Prepared by: Nizar HANI - UNESCO Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 2 ABSTRACT The...

MAB YOUNG SCIENTISTS AWARDS

Sustainable Territorial Management and Action Plan

Shouf Biosphere Reserve - Development Zone with focus on

Abandoned Terraces

Lebanon

Prepared by: Nizar HANI

July 2015

Nizar Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Study has been done for my thesis in Master in Agro-Marketing (M2) at the

Lebanese University - Department of Agriculture, with the support UNESCO Youth

Scientists program as well as many individuals for their contribution, comments,

suggestions and sharing their experiences.

Dr. Salwa Tohmé Tawk who directed this study and without her guidance that study

could not reach its final destination.

Marco, Rosa and Pedro, Spanish ecosystem restoration experts, who took my attention to

be more interested in ecological restoration mainly abandoned terraces.

My colleagues in the Shouf Biosphere Reserve especially Kamal Abou Assi who helped

me to prepare the GIS maps for this study and Mounzer Abou Wadi who is the best in

implementing restoration activities in the field and Mr. Faisal Abu-Izzeddine who is the

senior expert and the god father of the Reserve.

Tawfik Abou Alwan and Raed Zaidan who provided all their experience as professional

farmers and heading the agriculture cooperatives in Barouk and Mrusti villages.

Finally, the big thanks to my beloved family Suzan, Roy and Rim for their patient and

staying at home in the weekends and holidays to complete this study.


ABSTRACT

The study aims to assess the restoration of abandoned terraces in the Shouf area by

transforming it into an income generating agriculture activity. The study area is the

western slopes of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR), which is located in the Shouf

district in Mount Lebanon. Four restoration scenarios are proposed and analyzed to

restore the different types of vacant land in the three zones of the SBR (core area, buffer

and development zone). For each scenario different interventions are proposed and

discussed. For the “abandoned terraces” a cost-benefit analysis and net present value is

conducted for added value crops such as oregano, wild rose, sumac, azarole, jujube,

myrtle. The study includes a marketing strategy and proposes a 5 years action plan.

The results show that more than 600 hectares are able to be restored by using the

restoration scenarios which is suggested in this study. The restoration cost of one

irrigated hectare is around USD 20.000 and the annual net revenue is a minimum of USD

13,000 and a maximum of USD 26,000 per year when planted intensive oregano and rain

fed native species. Hence the restoration of the total abandoned terraces in the study area

is able to provide an income ranging between USD 7.8 million and 15.6 million per year.

The new integrated management of the abandoned terraces will enhance the socio-

economic and environmental situation of the region and can be applied on local, national

and regional levels.


خالصة

النظم اإليكولوجية في محمية واإلجتماعية لنشاطات إعادة تأهيل هذه الدراسة تقييم الحالة اإلقتصادية

الشوف المحيط الحيوي التي تقع في منطقة الشوف في جبل لبنان وخاصة األراضي الزراعية

أربع نماذج إلعادة تأهيل النظم اإليكولوجية في . المهجورة وتحويلها إلى مصدر دخل ألصحابها

.حمية، منطقة العزل ومنطقة التنمية()قلب الم ية تم مناقشتها وإقتراحهاالطبقات الثالثة المختلفة للمحم

إقتراح زرعها بأنواع ذات قيمة مضافة مثل الزعتر والزعرور تمألراضي الزراعية المهملة ل

إعداد دراسة الجدوى اإلقتصادية والمنافع اإلجتماعية والسماق والعناب والحنبالس وغيرها ومن ثم

طة تنفيذية مع جدول زمني لمدة خمس لها باإلضافة إلى خطة تسويق للمحاصيل وللمنتجات وخ

الف 20دنم( من األراضي المهملة حوالي 10تار الواحد )كتبلغ تكلفة إعادة تأهيل اله. سنوات

الف 26الف دوالر في السنة ويمكن أن تصل إلى 13دوالر أميركي أما العائدات فتبلغ كحد أدنى

هكتار وعائداتها 600االراضي القابلة إلعادة التأهيل تبلغ مساحتها حوالي .دوالر للهكتار الواحد

هذا النموذج الجديد من إعادة تأهيل . ون دوالر أميركيملي 15،6مليون و 7،8بعد أن يتم تأهيلها بين

النظم اإليكولوجية يستطيع أن يحسن الحالة اإلقتصادية واإلجتماعية والبيئية لمنطقة الدراسة ويمكن

.تطبيقه على المستوى المحلي والوطني واإلقليمي


RÉSUMÉ

L'étude vise à évaluer la restauration de terrasses abandonnées dans la région du Chouf en

les transformant en une activité agricole génératrice de revenus. La zone d'étude est le

versant ouest de la biosphère de la réserve du Chouf ( SBR ), située dans la région du

Chouf au Mont Liban. Quatre scénarios de restauration sont proposés et analysés afin de

restaurer les différents types de terrains vacants dans les trois zones de la SBR (zone

centrale, zone tampon et zone de développement). Pour chaque scénario différentes

interventions sont proposées et discutées. Pour les « terrasses abandonnées " une analyse

coûts-bénéfices et la valeur actuelle nette est calculée pour les cultures à valeur ajoutée

comme l'origan, le rosier sauvage, sumac, azerole, le jujube, le myrte. L'étude comprend

une stratégie de marketing et propose un plan d'action de 5 ans. Les résultats montrent

que plus de 600 hectares sont aptes à être restauré en utilisant les scénarios de

restauration suggérés dans cette étude. Le coût de restauration d'un hectare irrigué est

d'environ USD 20.000 et le revenu net annuel est de 13 000 USD au minimum et 26 000

USD maximum par année pour une plantation intensive et pluviale d’origan d’espèces

indigène. La restauration des terrasses abandonnées total dans la zone d'étude est en

mesure de fournir un revenu compris entre 7,8 millions USD et 15,6 millions par an.

La nouvelle gestion intégrée des terrasses abandonnées permettra d'améliorer la situation

socio -économique et environnemental de la région et peut être appliquée aux niveaux

local, national et régional.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

MAB YOUNG SCIENTISTS AWARDS ........................................................................ 1

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................ 1

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2

3 ................................................................................................................................... خالصة

Résumé ................................................................................................................................ 4

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 5

Abbreviations and acronyms............................................................................................... 7

List of figures ...................................................................................................................... 8

List of tables ........................................................................................................................ 9

List of photos .................................................................................................................... 10

A. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 11

B. General Background ................................................................................................. 15

B.1. Ecosystem restoration ........................................................................................... 15

B.2. Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) ......................................................... 18

B.3. Abandoned terraces: .............................................................................................. 24

C. Shouf Biosphere Reserve background ...................................................................... 27

C.1. Legal status ............................................................................................................ 27

C.2. Site Description: .................................................................................................... 28

C.3. State of the agriculture in Lebanon and the Shouf area ........................................ 46

D. Study area and Methodology .................................................................................... 53

D.1. Description of the study area ................................................................................ 53

D.2. Agriculture challenges in the study area ............................................................... 59

D.3. Description of the four ecosystem restoration scenarios: ..................................... 59

D.4. Problematic ........................................................................................................... 78

D.5. Main objective....................................................................................................... 78

D.6. Methodology: ........................................................................................................ 78

E. Situation Analysis ..................................................................................................... 81

E.1. Actors and Stakeholders ........................................................................................ 81

E.2. Strengths and weaknesses of the agriculture sector: ............................................. 83

E.3. Options proposed for the restoration of the abandoned terraces: .......................... 86

F. Cost benefit analysis for re-planting in the abandoned terraces ............................... 92


F.1. Products ................................................................................................................. 92

F.2. Cost analysis .......................................................................................................... 94

F.3. Net Present Value Criterion for option 2: ............................................................ 100

G. Some marketing Activities : Branding, Packaging and Marketing plan ................. 105

G.1. Initiation of a brand name and packaging for the products ................................. 105

G.2. Development of some Marketing activities for the products and goods........... 109

H. Proposal for a 5 years action plan ........................................................................... 113

I. Limitations .............................................................................................................. 115

J. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 116

K. Recommendations ................................................................................................... 117

L. References: .............................................................................................................. 119

M. Annexes................................................................................................................ 123


ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACS Al-Shouf Cedar Society

AFD French Agency for Development

AUB American University of Beirut

ESDU Environmental Sustainable Development Unit

GDG Gross domestic product

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

FAO Food agriculture organization

GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German

Development Agency)

IDAL The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IMC Istituto Mediterraneo di Certificazione srl (a bio-certification company)

LARI Lebanese Research Agriculture Center

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOE Ministry of Environment

NPV Net present Value

SBR Shouf Biosphere Reserve

SDC Swiss Agency for Development

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

https://www.google.com.lb/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCcQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGross_domestic_product&ei=mGS7U8OZA-WU0AWjn4HoAQ&usg=AFQjCNHrvAphnIzkTxrjRh5jBnsvFeEs7g&bvm=bv.70138588,d.d2k


LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 THE MAP OF THE STUDY AREA INCLUDING THE 10 VILLAGES ............................. 14

FIGURE 2 MAIN TYPES OF ZONE IN BIOSPHERE RESERVES................................................... 21

FIGURE 3 SHOUF BIOSPHERE RESERVE (SBR) ZONING (SOURCE: SBR, 2012) ................... 30

FIGURE 4 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE SHOUF BIOSPHERE RESERVE: JABALEL BAROUK

AND JABAL NIHA. ...................................................................................................... 32

FIGURE 5 THE FOUR TYPES OF LAND USE THAT EXIST IN THE THREE ZONES OF THE STUDY

AREA (SOURCE: THIS STUDY BASED ON SBR ZONING SYSTEM) .................................. 53

FIGURE 6 POPULATION OF THE STUDY AREA DISTRIBUTED IN THE NINE SELECTED

MUNICIPALITIES ......................................................................................................... 54

FIGURE 7 THE SURFACE AREA OF EACH OF THE TEN VILLAGES IN THE STUDY AREA IN

HECTARES (MOE, 1998) ............................................................................................ 55

FIGURE 8 THE MAIN FRUIT TREES SURFACE AREA (M²) AND NUMBER OF FARMERS IN

RESPECTIVE VILLAGES ............................................................................................... 56

FIGURE 9 MAP OF THE AGRICULTURE TERRITORIES IN THE STUDY AREA BASED ON LAND

COVER LAND USE MAP (MOE, 1998). ......................................................................... 58

FIGURE 10 DIRECT SOWING (BY ENRIQUE ENCISO ENCINAS) ............................................ 62

FIGURE 11 SEEDLING PLANTING SKETCH SHOWING THE DEPTH OF THE HOLE (40CM) AND

THE ELEVATION OF THE EDGE (10 CM). BY ENRIQUE ENCISO ENCINAS ...................... 65

FIGURE 12 BRAND NAME LABELS (THE GREEN FOR THE ORGANIC PRODUCTS AND THE

BROWN FOR THE OTHER PRODUCTS) ......................................................................... 106


LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY AREA (ABU-IZZEDDINE F, 2012)....... 41

TABLE 2 LAND TENURE OF THE SBR (ABU-IZZEDDINE F., 2012) ....................................... 44

TABLE 3 THE SURFACE AREA OF EACH OF THE TEN VILLAGES IN THE STUDY AREA IN

SQUARE METERS AND IN HECTARES (MOE, 1998)...................................................... 54

TABLE 4 THE MAIN FRUIT TREES SURFACE AREA AND NUMBER OF FARMERS IN RESPECTIVE

VILLAGES ................................................................................................................... 56

TABLE 5 AGRICULTURE TERRITORIES IN THE STUDY AREA BASED ON LAND COVER LAND

USE MAP (MOE,1998)................................................................................................ 57

TABLE 6 AMOUNT OF SEEDS REQUIRED FOR THE DIRECT SOWING AREA ............................. 62

TABLE 7 SPECIES AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED FOR PLANTING SEEDLINGS .......................... 64

TABLE 8 SPECIES AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED FOR THE FENCE ........................................... 68

TABLE 9 SPECIES AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED FOR THE ABANDONED TERRACES ................ 70

TABLE 10 SPECIES AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED FOR THE VACANT BUILT AREAS ................ 76

TABLE 11 OPTION 1, RAIN FED ECONOMIC SPECIES: SPECIES ............................................. 87

TABLE 12 OPTION 2, INTENSIVE OREGANO PLANTING WITH SOME OTHER RAIN FED

ECONOMIC SPECIES: SPECIES AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED IN THE ABANDONED LAND . 87

TABLE 13 RESPECTIVE PRODUCTS AND VALUE AND/OR USE .............................................. 92

TABLE 14 COST OF THE LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING (OPTION 1) ........................... 94

TABLE 15 EXPECTED REVENUES OF ONE HECTARE FOR THE OPTION 1 ................................ 95

TABLE 16 COST OF LAND PREPARATIONS AND PLANTING FOR OPTION 2 ............................ 97

TABLE 17 ANNUAL EXPENSES FOR OPTION 2 ..................................................................... 97

TABLE 18 REVENUE PER DUNNUM PER YEAR IN L.L. FOR OPTION 2 .................................. 98

TABLE 19 SUMMARY FOR EXPENSES AND REVENUE FOR OPTION 1 AND OPTION 2 ............. 99

TABLE 20 NET PRESENT VALUE FOR THE OREGANO CULTIVATION ................................... 101

TABLE 21 NET PRESENT VALUE FOR THE ADDED VALUE SHRUBS CULTIVATION ............... 102

TABLE 22 NET PRESENT VALUE FOR BOTH CULTIVATION: SHRUBS AND OREGANO ........... 103

Nizar Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 1 0

LIST OF PHOTOS

PHOTO 1 THE WESTERN MOUNT LEBANON RIDGE COVERED BY CEDAR FOREST (BY ALAA

MONZER) ................................................................................................................... 34

PHOTO 2 WILD ROSE IN AIN ZHALTA CEDAR FOREST (BY KAMIL EL RAESS) .................... 36

PHOTO 3 ROCK HYRAX IN NIHA FORTRESS (BY ALAA MONZER) ....................................... 38

PHOTO 4 A MIGRATORY BIRD IN THE RESERVE (BY ALAA MONZER) ................................. 38

PHOTO 5 FAKHER EDDINE /NIHA FORTRESS (BY NIZAR HANI) ........................................... 39

PHOTO 6 LAND USE GENERAL VIEW IN MRUSTI VILLAGE (BY EDDY CHOUERI) ................. 43

PHOTO 7 AN OAK SEEDLING (BY NIZAR HANI) .................................................................. 60

PHOTO 8 FIVE YEARS OLD CEDAR SEEDLING (BY NIZAR HANI ) ......................................... 63

PHOTO 9 A WORKER INSTALLING A FENCE FOR THE FENCED PLOTS IN GRAZING AREAS IN

FRAIDISS VILLAGE (BY MOUNZER ABOU WADI) ........................................................ 66

PHOTO 10 OREGANO PLANTS IRRIGATED WITH DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM (BY NIZAR HANI)

................................................................................................................................... 72

PHOTO 11 THINNING OF DALBOUN OAK FOREST (BY MOUNZER BUWADI) ........................ 73

PHOTO 12 A HILL LAKE IN BAROUK VILLAGE (BY EDDY CHOUEIRI) ................................. 84

PHOTO 13 ABANDONED TERRACES IN BAADARAN VILLAGE (BY NIZAR HANI) .................. 86

PHOTO 14 ABANDONED TERRACES IN KHRAIBEH VILLAGE (BY NIZAR HANI) .................... 90

PHOTO 15 ABANDONED TERRACES IN MRUSTI VILLAGE (BY EDDY CHOUIRI) .................... 90

PHOTO 16 FOG CATCHER IN A RURAL AREA IN CHILE (BY FOGQUEST) .............................. 91

PHOTO 17 LABELING OF THE SHOUF BIOSPHERE RESERVE (BY ALAA MONZER) ............. 105

PHOTO 18 WOODEN BOX FOR RURAL PRODUCT ................................................................ 107

PHOTO 19 BETTER PACKAGING IN USA (TAKEN IN NATURAL FOOD COOP IN VERMONT –

USA (BY NIZAR HANI) ........................................................................................... 108

PHOTO 20 PRACTICAL CUPBOARD MIXING THE FRESH GOODS WITH PROCESSING FOOD... 108

PHOTO 21 FARMER MARKET (SOUK) CONCEPT DESIGN (BY NIZAR HANI) ....................... 110

PHOTO 22 MIDDLEBURY NATURAL FOOD COOP (BY NIZAR HANI) .................................. 111


A. INTRODUCTION

The Shouf is located in the governorate of Mount Lebanon and comprises more than 80

villages and is the third most populous Caza of Mount Lebanon and has 11842 farmers

(Loca Liban, 2013)1 .

