: Use the map below and your knowledge of world history to choose the best answer to the following question.

What factors can lead to the decline or fall of a civilization or dynasty?

Weak rulers, foreign invasion, natural disasters, and climate changes can lead to the decline or fall of a civilization or dynasty.



Explore online information about the topics introduced in this chapter.

Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the Glencoe World History Web site. At this site, you will find interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web site, manually launch your Web browser and go to http://wh.glencoe.com

Technology In 1987, scientists from Egypt and the United States used advanced technology to view the remains of an ancient Egyptian boat that had been sealed inside a chamber for 4,600 years. To see inside without excavating and damaging the chamber, the scientists employed a special drill with technology invented for moon exploration. After drilling through the outer rock, they inserted a miniature video camera.Research other techniques used to handle and explore ancient Egyptian remains and report them to your class.

Geography Look at a map of Canaan. The Canaanites settled in Canaan about 3000 B.C. About 1200 B.C., the Israelites conquered and settled in parts of Canaan. Where was Canaan in relation to Egypt and Babylon?

Stelae The first know stelae were tall stones upended and carved. The stele that contained the Code of Hammurabi was approximately seven feet (2.13 m) tall. It is now located in the Louvre Museum, Paris.

The Phoenicians Geography influences the development of civilizations. It is easy to understand why the Phoenicians became maritime traders. Their location also influenced their glassmaking and the purple dye they developed. Glass was made from coastal sand, while the purple dye came from a sea snail.

Tourism

Abu Simbel

Click on a hyperlink to view the corresponding slide.Click on a hyperlink to view the corresponding slide.

Tourism is an important economic activity in Egypt today. The warm, dry climate and magnificent relics from ancient times attract visitors from all over the world.

Abu Simbel One of the impressive temple sites of Ramses II is Abu Simbel, located near the Nile River about 762 miles (1,226 km) south of Cairo. In the 1960’s, the High Dam at Aswan would have flooded the site, but 51 countries contributed funds to move the temples block by block to higher ground further inland.

Code of Hammurabi

Cuneiform


The Code of Hammurabi is the most complete law code known from ancient civilization.

Cuneiform is a wedge-shaped writing. As you read the coming chapters, trace the development of writing from ancient alphabets to the modern-day alphabets used around the world.

It is important to understand how or why an event occurred. What action or situation caused a particular event? What were the effects or consequences of that particular action or situation?

Understanding Cause and Effect

Why Learn This Skill?

This feature can be found on page 65 of your textbook.This feature can be found on page 65 of your textbook.

Understanding cause and effect involves considering how or why an event occurred. A cause is the action or situation that produces an event. An effect is the result or consequence of an action or situation. To identify cause-and-effect relationships, follow these steps:

Learning the Skill

• Identify two or more events or developments. • Decide whether or not one event caused the other. Look

for “clue words” such as because, led to, brought about, produced, as a result of, so that, since, and therefore.

• Identify the outcomes of events.

This feature can be found on page 65 of your textbook.Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.



Learning the Skill



Making a graphic organizer can help you understand cause and effect. Read the passage below and examine the graphic organizer on the following slide:


Unlike the floods on Mesopotamia’s rivers, the flooding of the Nile was gradual and predictable. The river was seen as life-giving, not life-threatening. Whereas massive, state-controlled irrigation and flood control were needed in Mesopotamia, the small villages along the Nile easily managed small irrigation systems that required no state assistance. As a result, Egyptian civilization tended to remain more rural. Many small villages were gathered along a narrow band of land on both sides of the Nile.

Learning the Skill



Practicing the Skill


Make a cause-and-effect diagram for each of the following statements on the following slides. Some of the statements may have more than one cause and effect.


Irrigation and drainage ditches made it possible to grow crops on a regular basis. The resulting abundance of food supplies enabled large numbers of people to live together in cities.


Cause: irrigation and drainage ditches built Effects: crops can be grown on regular basis

abundant food supplies large numbers of people can live together in cities

This feature can be found on page 65 of your textbook.Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.



Under Hammurabi’s code, a son found guilty of striking his father had his hand cut off.




Cause: son strikes father Effect: son’s hand cut off


Akhenaton’s actions in destroying the old gods meant destruction of Egypt itself. The upheavals associated with his religious revolution led to a loss of Egypt’s empire.


