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Prepared for SHP 1313 at UTM Skudai, Johore, MALAYSIA by Siti Rokiah Siwok, srsiwok@gmail.comsrsiwok@gmail.com

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First, a basic question: Is study of leadership important?

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Leadership What is leadership? Who are leaders? What do they do? What are their characteristics? Any difference between effective leaders and ineffective leaders? Do they have similar/different styles of leadership? Etc

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An overview Define what leadership is. Identify traits of effective leaders. Describe behaviors that effective leaders demonstrate. Explain the concepts of contingency, transactional, transformational, and charismatic leadership. Specify the contexts in which various leadership styles are effective Develop your own leadership skills.

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What is leadership?

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What is Leadership? Leadership is the ability to guide a group toward the achievement of goals. Leaders can be formally recognized by the organization, or individuals can emerge as informal leaders within work groups because they have some characteristic that the group members value.

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7 Leader and Leadership Leadership is an influence process that includes any behavior that helps clarify a groups purpose or guides the group to achieve its goals. A leader is a person who is assigned or selected, or emerges from a group, to guide or provide direction towards reaching the groups goal ( Sieler and Beall, 2011 page 431)

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Leadership Many questions are being asked related to leadership, such as: Are leaders born? Are leaders bred/developed?

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Leader emergence It is the idea that people who become leader have traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders.

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Universalist Theories of Leadership Universalist theories look for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders. 1. Great man/woman theory maintains that great leaders are born, not made. 2. Trait theory attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders. Traits are enduring attributes associated with an individuals personality or makeup. (Riggio, 2009)

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Universalist Theories of Leadership Research indicates that extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and emotional stability, in combination, are associated with effective leadership (Bono and Judge, 2004 in Riggio 2009). Possession of flexibility, charisma, and social intelligence are also important for leadership (Riggio, 1986). The major problem with the original trait approach is that it was too general.

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Characteristics of Leaders Leaders have special characteristics. Recent reviews show that : People high in openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and low in neuroticism are more likely to emerge as leaders (Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt, 2002 in Aamodt 2010) High self monitors emerge as leaders more often then low self-monitors. More intelligent

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Characteristics of Leaders Meta-analysis by Youngjohn (1999) found that individual-difference variables were good predictors of leadership performance: Charismatic Dominant Energetic High in self monitoring

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14 Summary of Leadership Characteristics: Leader Emergence Traits Intelligence Openness to experience Extraversion Conscientiousness Emotional stability High self-monitoring Leadership emergence seems to be stable across the life- span

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Traits and leadership: BIG 5 Personality Traits

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Traits and leadership: Intelligence General mental ability, which psychologists refer to as g and which is often called IQ in everyday language, has been related to a persons emerging as a leader within a group. Specifically, people who have high mental abilities are more likely to be viewed as leaders in their environment We should caution, though, that intelligence is a positive but modest predictor of leadership.

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Leadership and EQ In addition to having high IQ, effective leaders tend to have high emotional intelligence (EQ) People with high EQ demonstrate a high level of self- awareness, motivation, empathy, and social skills. According to Goleman ( 1995), what differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes their ability to control their own emotions and understand other peoples emotions, their internal motivation, and their social skills

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Emotional intelligence Goleman (1995) identified the five 'domains' of EQ as: 1. Knowing your emotions. 2. Managing your own emotions. 3. Motivating yourself. 4. Recognising and understanding other people's emotions. 5. Managing relationships 18

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Looking at what leaders do

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Leader Performance/Behaviour Leader performance involves the idea that people who perform well have certain characteristics that poor performing leaders do not. Rather then thinking that a leader emerge, we can look into the performance of the leaders. We see what are the characteristics of leaders who perform well vis--vis those not performing well.

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Behavioral Theories of Leadership Behavioral leadership theories (derived from Ohio State and University of Michigan studies) focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders. The Ohio State Leadership Studies identified two important leader behaviors: Initiating structure (defining, organizing, structuring the work situation). Consideration (showing concern for feelings and needs of followers).