The Al-Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve is established in 1996 and in July 2005, UNESCO

declared the Al-Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve a “Biosphere Reserve” called the Shouf

Biosphere Reserve (SBR) with an area of approximately 50,000 hectare - or 5% of the

total area of Lebanon.

The SBR and the municipalities of the region are at the forefront of the movement to

improve the income generating capacity of the area without causing irreversible harm to

its natural resources.

The practice of ecological restoration is many decades old, at least in its more applied

forms, such as erosion control, reforestation, and habitat and range improvement.

However, it has only been in the last 15 years that the science of restoration ecology has

become a strong academic field attracting basic research and being published in indexed

peer-reviewed journals. Associated with this growth has been an increasing desire to

define a scientific identity for restoration ecology and its relationship to ecological

restoration.

Ecological restoration is an important management approach that can, if successful,

contribute to broad societal objectives for sustaining a healthy planet and delivering

essential benefits to people (Petersen, D.A. 2005)2.

The reasons behind implementing restoration projects vary and may include, for example,

recovery of individual species, the strengthening of landscape or seascape-scale

1 Loca Liban website, 2013. www.localiban.org

2 Petersen, D.A. 2005. The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms, page 662.

http://www.localiban.org/


ecosystem function or connectivity, improvement of visitor experience opportunities, or

the re-establishment or enhancement of various ecosystem services (IUCN, 2012)3.

The ecosystem4 in the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, buffer and development zones is

susceptible for degradation on two levels: the ecological and the physical levels. The

main degradation is at the level of the abandoned terraces which is causing environmental

and economic negative impacts. The major impact is the exposure of the uncultivated

bare land to erosion and the economic impact is the loss of agriculture lucrative

production.

Agricultural land abandonment is a complex phenomenon involving both economic and

social parameters. That the majority of abandoned lands are found in the mountainous

areas is attributable to their marginality, caused by reduced soil fertility, remoteness from

settlements, sleep slopes, high farm fragmentation, high labor requirements, making their

exploitation unprofitable. Another problem is the migration of the young people from

rural to urban areas or their unwilling to take up farming (Tsoumas and Tasioulas 19865,

McDonald et all, 20006).

The main objective of the present study is the socio-economic assessment of the

ecosystem restoration with a focus on abandoned terraces by rehabilitating and

transforming it into an income generating agriculture activity.

Restoration in and around protected areas contributes to many societal goals and

objectives associated with biodiversity conservation and human well-being.

3 IUCN, 2012. Ecological Restoration for Protected Areas, Principles, Guidelines and Best Practices.

4 An ecosystem is a complex relationship among the living resources, habitats and residents of the area. It

includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil and people. 5 Tsoumas, A., and D. Tasioulas. 1986. Ownership status and use of agricultural land in Greece.

Agricultural Bank of Greece, Athens 6 McDonald, D., J.R. Grabtree, G. Wiesinger, T.Dax, N. Stamu, P. Fleury and A Gibon, 2000. Agricultural

abandoned in mountain areas of Europe: Environmental consequences and policy response. Journal of

environmental management 59: 47-69


The present study is based on existing restoration scenarios for restoring land in the three

zones of the study area in the SBR (core area, buffer and development zones). For each

scenario different interventions are proposed and discussed. For the “abandoned terraces”

a cost-benefit analysis and net present value is conducted for added value crops including

a marketing strategy and a 5 years action plan.

The SBR comprises twenty two villages. It also includes two protected areas: Al-Shouf

Cedar Reserve and Ammiq Wetland. In the scope of this study we will only concentrate

on the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR) western side which comprises the following ten

villages: Ain Zhalta, Barouk, Fraidiss, Maasser, Batloun, Khraibeh, Baadaran, Mrusti,

Jbaa and Niha (Figure 1). That part of the SBR is representing the different ecosystems in

the Reserve and all Mount Lebanon that stretches between 800 and 2000 meters above

sea level.


Figure 1 The map of the Study Area including the 10 villages

(Ain Zhalta, Barouk, Fraidiss, Batloun, Maasser, Khraibeh, Baadaran, Mrusti, Jbaa, Niha) – GIS map prepared for the study by Kamal Abou Assi in June 2014


B. GENERAL BACKGROUND

B.1. ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

An ecosystem is a complex relationship among the living resources, habitats and

residents of the area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms,

water, soil and people.

E. O. Wilson, a biologist states that: "Here is the means to end the great extinction spasm.

The next century will, I believe, be the era of restoration in ecology" (Wilson E.O.,

1998)7

The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) in 2004 defined the Ecosystem / Ecological

restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been

degraded, damaged, or destroyed (IUCN, 2012)8.

There are many reasons to restore ecosystems (Harris et al. 20069, Macdonald, 2002

10):

Restoring natural capital such as drinkable water or wildlife populations.

Mitigating climate change (e.g. through carbon sequestration)

Helping threatened or endangered species

Recovery of individual species

Aesthetic reasons

Moral reasons: we have degraded, and in some cases destroyed, many ecosystems so

it falls on us to ‘fix’ them

Strengthening of landscape or seascape-scale ecosystem function or connectivity

Improvement of visitor experience opportunities, or the re-establishment or

enhancement of various ecosystem services

7 Wilson, E. O., 1988. Biodiversity. Washington DC: National Academy. ISBN 0-309-03739-5

8 IUCN, 2012. Ecological Restoration for Protected Areas, Principles, Guidelines and Best Practices

9 Harris, J.A., Hobbs, R.J, Higgs, E. and Aronson, J. (2006) Ecological restoration and global climate

change. Restoration Ecology 14(2) 170 - 176 10

Macdonald, 2002. The ecological context: a species population perspective. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0309037395


Restoration in and around protected areas contributes to many societal goals and

objectives associated with biodiversity conservation and human well-being (IUCN,

2012)11

.

Restoration ecology is the field of science associated with ecological restoration.

The practice of ecological restoration is many decades old, at least in its more applied

forms, such as erosion control, reforestation, and habitat and range improvement.

However, it has only been in the last 15 years that the science of restoration ecology has

become a strong academic field attracting basic research and being published in indexed

peer-reviewed journals. Associated with this growth has been an increasing desire to

define a scientific identity for restoration ecology and its relationship to ecological

restoration.

Ecological restoration is an important management approach that can, if successful,

contribute to broad societal objectives for sustaining a healthy planet and delivering

essential benefits to people (Petersen, D.A. 2005)12

. It offers hope of repairing ecological

damage, renewing economic opportunities, rejuvenating traditional cultural practices, and

enhancing ecological and social resilience to environmental change.

The nine attributes listed below provide a basis for determining when restoration has

been accomplished. The full expression of all of these attributes is not essential to

demonstrate restoration. Instead, it is only necessary for these attributes to demonstrate an

appropriate trajectory of ecosystem development towards the intended goals or reference.

Some attributes are readily measured. Others must be assessed indirectly, including most

ecosystem functions, which cannot be ascertained without research efforts that exceed the

capabilities and budgets of most restoration projects.(SER, 2004)13

11

IUCN, 2012. Ecological Restoration for Protected Areas, Principles, Guidelines and Best Practices 12

Pestersen, D.A. 2005. The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored

realms, page 672. 13

Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group, 2004. The SER

International Primer on Ecological Restoration. www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration

International.


1. The restored ecosystem contains a characteristic assemblage of the species that occur

in the reference ecosystem and that provide appropriate community structure.

2. The restored ecosystem consists of indigenous species to the greatest practicable

extent.

3. All functional groups necessary for the continued development and/or stability of the

restored ecosystem are represented or, if they are not, the missing groups have the

potential to colonize by natural means.

4. The physical environment of the restored ecosystem is capable of sustaining

reproducing populations of the species necessary for its continued stability or

development along the desired trajectory.

5. The restored ecosystem apparently functions normally for its ecological stage of

development, and signs of dysfunction are absent.

