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Patterns of Democracy - Lijphart

Matthew Mynn, Romina Jermann

13.10.09

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Agenda

• Agenda• Author • Text overview • The Consensus Model • The Majoritarian Model• Critical Analysis • Conclusion

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Author

Arend d‘Angremond Lijphart

Born: 1936 in the Netherlands Nationality: Dutch, American Fields: Political Science

(specializing in comparative politics,

elections and voting systems, democratic institutions etc.)

Institutions: University of California, San Diego Known for: Patterns of Democracy (1999)

(Lijphart classifies 36 democracies…)

Text overview (1)

Patterns of Democracy (Chapters 1-3)

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Majoritarian = Government by a bare majority & in accordance with the majority’s wishes

Consensus = Government by a maximized majority & responsive to a minority

Text overview (2)

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Indicators Majoritarian / Westminster Consensus

1. Executive Single-party majority cabinets

Power-sharing in multi-party coalitions

2. Executive-Legislative Executive dominance Balance of power

3. Party system Two-party system Multiparty system

4. Electoral system Plurality system of elections Proportional representation

5. Interest group Pluralist Corporatist

6. Type of government Unitary and centralized Federal and decentralized

7. Legislature Unicameralism Balanced bicameralism

8. Constitution Flexible Rigid

9. Judicial review Parliamentary sovereignty Constitutional court

10. Central Bank Dependent on executive Independent on executive

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The Consensus Model

Overview:

• Switzerland (as the best example / one exception)

• Belgium (Federal state since 1993)

• European Union (although not a sovereign state)

• Ten Point Criteria

• Exceptions

The Consensus Model - Switzerland

1. Executive power-sharing in broad coalition cabinets:• Coalition of government

• Federal Council (magic formula)

• Additionally: linguistic groups are represented

2. Executive-legislative balance of power• Separation of powers

• Federal Council is powerful but not supreme

3. Multi-party system• Four-party system in Switzerland

• Why multi-party system? Plural society and PR

The Consensus Model - Switzerland

4. Proportional representation:• Votes received translated into Parliamentary seats

• Translation of societal cleavages into party-system cleavages

5. Interest group corporatism• Strong liberal corporatism (business associations are the strong force)

• Prominence of peak associations

6. Federal and decentralized government• Power divided between government and cantons

• One of the world’s most decentralized states

The Consensus Model - Switzerland

7. Strong bicameralism• Special representation to minorities

8. Constitutional rigidity:• Written constitution

• Can only be changed by special majorities

9. Judicial review• Exception!

• Federal Tribunal doesn’t have the right of judicial review

10. Central bank independence• Regarded as one of the strongest central banks

The Consensus Model – Belgium & EU

Belgium: • Linguistic groups are represented in government = Formal requirement Coalition between four and six parties

• BUT: New federal legislature exemplifies relatively weak bicameralism

• BUT: Parliamentary form of government (like the Westminster model)

European Union:• Principal institutions don’t fit the usual classification

• European Commission (executive) is a broad coalition

• 8 officially recognized parties

• BUT: Not yet developed a full-fledged corporatism

• BUT: EU is highly unified and centralized

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The Majoritarian Model

Overview:

• British is the original Model (often cited example / admired)

• UK

• New Zealand

• Barbados

• Ten Point Criteria

• Exceptions

The Majoritarian Model - UK

1. Concentration of executive power in one-party and bare-majority cabinets:

• Cabinet most powerful organ of British government

• Embodiment of Majority rule

• Large minority in the opposition

• Some exceptions

2. Cabinet Dominance:• Parliamentary System – cabinet depends on parliament (H.o.C)

• Executive Dominance – “Elective Dictatorship”

The Majoritarian Model - UK

3. Two-Party System:• 2 dominant Parties: Conservatives & Labour

• “One-Dimensional” – Socioeconomic issues (New Labour)

• Other Differences: Religion, Ethnic, Foreign Policy (EU)

• Never less than 87.5% of vote / 98% of seats in House of Commons

• Other Parties: Liberals / Social Democrats (Liberal Democrats)

4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of elections: • Plurality Method – “First past the post”

• “Manufactured Majorities” – artificially created by the electoral system

• Biggest losers of this system: Liberal Democracts

• Discussion of reform to the system usually end after election…

The Majoritarian Model - UK

5. Interest Group Pluralism:• Free-for-all pluralism: Multiplicity of interest groups vs government

• Uncoordinated & Competitive

• 1980’s Confrontations (Thatcher)

6. Unitary and centralized government:• Centralized State - Limited power of local governments

• Exceptions: Devolution (N.I. / Scotland / Wales)

7. Concentration of legislative power in a unicameral legislature:• Power should be concentrated in a single house or chamber

• UK has two chambers: House of Commons / House of Lords

• However, House of Lords has limited power – delay legislation

The Majoritarian Model - UK

8. Constitutional flexibility:• No written Constitution

• Can be changed by Parliament by regular majorities

9. Absence of judicial review:• Courts cannot test the constitutionality of regular legislation

• Parliament is the ultimate sovereign authority

• Exception: EU (some loss of sovereignty), Human Rights

10. A central bank controlled by the executive:• Bank of England cannot act independently

• Under the control of the cabinet

• Exception: 1997 – Power to set interest rates

The Majoritarian Model – N.Z. & Barbados

New Zealand: (Population size)• Pure two-party system

• Maori minority (Proportional Representation 1992)

• More pluralist Interest Group System than Britain

• Only one Chamber – pure unicameralism

• “Some basic entrenched laws”

• Greater Central Bank independence (1989) – Inflation 2%

Barbados: (Population size)• No manufactured majorities

• Bicameralism / Written constitution / Judicial review / Bank autonomy

• Westminster adapted

Critical Analysis

• Distinction between two types of democracy is not a new invention (Robert G. Dixon 1968) – and others…

• Some Exceptions• Limited amount of countries analysed (in chapters 1-3)• Recent reforms could questions the concept:• Written constitutions, central bank autonomy

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Conclusion

• Very accessible text• Highlights the alternative model (consensus)…• …and shows that pure majoritarian democracies are rare.• Clear criteria to measure the systems (10 Points)• Focus on Democratic Institutions and Rules (10 points)• Cluster: Executive-Parties (1-5) / Federal-unitary dimension (6-10)

• Majoritarian: Exclusive, competitive & adversarial• Consensus: Inclusiveness, bargaining & compromise