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Behavioral Theories of Leadership The University of Michigan Leadership Studies also identified two important leader behaviors. In task-orientated behaviors, leader behaviors focused on the work task. In relationship-oriented behaviors, leader behaviors focused on maintaining interpersonal relationships on the job. Both types of behaviors have been linked to effective leadership.

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23 Task Versus Person Orientation Person-Oriented Leaders act in a warm, supportive manner and show concern for the employees believe employees are intrinsically motivated Task-Oriented Leaders set goals and give orders believe employees are lazy and extrinsically motivated

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Task oriented leaders Task-oriented leaders see their employees as lazy, extrinsically motivated, undisciplined etc, so task- oriented leaders lead by giving directives, setting goals and making decision without consulting their subordinates. Included in the task oriented leaders are : Task-centred leaders Theory X leaders High initiating structure

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Person oriented leaders Act in a warm, supportive manner and show concern for the employees believe employees are intrinsically motivated

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26 Consequences of Leaders Orientation

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Instruments The orientation of a leader can be measured by several instruments such as: Leadership Opinion Questionnaire ( LOQ) Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

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28 Unsuccessful Leaders (Hogan, 1989) Lack of training Cognitive deficiencies Personality problems paranoid/passive-aggressive high likeability floater narcissist

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29 Unsuccessful Leader Behaviors Shen et al. (2008) Engaging in illegal and unethical behavior Avoiding conflict and people problems Demonstrating poor emotional control (e.g., yelling and screaming) Over-controlling (e.g., micromanaging) Demonstrating poor task performance Poor planning, organization, and communication Starting or passing on rumors or sharing confidential information Procrastinating and not meeting time commitments Failing to accommodate the personal needs of subordinates Failing to nurture and manage talent

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Leadership and Situation

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Interaction between leader and situation Leaders effectiveness not only depends on traits that s/he posses but also on the particular situation in which the leader is in. Several theories ( or models) have emerged to explain the situational nature of leadership.

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32 Interaction Between the Leader and the Situation Situational Favorability Organizational Climate Subordinate Ability Relationships with Subordinates

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Leader and situation: Fiedlers Contingency Model Fiedlers contingency model holds that any leader is effective only in certain situations. Thus Fiedler argue that rather than change the leadership style, leadership training should concentrate on helping people understand their leadership style and manipulate the environment to make a perfect match. Fiedler developed Least Preferred coworker scale ( LPC) Fiedlers ideas supported by researches Fiedlers training : Leader match

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35 LPC The least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale classifies leadership styles. Describe the one person with whom he or she worked the least well with. From a scale of 1 through 8, describe this person on a series of bipolar scales: Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open

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36 Relationship Between LPC Scores and Group Success High LPC Score Low Performance High Performance Low Performance Low LPC Score High Performance Low Performance High Performance LowModerateHigh Situation Favorability

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38 Fielders Contingency Model: Implications The favorableness of leadership situations should be assessed. Candidates for leadership positions should be evaluated using the LPC scale. If a leader is being sought for a particular leadership position, a leader with the appropriate LPC profile should be chosen. If a leadership situation is being chosen for a particular candidate, a situation should be chosen which matches his/her LPC profile.

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Applying Fiedlers Contingency Theory Fill out the LPC Determine whether you are task or relationship oriented. Think of a leadership situation in which you were not optimally effective and/or one in which you excelled Evaluate the situation(s) Does your experience support Fiedlers theory?

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40 Contingency theory: Strengths Supported by a lot of empirical research Looks at the impact of the situation on leaders It is predictive It does not require that people be effective in all situations It provides a way to assess leader style that could be useful to an organization

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41 Contingency Theory: Weaknesses There is some doubt whether the LPC is a true measure of leadership style It is cumbersome to use Doesn't explain what to do when there is a mismatch between style and situation Other situational variables, like training and experience, have an impact in a leader's effectiveness

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Leader and situation: IMPACT Theory

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Leader and situation: IMPACT IMPACT theory, developed by Geier, Downey and Johnson (1980). Leaders have 6 behaviour styles : informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive and tactical. Each style is effective with only one particular situation or organizational climate.