6. The restored ecosystem is suitably integrated into a larger ecological matrix or

landscape, with which it interacts through abiotic and biotic flows and exchanges.

7. Potential threats to the health and integrity of the restored ecosystem from the

surrounding landscape have been eliminated or reduced as much as possible.

8. The restored ecosystem is sufficiently resilient to endure the normal periodic stress

events in the local environment that serve to maintain the integrity of the ecosystem.

9. The restored ecosystem is self-sustaining to the same degree as its reference

ecosystem, and has the potential to persist indefinitely under existing environmental

conditions.

Finally, the rehabilitation of the Loess Plateau in China witnessed on the land change

from a fundamentally degraded system into a system that is stimulating the growth of

vast amounts of biomass, accumulating organic matter in the soil, protecting and creating

new habitat for biodiversity and naturally in filtrating and retaining rainfall. The results

have exceeded even the designer’s expectations and have shown that it is possible to

rehabilitate large scale damaged ecosystems. By bringing scientists, technicians and

managers into the local communities the Chinese essentially helped transition poor, often


illiterate subsistence agriculturalists to a new paradigm within one generation (John D

Liu, 2011)14

.

B.2. MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME (MAB)

According to UNESCO website the MAB launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the

Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an Intergovernmental Scientific Programme that aims to

establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their

environments. It proposes interdisciplinary research, demonstration and training in

natural resources management.

The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves defined the

Biosphere Reserves as “areas of terrestrial and Coastal/marine ecosystems or a

combination thereof, which are internationally recognized within the framework of

UNESCO’s programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB)”.

Its World Network of Biosphere Reserves currently counts 631 biosphere reserves in

119 countries all over the world

The MAB Programme develops the basis within the natural and social sciences for the

rational and sustainable use and conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the

improvement of the overall relationship between people and their environment. It predicts

the consequences of today’s actions on tomorrow’s world and thereby increases people’s

ability to efficiently manage natural resources for the well-being of both human

populations and the environment. (UNESCO, 1996)15

By focusing on sites internationally recognized within the World Network of Biosphere

Reserves, the MAB Programme strives to:

- identify and assess the changes in the biosphere resulting from human and natural

activities and the effects of these changes on humans and the environment, in

particular in the context of climate change

14

John D Liu, 2011. The Changing Nature of Human Security, Finding sustainability in Ecosystem

restoration, page 21. 15

UNESCO, 1996. Biosphere reserves: the Seville Strategy and the Framework Statutory of the World

Network. UNESCO, Paris. Page 5

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/world-network-wnbr/



- study and compare the dynamic interrelationships between natural/near-natural

ecosystems and socio-economic processes, in particular in the context of

accelerated loss of biological and cultural diversity with unexpected consequences

that impact the ability of ecosystems to continue to provide services critical for

human well-being;

- ensure basic human welfare and a livable environment in the context of rapid

urbanization and energy consumption as drivers of environmental change;

- promote the exchange and transfer of knowledge on environmental problems and

solutions, and to foster environmental education for sustainable development.

B.2.1: MAB Governing Bodies

The main MAB governing body, the International Coordinating Council of the Man and

the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, usually referred to as the MAB Council or ICC,

consists of 34 Member States elected by UNESCO's biennial General Conference.

B.2.2: Biosphere Reserves – Learning Sites for Sustainable Development

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under

UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable

development based on local community efforts and sound science.

As places that seek to reconcile conservation of biological and cultural diversity and

economic and social development through partnerships between people and nature, they

are ideal to test and demonstrate innovative approaches to sustainable development from

local to international scales.

Biosphere reserves are thus globally considered as:

sites of excellence where new and optimal practices to manage nature and human

activities are tested and demonstrated;

tools to help countries implement the results of the World Summit on Sustainable

Development and, in particular, the Convention on Biological Diversity and its

Ecosystem Approach;

learning sites for the UN Decade on Education for Sustainable Development.

http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/sc_mab_members_icc2013_en.pdf

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/man-and-biosphere-programme/

https://connect.unesco.org/,DanaInfo=.awxyCntnhvwo3n75v8.452CV.D5+

https://connect.unesco.org/,DanaInfo=.awxyCntnhvwo3n75v8.452CV.D5+

https://connect.unesco.org/,DanaInfo=.awxyCggjGqw3+

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/


After their designation, biosphere reserves remain under national sovereign jurisdiction,

yet they share their experience and ideas nationally, regionally and internationally within

the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) (Ishwaran et al, 2008)16

.

B.2.3: Main Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves

The main characteristics of biosphere reserves are (Barisse M., 1986)17:

Achieving the three interconnected functions: conservation, development and logistic

support;

Outpacing traditional confined conservation zones, through appropriate zoning

schemes combining core protected areas with zones where sustainable development is

fostered by local dwellers and enterprises with often highly innovative and participative

governance systems;

Focusing on a multi-stakeholder approach with particular emphasis on the involvement of

local communities in management;

Fostering dialogue for conflict resolution of natural resource use;

Integrating cultural and biological diversity, especially the role of traditional knowledge

in ecosystem management;

Demonstrating sound sustainable development practices and policies based on research

and monitoring;

Acting as sites of excellence for education and training;

Participating in the World Network.

16

Ishwaran, N., Persic, A. and Tri, N.H. 2008. ‘Concept and practice: the case of UNESCO biosphere

reserves’, Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development.

17

Batisse, M., 1986. ‘Developing and focusing the biosphere reserve concept’, Nature and resources.

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/main-characteristics/functions/

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/main-characteristics/zoning-schemes/

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/main-characteristics/zoning-schemes/

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001591/159164e.pdf

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biodiversity-and-climate-change/science-and-research-for-management-and-policy/

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/capacity-building-and-partnerships/



B.2.4: Zoning

Thus each biosphere reserve includes three types of interdependent zone:

1- A central (core) area which has a

legal status in the law of the country

concerned that provides for long-term

protection of the countryside, the

ecosystems, and the plant and animal

species found there. This may be

divided into several sub-units. It must

be large enough to ensure the

preservation of all these elements, and

may even constitute the reserve as a whole. It could also consist of an ecosystem evolving

without Man's intervention. Others may have only a limited level of human activity:

research and education for example, or traditional activities such as grazing that help

maintain biodiversity.

2- The buffer zone will normally be adjacent to or surround the core area, thus

contributing to its preservation. Only activities causing little disruption are allowed in this

zone. These include research aimed at developing techniques for the use of the natural

resources that respect the area's biodiversity, or for improving the management or

rehabilitation of ecosystems.

3- The transition (or development) area will normally include human activities, villages

and towns. The economic and social activities that are intended to provide sustainable

development for the benefit of the population will normally be sited there (MAB France,

2011)18

.

18

MAB France, 2011. Octavius on Biosphere Reserves.

Figure 2 Main types of zone in biosphere reserves. Diagram taken from the booklet, "Octavius on Biosphere Reserves"

published by MAB France, 2011© Octavius, MAB France


B.2.5: Provision of Ecosystem Services

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) has articulated and described ecosystem

services in a manner that has gained widespread acceptance among public and private

sector and civil society organizations. The new MA typology recognizes four distinct

categories of services: supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation and primary

production); provisioning (food, fresh water, wood and fibre and fuel); regulating

(climate, flood and disease regulation and water purification) and cultural (aesthetic,

spiritual, educational and recreational).

Ecosystem services could be a useful conceptual framework to superimpose on the

multiple functions of biosphere reserves ranging from protection to production in

land/seascapes. The essence of biosphere reserves as sustainable development sites could

be seen as the effort to design and develop place-specific mixes of supporting,

provisioning, regulating and cultural

Ecosystem services that enable the environmental, economic and social well-being of

resident and stakeholder communities. For example, the various zones of biosphere

reserves can serve as places to attract new investments into hitherto neglected services

(climate regulation, water purification, biodiversity conservation) and improve

environmental and social performance of provisioning (agriculture, forestry, fisheries)

and cultural (tourism) services that may have been the principal recipients of investments

to-date. Active and continuing consultations between the scientific and research

communities, policy and decision makers, resource managers and resident populations in

a biosphere reserve are critical in finding the optimal mix of ecosystem services that

would illustrate the role of biosphere reserves as models for land/seascape level

sustainable development at the national, regional and global levels.