Cause: Akhenaton destroys old godsEffects: religious upheaval loss of empire and destruction of Egypt




Read The Cradle of the Human Race on page 36 of your textbook. Then answer the questions on the following slides.


How long ago does this story take place?

The story takes place approximately 150 years ago.

This feature can be found on page 36 of your textbook. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.


How hot was it? Have you ever experienced temperatures this hot?

It was 120 Fahrenheit.



What metaphors are used to indicate that the region Loftus was in was where civilization began?

Metaphors of roots and cradle indicate that he was in the region where civilization began.



Click the image on the right to listen to an excerpt from page 44 of your textbook. Read the information on page 44 of your textbook. Then answer the questions on the following slides.

This feature can be found on page 44 of your textbook. Click the Speaker button to listen to the audio again.

This feature can be found on page 44 of your textbook. Click the Speaker button to listen to the audio again.

Explain the principle of retribution.

Retribution means repayment. It is the consequence that results from one’s actions.





According to the Code of Hammurabi, what was most highly valued in Mesopotamian society? What was the least valued? Explain your answers.

Social status was most highly valued. Penalties were harshest when the injured party was a noble and least harsh when the injured party was a slave, which suggests that nobles were more highly valued than slaves.



What is the guiding principle in the American criminal justice system? How does this compare with Hammurabi’s justice?

The guiding principle in the American criminal justice system is equality under the law. Under Hammurabi’s code, penalties for crimes varied with social class, and laws favored members of the higher social classes.

Ancient Israel

The primary goal of marriage in ancient Israel was to produce children. Children were the “crown of man.” Sons, in particular, were desired. Daughters would eventually leave the family house; sons carried on the family line. According to the Bible, “sons are olive plants around the table, a reward, like arrows in the hand of a hero; happy the man who has his quiver full of them.

Read the excerpt on pages 58–59 of your textbook and answer the questions on the following slides.

This feature can be found on pages 58–59 of your textbook.This feature can be found on pages 58–59 of your textbook.

Compare and Contrast Compare the upbringing and education of the eldest son in a Jewish family to that of an eldest daughter.

The eldest son received the training needed to take his place as the head of the family. This included instructions in a trade as well as religious instruction centering on study of the Torah. The eldest daughter, like other daughters, would eventually leave the family house for that of her husband. She would be taught by her mother to be a good wife, mother, and housekeeper.

This feature can be found on pages 58–59 of your textbook. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.


Writing about History “The primary goal of marriage in ancient Israel was to produce children.” Explain why this might be. Do you think the primary goal of marriage is the same today?

Possible answer: Children, especially boys, assured the continuation of the family line. Infant mortality rates would have been higher and life expectancies lower than they are today, and there were no fears of overpopulation as there are now.



Ancient Egypt

After viewing “Ancient Egypt,” you should:

Objectives

• Understand the unique social and intellectual attainments of the ancient Egyptians.

• Recognize how ancient Egypt's appreciation of art, language, science, and ethics contributed to one of history's most important civilizations.

• Appreciate how studying history helps us to realize the humanity of people from the distant past.

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Click in the window above to view a preview of the World History video.

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Click in the window above to view a preview of the World History video.

Ancient Egypt

How did the Egyptians’ clothing styles change as they became more prosperous?

As the economy improved, fabric became more sheer, and it was layered and pleated. Decorations such as colorful sashes were added, and elaborate wigs were worn.

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.


Ancient Egypt



How was a person's wealth measured in ancient Egypt?

Because there was no money in Egypt, wealth was determined by how much a person owned, including jewelry, clothing, household furnishings, and land.

Ancient Egypt

Egyptian Expansion, 2000–1100 B.C.

Maps

ChartComparing Life in Mesopotamia and Egypt


Ancient EgyptMap

ChartComparing Life in Mesopotamia and Egypt


Ancient IsraelMap

Charts

Hebrew, Phoenician, and Latin Alphabets

The Ten Commandments


Ancient IsraelMap

Chart

Hebrew, Phoenician, and Latin Alphabets


Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answers.

bricks no wood in the area; steel had not yet been invented

at the top of the structure to get it as

close as possible to the sky, where the people believed the gods lived


Khufu the Washington monument 346 feet


Canaanite to Phoenician to Greek to English

a triangleS


the Assyrian EmpireNineveh Persepolis

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