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Speaks two different
varieties of the Luyia
language(Lumaragoli, her
L1, and also Lwidakho,
the L1
of her husband’s family).
Speaks Swahili (
formal contacts) n
English(at school)
too.
Many words are
borrowed from swahili
into two varieties of
Luyia; and into Swahili
many words are borrowed
from Arabic / English.
She can carry on a limited conversation
in Luo. a major neighboring
language totally unrelated to her own
language variety, because two of
her sisters are married to Luo men and
she sometimes visits them.
She reads English
news paper n
magazines; and
talks in a
particular
language
according to
situation. E.g.
During shopping
she speaks in
Swahili
depending on
shopkeeper.
Nifreda Mbira is a Kenyan.
When people speaking one
language are in regular
contact with other people
speaking another language,
two things are likely to
happen in the early stages
of this contact.
(1) Some speakers on
both sides will learn how
to say at least
some useful phrases in
the other group’s
language.
(2) One group will actually
take into its language some
words from the other group’s
language to refer
to objects, activities, or
concepts that the other group
has, largely for those
things that are new to the first
group.
Words from one language
appearing in another are
lexical borrowings.
Why call it borrowing? N
three unfortunate
words.
Borrowing: Inaccurate coz not truly borrowed/ not returned.
Established term…that’s why are used here. Borrowing
refers to lexical elements only (not
grammatical) ; Nouns n Verbs (content words).
Interference: Cover term.
Purposeful…Lexical borrowing is a Natural
process.
Loan: Inaccurate. Not truly loaned/ not
returned. Established term.
Motivations for change:In general, we can say that speakers (generally unconsciously) make changes in their languages under the influence of another language for two reasons:
First, those speakers fall under the influence of another language because there is something more “attractive” about that language – the attraction largely being associated with the higher prestige of the speakers of that language or its wider use in the community where both languages are spoken.
Second, certain innately based language universals push speakers in certain directions; To take a quick example that applies to this chapter – across many language pairs, most of the words that are borrowed are nouns. Doesn’t this suggest there may be a universal basis at work?
So, what is LEXICAL
BORROWING?
Donor language.Recipient language.
Incorporating words from one
language to another.
Borrowing as a one way street:
Borrowing is almost entirely one-way,
from the more prestigious language to
the less prestigious one. What counts as
prestige will vary from one era to
another.
when the Norman French
conquered England in
1066,they not only had the
political power, but their
mode of living was
considered more civilized,
more sophisticated.
About half of the words in
the English language today
were borrowed from Latin
or French. New words or
expressions in English are
called neologisms, a word
borrowed from French.
Today, the tables are turned. The
French are embracing English
words, so much so that the
French establishment complains.
This is not a new battle.
More than 30 years ago, the
French Academy barred from its
dictionary the word score in
French sports parlance,
replacing it with la marque while
reluctantly accepting set in
tennis. Overall, it seems to be a
losing battle.
Recently, an American columnist
considered the chances as slim of
stopping French people from
using English. The headline read,
“Stop the spread of English,
‘Bonne chance, mes amis’!”
The process of borrowing: English as an
example of a donor language:All over the world, languages are borrowing words from English for
two main purposes.
(1) The success of English speakers in making advancements in
science and technology, especially from the United States, means
that English becomes the source of words that persons everywhere
use to discuss the fruits of these advancements, such as any
computer-based activities and space-launchings. (2) This success
feeds the view of English as the language of modernity, the
language of cachet.
Thus, English borrowings are entering languages everywhere, and
in more domains than just science and technology.
INNOVATORS and ADOPTERS.
Borrowing can be divided into two categories
Cultural and core borrowing:
•The classical
languages as a
supply source.
•New words that
are home-grown.
•Cultural
borrowing in
reverse.
•Motivations for
borrowing core
lexical items.
•Reverse core
borrowing.
Cultural borrowings are words that fill gaps in the recipient language’s storeof words because they stand for objects or concepts new to the language’s culture. Most common CB’S around the world are versions of English word automobile or carbecause most cultures did not have such motorized vehicles before contact with Western cultures. E.g. words related to computers.
Cultural borrowing
The classical languages as a supply
source:
Many of the technical terms in the
fields of science, medicine, and the law
come from Latin or Greek. David
Crystal (1987: 380) points out that
“[S]cience is in fact the main
birthplace for new words in a
language: in a comprehensive English
dictionary, the vast majority of the
words would be scientific
(or technological) terms.” e.g. word
vitamin comes from Latin word vita
(life), aphasia comes from Greek word
Aphatos.
Same is the case with the field of Law.
New words that are home-grown: Some languages are less inclined to borrow a new word along with a new
object and instead make up words from their own lexical stock for
the new object.
German and Japanese do this much more than English native speakers.
E.g. when the telephone was invented, Germans called it Fernsprecher
(‘far’ +‘speaker’). But today, most Germans simply call a telephone
Telefon although they still use Ferngesprach for a ‘long-distance call’.
People of third world who are anxious to have unique identity of their
language; prefer avoiding borrowing. E.g. Sawahili in Tanzania.
Cultural borrowing in reverse:An opposite process from borrowing is to replace existing borrowings
with native words. That is, for a variety of reasons, but all having to do
with promoting a group’s unique identity, speakers have been known to
rid their languages of borrowings. A famous case is Turkey. When
Turkey became independent of the Ottoman dynasty in the 1920s and
under reforms introduced by Ataturk, Arabic script was replaced by the
Latin alphabet in 1928.
Ataturk also created the Turkish Language Society for the Purification of
the Language which replaced Arabic words with Turkish-based words.
Recent case is of Tamil, replacing sanskrit words from it.
Core Borrowings.
Core borrowings are words that duplicate elements that the recipient
language already has in its word store. They are gratuitous – by
definition, another layer on the cake, because the recipient language
always has viable equivalents.
Then, why are they borrowed? Cultural pressure…language of
prestige etc.
For example, in Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, where both English
and Shona are official languages, native speakers of Shona sometimes
use the English word problem instead of the Shona counterpart,
dambudziko.
The most common core borrowings are discourse markers.
Researches on Shona language speakers have been done;
regarding discourse markers borrowings.
Motivations for borrowing core lexical items:
Two major motivations to borrow a word for which the
recipient
language already has a word.
First bilinguals who use both languages regularly; study
proves French people who regularly n roughly use
English n French, used “ so” more than other groups and
more than those groups who speak English more than
French.
Second, the sheer magnetism of the dominant culture of
the donor language seems to motivate speakers to
borrow core elements.
Reverse core borrowing:
Sometimes core borrowing goes the other way for a few
words. That is, speakers of the dominant language take up
a word or two of a language that is less prestigious in their
eyes.
Temporary residents in another culture; and one can claim
understanding of local culture.
Words from other culture have magic quality.
WHY?
LESS DIRECT BORROWING
THREE INDIRECT BORROWINGS
•Calque or loan
translation.
•Many calques consist
of more than one
word.
•Translation is loaned
not the word.
Phonological shape is
not loaned.
•E.g. English
Skyscraper… French
gratte-ciel which
literally means scratch
sky.
•Loan shifts.
•Phonological form is
borrowed but different
meaning is given from
it’s original.
•Last twenty years
French n German
borrowed English
gerunds, e.g. le
shampooing in French
is name of product not
the process.
•Loan blends n
Hybrids.
•They consist parts
from both
languages , the
donor and recipient
language.
•E.g. English
grandfather is from
French grandpere
and English.
CONCLUSION:
Lexical Borrowing plays vital role in the area of bilingualism; in fact in it’s roots, is hidden the history of bilingualism.