B.2.6: Urbanization As a Principal Driver for Ecosystem-wide Pressure

Urbanization is a global multidimensional process that manifests itself through rapidly

changing and spatially shifting population densities, in particular migration from rural to

urban zones, land cover and resource use regimes and a diversity of associated cultural

practices. (UNESCO, 2010)19

Half of the world’s population today lives in urban landscapes, a proportion projected to

increase to 66–67% over the next 50 years. Most of this growth will occur in countries

that constitute the less industrialized and emerging market economies of the world. It is

estimated that by 2030 more than two billion people will be living in urban slums with

limited access to basic services, facing extreme vulnerability to natural disasters. The

rapid increase of large cities and the continuing transformation of urban landscapes

represent great challenges to ensure basic human welfare and a liveable environment.

Urban landscapes represent probably the most complex mosaic of land cover and

multiple uses of any landscape. Urbanization and urban landscapes have recently been

identified by the MA as priority areas where large knowledge gaps exist. Urban

landscapes provide important large-scale experiences of the effects of global

change on ecosystems; significant warming and increased nitrogen deposition are already

evident and they provide extreme, visible and measurable examples of human domination

of ‘natural’ ecosystem processes. However, cities are also perceived as places offering

solutions for humans and the environment as main hubs of knowledge, capital and

innovations.

A number of urban areas are either considering, or have applied, the biosphere reserve

principles within their jurisdictions, with the intention of using the concept as a tool for

planning and managing sustainable urban development.

19

UNESCO, 2010. Madrid Action Plan 2008-2013. Pages 6-7


B.3. ABANDONED TERRACES:

Land use change is a complex phenomenon. Houghton (1991)20

recognized seven broad

types of land use change:

1- Conversion of natural ecosystems for permanent croplands

2- Conversion of natural ecosystems for shifting cultivation

3- Conversion of natural ecosystems to pastures

4- Abandonment of croplands

5- Abandonment of pastures

6- Harvest of timber

7- Establishment of tree plantations

In addition, the urbanization is a factor that is growing in importance and likely to lead to

the conversion of both natural and agriculture systems. This factor exists strongly in the

study area of this study.

Land abandonment has been a feature of humanity’s relationship with the world’s

ecosystems for as long as history has been recorded. The past civilizations have

developed agriculture systems that were subsequently abandoned for one reason or

another (Diamond 2005)21

. Generally, the ancient agriculture system was relatively

localized and did not cover large areas of land; it grows to dominate the planet and its

ecosystems (Vitousek at al, 1997)22

. The trends of land use land cover over the last few

decades is one of continuing deforestation and transformation of the earth ‘ecosystems,

there is also a growing trend of abandonment of systems that were previously managed

intensively (Richard et al, 2007)23

.

Old terraces are important ecosystems across the globe. The extent of abandoned land is

increasing rapidly. While we frequently see a focus on deforestation and land

transformation, there is a growing trend for transformed land to be abandoned.

Development of woody vegetation on abandoned terraces has the potential to contribute

20

Houghton, R.A. 1991. Tropical deforestation and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Climate Change 19 21

Diamond, J.M. 2005. Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking Pengium, New York. 22

Vitousek, P.M., H.A. Mooney, J. Lubchenco and J. Melillo, 1997. Human domination of Earth’s

ecosystems. Science 277, page 494 23

Richard J. Hobbs, 2007. Why old fields? Socioeconomic and ecological causes and consequences of land

abandonment. Page 1


in a positive way to carbon accounting, providing fast-growing carbon sink. The

socioeconomic consequence of the land abandonment is accompanied by, or leads to,

rural depopulation, loss of traditional industries and reduced income from tourism

(Richard J, 2007)24

. Old terraces are a term used in ecology to describe lands formerly

cultivated or grazed but later abandoned. The dominant flora

includes grasses, heaths and herbaceous plants, with encroaching woody vegetation. It

represents an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem

advancing towards its climax community. The concept of climax communities has been

challenged in recent years

Agriculture land is abandoned when it ceases to generate an income for its owners and

the opportunities for adjustment through changes in farming practices and farm structure

are exhausted (McDonald et al, 2000)25

. Such adjustments is particularly difficult in

marginal lands, where productivity levels are close to the margin beyond which

management and risks are not compensated by the profit obtained with production (Pinto

Correia, 1993)26

. However, land abandonment can also take place by abrupt suspension

of the farming activity, by displacement because of the civil war or by death or retirement

of a farmer without succession (Viki A.Cramer and Richard J.Hobbs, 2007)27

.

The agriculture land abandonment involving both economic and social parameters. That

the majority of abandoned lands are found in the mountainous areas is attributable to their

marginality, caused by reduced soil fertility, remoteness from settlements, steep slopes,

high farm fragmentation, high labor requirements, making their exploitation unprofitable.

24

Richard J. Hobbs, 2007. Why old fields? Socioeconomic and ecological causes and consequences of land

abandonment. Page 1 25

McDonald, D., J.R. Grabtree, G. Wiesinger, T.Dax, N. Stamu, P. Fleury and A Gibon, 2000. Agricultural


environmental management 59: 47-69 26

Pinto Correia, T. 1993. Land abandonment: Changes in the land use patterns arounf the Mediterranean

basin. Soils in the Mediterranean regions: use, management, and future trend. 27

Viki A. Cramer and Richard J. Hobbs, 2007. Old fields, Dynamics and Restoration of Abandonment

Farmland.


Another problem is the migration of the young people from rural to urban areas or their

unwilling to take up farming (McDonald et all, 2000)28

.

The Abandoned terraces are a common agriculture feature in the study area. A great part

of the study area has been terraced in the past in order to create arable land on steep

slopes for cultivation of cereals, wine and fruit trees. Very few of the terraces are still

cultivated but not with cereals. Few of them are still use for vineyards, olives and fruit

trees. However, even these cultivations are not regularly taken care of, and no repairs for

the old stone walls are done, resulting in their collapse and subsequent washing

downslope of the terraced soil. The main use of these terraces is free grazing by

livestock, and that is a part of the grazing zoning system of the SBR (Abi-Said M.,

2010)29

.

28

McDonald, D., J.R. Grabtree, G. Wiesinger, T.Dax, N. Stamu, P. Fleury and A Gibon, 2000. Agricultural


environmental management 59: 47-69

29

Abi Said M., 2010. Grazing Assessment Report, Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve.


C. SHOUF BIOSPHERE RESERVE BACKGROUND

C.1. LEGAL STATUS

C.1.1 National and International Standing

Government legislation, Law No. 532 of 24 July 1996 declared “The communal lands of

Ain Dara, Bmohray, Ain Zhalta, Barouk / Fraidiss, Maasser, Khraibeh, Mrusti, Jbaa,

Niha villages, in addition to the government owned lands on the eastern side of Barouk

Mountain” a Nature Reserve. In July 2005, UNESCO declared the Al-Shouf Cedar

Nature Reserve a “Biosphere Reserve” called the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR) with

an area of approximately 50,000 hectare - or 5% of the total area of Lebanon.

The Al-Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve is under the authority of the Lebanese Ministry of

Environment (MOE), which manages it through the Appointed Protected Area

Committee (APAC) that includes among its members the Al-Shouf Cedar Society (ACS),

the mayors of the 10 mentioned villages above, as well as a number of independent

environment experts. APAC liaises with the reserve’s Management Team, which deals

with the Reserve’s day-to-day management and planning.

The SBR includes the:

1- Al-Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve (established in 1996) located in the Shouf mountains

of central Lebanon,

2- Ammiq Wetland, East of the Shouf in the Beqaa Valley. Ammiq is a Ramsar30

site and

one of the last remaining wetlands in the Middle East, and

3- Twenty two (22) villages surrounding the biosphere from the eastern and western sides

of the Barouk and Niha mountains.

In addition to the Ministry of Environment, the following government agencies have

roles and responsibilities that impact on the environment and the Al-Shouf Cedar Nature

Reserve:

The Ministry of Public Works is responsible for the Kefraya-Maasser Shouf road which

passes through the SBR

The Department of Antiquities has jurisdiction over the antiquities and ancient ruins in

the SBR.

30

Ramsar: The Ramsar Convention (formally, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as

Waterfowl Habitat) is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971


The Ministry of Information and the Maasser Municipality have authority over the T.V.

transmitters in the SBR.