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IMPACT THEORY Informational style in climate of ignorance Magnetic style in a climate of despair Position style in a climate of instability Affiliation style in a climate of anxiety Coercive style in a climate of crisis Tactical style in a climate of disorganization

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IMPACT THEORY: STRATEGIES Find a climate consistent with your leadership style Change your leadership style to better fit the climate Change your followers perception of the climate Change the actual climate

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Leader and situation: Path-goal Theory Leaders who can adapt their behaviour to match the needs of their subordinates will be more effective than leaders who stick to one leadership style ( Foster, 1999, in Aamodt, 2010) According to the path-goal theory ( House, 1971, in Aamodt, 2010), a leader can adopt one of the leadership styles to manage different situations: Instrumental/Directive Supportive Participative Achievement -oriented

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Path-goal Theory Each style will work in certain situations and also depends on the subordinates abilities and the extent the task is structured. The higher the level of subordinates abilities, the less directive the leader should be. On the contrary, the less structured the situation, the more directive will the leader be ( Schriesheim and DeNisi, 1981 in Aamodt 2010)

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Path-goal Theory In addition, according to this theory, a leader should : Recognize the needs of subordinates and work to satisfy those needs. Reward subordinates who reach their goals. Help subordinates identify the best paths to take in reaching particular goals. Clear those paths so that employees can reach their goals. As path-goal theory is behaviour based, the theory could be used in training.

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Path-Goal Theory

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Path-Goal Theory: Leadership Behaviours Directive leadership leader gives instructions, expectations, time lines, and performance standards Supportive Leadership- leader is friendly and approachable, attends to the well being of subordinates, and treats everyone as equals Participative Leadership- leader invites subordinates to give ideas, share opinions and integrates their suggestions into the decision making process Achievement-Oriented Leadership- leader challenges subordinates to perform at the highest level possible. Leader has high standards of excellence and seeks continuous improvement.

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Path-Goal Theory: Subordinate Characteristics Need for affiliation- prefer supportive leadership Preferences for structure prefer directive leadership Desires of control- prefer participative leadership Self-perceived level of task ability- prefer achievement orientated leadership

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Path-Goal Theory Pros Helps understand how leader behavior effects subordinates satisfaction and work performance Deals directly with motivation one of the only theories to address this Provides a very practical model make a clear path and follow it

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Path-Goal Theory Cons This is a very complex theory that incorporates many aspects of leadership. Research only partially supports the theory. Fails to explain adequately the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate motivation Treats leadership as a one way street, places a majority of the responsibility on the leader.

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Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)

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Leader and situation: Situational leadership theory Developed by Hersey and Blanchard (1988), a leader uses four leadership styles : Delegating Directing Supporting Coaching

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Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)

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Leader and situation: LMX (VDL)

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LMX is another leadership theory and was originally called vertical dyad linkage ( VDL) theory. The uniqueness of this theory is the focus on interaction between,leaders and subordinates. These interactions are called leader-member exchanges ( LMX). The idea originates from the relationship between two people( dyad) whereby the leader is in the position above the subordinate ( vertical) plus their interrelated behaviours ( linkage). Hence VDL.

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60 Relationships with Subordinates Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory Concentrates on the interactions between leaders and subordinates Subordinates fall into either the: in-group out-group In-group employees More satisfied Higher performance Less likely to leave

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory The leader-member exchange model asserts that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between leaders and particular group members. Leader-member exchange can range from low quality to high quality. With high quality leader-member exchange, there is frequent, positive communication between leaders and members.

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62 Other Leadership Styles

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Charismatic Leadership Theory Charismatic leadership theory states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired. Charismatic leaders communicate shared group goals and convey confidence in their own abilities and those of followers. Charismatic leaders are most effective when goals are unclear and situational conditions are unstable. Some researchers suggest that charismatic leaders possess exceptionally high-quality social skills and an ability to inspire followers at a deep emotional level (Riggio, 1987).