The Barouk Water Office has authority over water rights, especially the Barouk water, in

the Shouf area.

The ministry of agriculture has a role in the agriculture land located mainly in the

development zone of the Reserve.

The SBR needs the cooperation of all government and non-government sectors in order

to fulfill its goal of conserving the natural and cultural heritage of the region, while

enhancing the well-being and income of the inhabitants of the villages surrounding it.

C.2. SITE DESCRIPTION:

C.2.1 Location and boundaries

The Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR) lies between longitude 35º 28’- 35º 47’ East and

latitude 33º 32’- 35º 48’ North at an altitude ranging from 1200-1980 meters. It is located

along a mountain range known as the Barouk Mountain, which is a southern extension of

the Mount Lebanon Range. The range runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast. The

Beirut-Damascus highway and the town of Jezzine define the north and south borders of

the reserve. The western slopes of the range face the Shouf region; the eastern slopes face

Mount Hermon and form the western escarpment of the Beqaa Valley. The SBR covers

an area of about 500 square km. that is equivalent to about 5% of the overall area of

Lebanon. (Abu-Izzeddine, F., Hitchcock, P., Yamout, L. & A. Serhal. 1999)31

The SBR includes, and is bounded by, twenty villages: Niha, Jbaa, El Khraibe, Baadaran,

Mrusti, Maasser el Shouf, Batloun, Barouk, Ain Zhalta, Bmohray, Ain Dara, Qab Elias,

Ammiq, Aana, Kefraya, Kherbit Kanafar, Ain Zebde, Saghbine, Bab Mareaa, Aitanit and

Machghara. It also includes two protected areas, Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve and Ammiq

Wetland that are fast becoming a major natural attraction for Lebanon and the region.

31

Abu-Izzeddine, F., Hitchcock, P., Yamout, L. & A. Serhal. 1999. Al-Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve

Management Plan 2000 – 2005. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon. Page 9


The Core Zone of the SBR consists of the protected areas of Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve

(Law 532), Ammiq Wetland, and private lands.

The Buffer Zone consists of municipal lands incorporated into the Al-Shouf Cedar

Reserve (Law 532), and private lands.

The Development Zone consists mostly of private lands, municipal lands, and religious

trusts (Awqaf).

The following map represents the three zones (Figure 3).

Biosphere Reserve Zoning, (UNESCO,1995)

Biosphere reserves should contain one or more core zones, buffer zones, and a development zone to

accommodate their multiple functions

Core zone of the SBR is about 93 sq km. The main conservation objectives of the core zone are

the protection and rehabilitation of the SBR natural and cultural values.

Buffer zone of the SBR is about 83 sq km. It surrounds the core zone(s) where only activities

compatible with the conservation objectives can take place.

Transition zone (development zone) of the SBR is about 320 sq km. It includes all the villages

surrounding the SBR where sustainable resource management practices are promoted.


Figure 2: Biosphere Reserve Zoning (Abu-Izzeddine F., 2013)

Figure 3 Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR) zoning (Source: SBR, 2012)


C.2.2 Physical characteristics

C.2.2.1 Geology

The dominant geological feature of the SBR is Mount Lebanon, a high mountain range

running North-South the length of Lebanon and parallel to the Mediterranean coast

(Khalil W., 2012)32

.The SBR comprises rocks from the third geological era (Pliocene)

which has undergone major tectonic movement that divided Mount Lebanon into two

parallel parts. The eastern range is now called the Anti-Lebanon and the western range is

called Mount Lebanon.

These two mountain ranges are separated by the Bekaa Valley which is composed of

recent infill sediments making it an agriculturally fertile valley. From a geological point

of view this valley is very important as it is the northern extension of the Great Rift

Valley in Africa.

The whole of the Shouf Mountain is made up of cavernous limestone, with many surface

features such as dolines indicating the underlying cavernous form of the mountain range.

One particularly noteworthy cave, estimated to be 700 meters long, is located near Niha

village. Villagers report an abundance of stalactites and stalagmites and that there is an

underground body of water.

The geomorphology of the eastern slope SBR (historically known as the Barouk

mountain) is characterized by a diminishing steepness as we move from north to south.

The situation on the western slope is the opposite – an increasing steepness. South of

Dahr El Baidar is the highest peak on in the SBR at 2000 meters, and the mountain range

becomes increasingly narrow towards the south.

The main geological attractions are:

1. The fossils of Jabal el-Barouk: the fossilized shellfishes and amber containing

insects.

2. The Nabea el-Safa and the Nabe‘ el-Barouk: two natural and abundant springs.

3. The Nahr el-Barouk Valley that includes: Birket el-Arouss bridge, Birket el-

Bzouz in the Wadi el-Bzouz, and the lower section of the Barouk Valley in the

area of Kahlouniyyé.

4. The cliffs of Niha that dominate the Nahr Aray Valley, the pine forest of Bkassine

and a part of Marj Bisri

32

Khalil W., 2012. Shouf Biosphere Reserve is a potential Global Geo-park.


5. The Nebi Ayyoub: a very important place of worship that offers a view of the

entire region

6. The cascades of Azzibé and Jezzine: they flow into the Nahr Aray Valley.

7. The Marj Bisri: it was formed by the millennial storage of fluvial deposits (from

the Quaternary).

Figure 4 Geological features of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve: Jabalel Barouk and Jabal Niha.

Source: “carte géologiques du Jabal el-Barouk et du Jabal Niha” – Extrait de la Carte geologique du Liban au 1:200.000e, dressee par Louis Duberetret, 1955.


C.2.2.2 Soil

The physical characteristics of the soil of the SBR are homogenous belonging to the red

brown Mediterranean soils formed on hard marl limestone, are derived from Jurassic,

Balthonian, Callovian to Oxfordian-Portladian marl limestone, and the stone contents

range from 80-90%. (Abu-Izzeddine, F., 2012)

From an erosion point of view these soils are in a state of equilibrium due to high

permeability, mask of calcareous fragments, good vegetative cover, and good drainage.

C.2.2.3 Elevation

Highest elevation is 2000 meters and the lowest is 1000 meters.

C.2.2.4 Climate

A typical Mediterranean climate with four distinct seasons where the average temperature

of the warmest month (Aug) is 20 °C, and the coldest month (Jan) is 4 °C. The summers

are warm and dry while the winters are cool and wet. (Abu-Izzeddine, F., 2012)

C.2.2.5 Precipitation

Mean annual precipitation is 900 mm (recorded at an elevation of 1500 meters).

Precipitation is the source of both surface streams and groundwater - the major portion of

this occurs as rain, with snowfall at the upper elevations

C.2.2.6 Hydrology

Surface water flows originating on the range are mostly seasonal but some are perennial.

Underground water generates outflow rivers such as the Al Awali River (known as Al-

Barouk river) and Damour River (known as Al-Safa river). (Abu-Izzeddine, F., 2012)33

The summit of the range is considered as a divide between two hydrological systems

because of the difference between the two slopes of the mountain. The eastern slope is

much steeper and favors surface stream flows, whereas the western slope is less steep and

favors ground water aquifers.

The rivers that flow in the valleys are the major source of agriculture irrigation and

supply a dozen Shouf villages with domestic water and some of the western Bekaa

villages. It is also the main source of water for the Ammiq wetland in the Bekaa.

33

Abu-Izzedine F., September 2012. Shouf Biosphere Reserve management plan. Pages 16-25


C.2.3. Natural characteristics

C.2.3.1 Landscape

The rugged undeveloped ridge system of Mount Lebanon forms a distinct skyline that is

enhanced in winter with a cover of snow and visible from great distances in all directions.

To the east of the

Mount Lebanon ridge

is the grandeur of the

Bekaa valley that is

vividly patterned by

green agricultural

fields that contrast

with the rugged

starkness of the Anti-

Lebanon Mountain

range. The most

spectacular feature of

the Anti-Lebanon range is Mount Hermon in the far south.

To the west of the Mount Lebanon ridge is the world famous cedar forests of the Shouf

region that give way to the surrounding villages with red tile roofs and fruit tree terraces.

In summer, small grassy meadows persist in doline depressions, and contrast with the

surrounding starkness of the white/gray limestone. On clear days the Mediterranean Sea

may be seen from the summit of the mountain range.

In the south the Qaraoun Lake sits between the eastern Anti-Lebanon mountain range and

the western Mount Lebanon range amid the agriculturally patterned landscape of the

Bekaa valley.

At the local/precinct level several of the cedar stands, in particular the Maasser Al-Shouf,

are recognized as outstanding scenic landscapes, the larger cedars contributing in a most

distinctive way to the landscape.

Individual trees can and do attract a lot of positive response from visitors to the area. The

aesthetic experience of seeing some of the larger cedars is undoubtedly enhanced for the

visitor by awareness of the important part they played in the history of Lebanon. These

Photo 1 The western mount Lebanon ridge covered by cedar forest (by Alaa

Monzer)


elements of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve have always been, and continue to be, valued as

scenic landscapes.

C.2.3.2 Ecosystems

According to Corine Classification (1999)34

, the reserve belongs to three Mediterranean

levels:

1) the "Supra-Mediterranean Level" of vegetation which extends over the lower parts of

the eastern and western slopes up to 1500 meters of altitude, with oak trees as dominant

species, but on the western slopes the cedar trees dominate between 1250 - 1925 meters;

2) the "Montane Mediterranean Level" that covers both slopes between 1500 and 1900

meters with cedar dominant trees on the western slopes and absence of cedar trees on the

eastern slopes where the oak and azarole trees take place; and

3) the "Oro-Mediterranean level" of vegetation which extends above 1900 meters.

The list of SBR species includes 530 identified plant species distributed over 61 families.

The reserve provides habitat to 25 internationally and nationally threatened species, 48

endemic to Lebanon, or Lebanon and Syria, or Lebanon and Turkey, whilst 214 species

are restricted to the Eastern Mediterranean or Middle East area.

The following 14 species deserve special mention: put the common name for each of the

listed species (Sattout, 2010)35

1. Cedrus libani which is the symbol of Lebanon and main significant component of

the reserve,

2. Quercus brantii sp. look for its forest cover which characterizes the site,

3. Arrhenatherum elatius and Melica inaequiglumis because they are rare and

localized in the reserve where they have suffered in the near past from grazing,

4. Helichrysum pallasii due to its status as threatened in the past and not very

common at all heights of the reserve,

34

In the mid-1980s the European Commission’s CORINE (Co-ordination of Information on the

Environment) project, which can be considered as a precursor of the European Environment Agency,

started work on an inventory of biotopes of major importance in the European Community and it quickly

became apparent that a European classification of habitats

or biotopes 35

Sattout E., 2010. Integrated biodiversity monitoring plan for Protected Areas in Lebanon..


5. Tulipa montana and Phytolacca pruinosa for their ornamental and economic

values and for the fact they are found in very limited numbers within the reserve.

6. Cephalaria cedrorum because of its endemism to Al-Shouf Cedar only,

7. Gundelia tournefortii as locally threatened because it is heavily collected and

uprooted by people and for its consuming value, high demand and high price,

8. Origanum ehrenbergii and Origanum syriacum as well as Rhus coriara which are

considered multipurpose species and consequently widely harvested by people,

and

9. Geum urbanum and Micromeria myrtifolia for being highly recommended

medicinal species.

C.2.3.3 Flora

The SBR harbors a rich flora, many of them medicinal, edible, and aromatic plants. The

reserve is home to 25 internationally and nationally threatened species; 48 endemic to

Lebanon or the Syria/Lebanon/Turkey area; 14 rare species; and 214 species that are

restricted to the Eastern Mediterranean or

Middle East area . (Tohmé G., Tohmé H.,

Hraoui S., Karakira M. & Gèze R.,1999)36

.

The SBR, however, is most famous for

hosting the largest stands of Lebanese

cedar (Cedrus libani) in the country. The

Cedar of Lebanon is a highly symbolic,

world-famous conifer tree, and one of the

most cited plants in history, religion and

mythology. The SBR hosts about 620

hectares of cedar forest, which are largely

confined to the steeper and less accessible

36

Tohmé G., Tohmé H., Hraoui S., Karakira M. & Gèze R., 1999. Report on five protected areas in

Lebanon. National Council for Scientific Research. Project UNDP , no. Leb. 95-G 31-AIG-99

Photo 2 Wild rose in Ain Zhalta Cedar Forest (by Kamil el

Raess)


areas. The SBR represents the natural southern limit of this tree. Nowadays the cedar

forest, protected from grazing and other human interference, is showing clear signs of

natural regeneration.

Whereas the cedars are found at the higher altitude of the western slopes of the Shouf, the

lower altitudes and eastern slopes are the domain of evergreen and broadleaf East

Mediterranean oaks, such as Quercus infectoria, Quercus calliprinos, and Quercus

brandti sp. Look – an endemic subspecies to the Reserve. Many of the oak forests have

been subject to regular harvesting for firewood and charcoal production, resulting in

extensive areas of coppiced oak woodland and low forest with shrub vegetation covering

most of the remaining areas.

Finally, a large portion of the SBR, especially in the most degraded areas (mostly above

1900 meters) is dominated by scrubland and high mountain pastures. These ecosystems

are particularly rich in aromatic, edible, and medicinal herbs and plants (Sattout et al,

2002)37

.

For the scientist, as well as the visitor, it is important to remember that human

intervention in the region of the SBR is as old as recorded history. From the pristine

forests mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh over 5000 years ago - to the exploited forests

during the Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations - to the heavy

cutting mentioned in the Old Testament for cedar and pine logs - to the more recent clear

cutting of remaining cedars, pines, oaks during the Ottoman Empire followed by the

French and British mandates – the area has had its share of uncontrolled human

intervention (Abu-Izzeddine,F. 2013)38

.

37

Sattout E. & S. N. Talhouk. 2001. A Proposed Monitoring Program for the Flora of the Natural Reserves

of Al-Shouf, Ehden and the Palm Islands. Ministry of Environment, Beirut, Lebanon & Green Line.

Lebanon.

38

Abu-Izzedine F., Shouf Biosphere Reserve, 2013. Memoirs of a Cedar, a history of deforestation, a future

of conservation. Page 7


C.2.3.4 Mammals

The SBR is one of the last remaining areas in Lebanon where larger mammals that once

roamed the region can still be

found, such as the wolf, wild

boar and wild cat - or can be

reintroduced such as the ibex and

mountain gazelle.

Wolves are few and their

numbers are unlikely to hold a

stable population, due to the

absence of large herbivores on

which the wolf feeds. Striped

hyenas are found on the borders

of the reserve, mainly feeding on

the garbage dumps and agricultural crops of surrounding villages. Wild boar, wild cat and

jungle cat have all increased in numbers since the reserve was established, as well as the

jackal, red fox, porcupine, and squirrel. The gazelle is sporadic in the area (Abi Said M.,

2010)39

.

C.2.3.5 Birds

Over 270 bird species have been

recorded in the SBR and the Ammiq

Wetland (the wetland is a Ramsar site

and Important Bird Area-IBA). The

birdlife of the Shouf mountains

includes rare or endemic birds such as

the Syrian serin (Serinus syriacus),

Eagle owl, Chukar partridge, Long-

legged buzzard, etc. The whole area,

39

Abi Said M., 2010. Grazing Assessment Report, Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve.

Photo 3 Rock Hyrax in Niha Fortress (by Alaa Monzer)

Photo 4 A migratory bird in the Reserve (by Alaa Monzer)


placed strategically between Europe, Africa, and West Asia, is very important for bird

migration. Every year countless storks, birds of prey and other migrants pass over the

SBR and use it as a roosting site (Jaradi G., et al, 2004)40

.

C.2.3.6 Reptiles and amphibians

The region contains 31 species, including chameleon, tortoise, and several species of

snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads ( (Jaradi G. et al.,2004)41

.

C.2.4 Socio-economic characteristics

C.2.4.1 Cultural heritage

The Shouf is a nexus of many cultures, religions, and historical events, all of which have

left an imprint that makes the area’s cultural heritage as rich as its ecosystems (Khalil W.,

2012)42

. The following are a few examples of its cultural and historical landmarks:

Nabi Ayyoub (Prophet Job): There is no exact date on the construction of this place of

worship. According to a popular tradition in Niha, the prophet Job became ill in Houran

and emigrated with his wife to settle

on a mountaintop in Niha el-Chouf

where he recovered. The site, in its

present form, dates back to 19th and

20th century.