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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Self Confidence- They have complete confidence in their judgment and ability. A vision- This is an idealized goal that proposes a future better than the status quo. The greater the disparity between idealized goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision to the leader. Ability to articulate the vision- They are able to clarify and state the vision in terms that are understandable to others. This articulation demonstrates an understanding of the followers needs and, hence acts as a motivating force.

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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Strong convictions about vision- Charismatic leaders are perceived as being strongly committed, and willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve their vision. Behavior that is out of the ordinary- Those with charisma engage in behavior that is perceived as being novel, unconventional, and counter to norms. When successful, these behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in followers.

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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Perceived as being a change agent- Charismatic leaders are perceived as agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo. Environmental sensitivity- These leaders are able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change.

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What it means to be a leader: Specific Leader Skills

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68 Leadership Through Decision Making Vroom-Yetton Model

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69 Leadership Through Contact Management by walking around

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70 Leadership Through Power Expert Power Legitimate Power Reward Power Coercive Power Referent Power

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Leadership Styles, Behaviour and Power Leadership can also be classified according to the extent power is given to the group members. Theoretically, there are three different styles: 1. Autocratic: Keep control 2. Democratic: Share control 3. Laissez-Faire: Give up control

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Autocratic Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone else High degree of dependency on the leader Can create de-motivation and alienation of staff May be valuable in some types of business where decisions need to be made quickly and decisively

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Democratic Encourages decision making from different perspectives leadership may be emphasised throughout the organisation Consultative: process of consultation before decisions are taken Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade others that the decision is correct

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Democratic May help motivation and involvement Workers feel ownership of the firm and its ideas Improves the sharing of ideas and experiences within the business Can delay decision making

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Laissez-Faire Let it be the leadership responsibilities are shared by all Can be very useful in businesses where creative ideas are important Can be highly motivational, as people have control over their working life Can make coordination and decision making time-consuming and lacking in overall direction Relies on good team work Relies on good interpersonal relations

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Types of Leadership Style: Paternalistic Leader acts as a father figure Paternalistic leader makes decision but may consult. Believes in the need to support staff.

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77 Leadership Through Vision Transformational Leadership Visionary Charismatic Inspirational Challenge the status-quo Carefully analyze problems Confident and optimistic

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Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership focuses on the leaders ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future of the work group. There are four components of transformational leadership. Idealized influence: the transformational leader is a positive role model. Inspirational motivation: the leader inspires followers by providing a compelling vision of a positive future. Intellectual stimulation: followers curiosity and creativity are stimulated and challenged. Individualized consideration: the leader pays personal attention to each members needs and concerns.

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Transactional vs Transformational leaders Transactional Leaders Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishment Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action. Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met Laissez faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions

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Transactional vs Transformational leaders Transformational Leaders Charisma : Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect trust. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulations: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

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Summary of leadership theories TheoryComponentsModel type Great man-great women theory Effective leaders are born, not made Descriptive Trait theoryCommon traits to all effective leaders Descriptive Theory X, theory YTwo types of leaders: traditional and non- traditional Descriptive Fiedlers Contingency theory Leader must be matched to situational characteristics Predictive Path goal theoryLeader must play roles to help groups attain goals Descriptive-predictive

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Summary of leadership theories TheoryComponentsModel type Vroom Yetton Decision Making Model Leader asks situation-related questions before choosing decision-making style Prescriptive Leader-member exchangeFocuses on quality of leader- member relationship Descriptive- predictive Transformational leadership Leaders inspire and provides vision for followers Descriptive Charismatic leadershipFollowers drawn to exceptional characteristics possessed by leader Descriptive

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Applications of Leadership Theories Leadership training can follow two general approaches. Teaching leaders diagnostic skills for assessing situations to determine types of leader behaviors that work best. Teaching leaders specific skills or behaviors that they lack. A combination of both approaches is likely to be most effective.

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Please read more and it will get more interesting..

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References Aamodt, M.G (2010). Industrial and organizational psychology. An applied approach (6 th ed) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Riggio, R. E. ( 2009). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (5 th ed). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Northouse, P.G. (2007) Leadership Theory and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA. http://www.flatworldknowledge.com http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/t rait-theory.htm