Qalaat Niha (Niha Fortress) The

cave fortress of Niha is called Cave

of Tyron (Frankish sources) and

Chquif Tayroun (Arabic sources) .

It is carved into the rock of a cliff

overlooking the Bisri and the Aray valley. From its strategic location, it monitors the road

between Sidon and the Beqaa. This fortress is shaped like a cave and is over a hundred

40

Jaradi G., Abi Said M., Tohme G, Sadek R., 2004. Al-Chouf Cedar Nature Reserve. Biodiversity

Assessment and Monitoring in the Protected Areas. Final Report. National Center for Scientific Research.

Ministry of Environment, Lebanon. Pages 43-47

41

Jaradi G., Sadek R. & Abi Said Mounir, 2000. Fauna monitoring manual, part II. Protected areas project.

Green Line Association 42

Khalil W., 2012. Shouf Biosphere Reserve is a potential Global Geo-park.

Photo 5 Fakher eddine /Niha Fortress (by Nizar Hani)


meters deep. Chambers and rooms were dug to shelter the soldiers. It has water in

abundance through a system of collecting rain water. Water was also channeled through a

pipe from the 'Ain el-Halquoum spring. It also had a considerable number of silos for

storing provisions. The Emir Fakhreddine II, persecuted by the Pasha of Damascus,

found refuge in the cave fortress with his family in 1633 before his eventual capture and

execution in Istanbul in 1635.

Ain El-Halkoum (Spring of Halkoum) Located near the fortress of Niha to the south

west of the village of Niha. It is characterized by an abundance of water, and the ruins

around it attest to a former settlement. Archaeological evidence shows that the water was

channeled from this source to the fortress of Niha in the days of Emir Fakhereddine. We

can still see the traces of the water pipe leading from the source to the fortress. It was

probably built by the Emir Fakhreddine in the 17th century.

Saint Georges Church There is no specific date regarding the construction of this

church in Niha, but folk stories say it is more than 140 years old. It was probably built in

the time of Magarious Youssef al-Haddad. It is said that a number of miracles took place

in this church.

Saint Joseph Church This church was constructed in Niha during the rule of Emir

Fakhreddine. It is claimed that the Abou Rached family settled in Niha after fleeing from

the village of Beshaaleh in the North, and that during a visit from Emir Ali son of

Fakhreddine, the Abou Rached family gave him a grand reception. As a reward, he

granted them 25 Liras of Gold to construct a house and a church.

Qab Elias Castle This once powerful Druze fortress served as a guardian outpost

controlling the road that linked Beirut to Damascus, and a marching post for the Druze

and Chehab rulers of the South Bekaa or Wadi Taym.

C.2.4.2 Population distribution

The following table summarizes the population and main activities in each of the SBR

villages. The total population is 116,000, 50% of them living permanently in the region

where agriculture remains the main and common activity for their livelihoods in all

villages.


Table 1 Population distribution of the study area (Abu-Izzeddine F, 2012)

Village Economic Activities Population

Ain Dara Employees, Agriculture 7500

Ain Zhalta* Employees, Agriculture, Pastoralism 6000

Bmohray Employees, Agriculture 2500

Barouk/

Fraidiss*

Employees, Agriculture, Pastoralism 6000

Batloun* Employees, Agriculture, Pastoralism 3500

Maasser* Employees, Agriculture 5000

Khreibeh* Employees, Agriculture 2500

Mrusti* Employees, Agriculture 2300

Jbaa* Employees, Agriculture 2000

Niha* Employees, Agriculture, Pastoralism 7000

Baadaran* Employees, Agriculture 3000

Qeb Elias Employees, Agriculture 50,000

Ammiq Employees, Agriculture 1000

Aana Employees, Agriculture 1500

Kefraya Employees, Agriculture 1200

Kherbit Kanafar Employees, Agriculture 3000

Ain Zebdy Employees, Agriculture 500

Bab Marea Employees, Agriculture 3000

Saghbine Employees, Agriculture 6000

Aitanit Employees, Agriculture 2500

Mashghara Employees, Agriculture 16,000

Total 116,000 inhabitants

*Total

Population of

the study area

37.300 inhabitants (around 50% of them are living permanently in the

region)

*these 9 villages are the villages of the study area


C.2.4.3 Demographic trends and human use

As mentioned above, most of the estimated 116,000 people who live in the villages

around the SBR depend on agricultural activities. However, an increasing number of

them are leaving their villages to become construction workers, government or private

sector employees, and small business entrepreneurs. The trend is towards a downscaling

of traditional agricultural activities as a result of an aging population, poor marketing

strategies, soil degradation, and excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers inducing high

production costs.

Unfortunately, security issues and political instability have also had a marked impact on

people's livelihoods. The 2006 war, in particular, was a breaking point, and economic

activity has not yet returned to pre-war status. The lack of employment opportunities has

led to increased migration, and local society is heavily dependent on revenues from

Lebanese who live and work abroad.

C.2.4.4 Historic land use prior to establishment of the nature reserve

The cedar forests of Lebanon are among the oldest documented (and used) forests in

history. The cedars were important enough in the history of man to be traceable to the

very earliest written records, that of the Sumerians in the third millennium BC. In the

ancient Sumerian story, “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, one of the oldest pieces of literature in

the world, the Cedars feature prominently. Gilgamesh has since been recognized as King

Gilgamesh of history and according to the epic he visited Mount Lebanon.

It was the Phoenicians along the coast of present-day Lebanon and from such ancient

cities as Byblos, Tyre and Sidon who became the principal dealers in the timber of the

cedar. Indeed, the cedars made a special contribution to the development of the

Phoenician civilization by providing the timbers with which they developed their famous

sea-going merchant boats thus becoming one of the first, if not the first major sea-going

trading nation in the world.

The Phoenicians traded the cedar to Egypt, until Egypt in turn conquered the land of the

cedars and gained direct access to the forests, which were highly prized in the building of

temples and boats. Later the Babylonians took a similar interest in the cedars and

obtained them for use in building the fabled city of Babylon.


People around the world know of the cedars of Lebanon because of the numerous

references in the Hebrew texts of the Old Testament. The Bible records in some detail

how King Solomon, King of Israel, requested of King Hiram of Tyre to supply him with

cedar wood to build a temple and a palace in Jerusalem.

In the 6th Century BC, Persian control of the Phoenician ports provided the Persians with

the means of assembling a navy for use against their enemies the Greeks who were

already embarrassing the Persians with their mobility in the Mediterranean as they leased

and copied the Phoenician triremes.

The expansion of the Roman Empire into Syria and Lebanon had its detrimental effect on

the cedars until the Emperor Hadrian installed markers around the boundary of the

remaining forests and declared them as Imperial Domain. Specimens of these markers

have been preserved and held in museum collections. The Ottoman Turks deforested all

of the cedar growing areas within easy transport distance of their Hijaz railway to provide

fuel for their wood-burning engines. Only the highest and most remote groves escaped

damage.

C.2.4.5 Current land use after the establishment of the nature reserve

At the time of the establishment of the Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve in 1996, a number of

adverse practices went largely uncontrolled such as: wood cutting, overgrazing, barbeque

fires at the base of ancient cedars (leading to their death), accumulation of trash, carving

of names and initials on the

trunks, to name but a few.

Since the establishment of the

Reserve in 1996, a halt was put to

all the cutting and burning of

trees, charcoal production

activities, and uncontrolled

grazing of goats. This positive

change in land use within and

around the protected area

manifested itself in a dramatic

change to the vegetative cover of the area. The natural regeneration that took place at the

Photo 6 Land use general view in Mrusti village (by Eddy Choueri)


periphery of the cedar forests, as well as the rejuvenation of the oaks and pines, has since

been well documented throughout the area. In addition the grassy meadows persisted

longer in the spring and summer giving young seedlings of larger trees a better chance of

establishing themselves.

Land use depends to a large extent on land tenure. The main categories are national,

municipal, religious and private land where 80% of the land in the core zone is

municipal, 90% of buffer zone is privately owned and 60% of development zone is

privately owned (Abu-Izzeddine F., 2012)43

.

The approximate land tenure in each zone of the SBR has been calculated as follows:

Table 2 Land tenure of the SBR (Abu-Izzeddine F., 2012)

ZONE NATIONAL MUNICIPAL RELIGIOUS

TRUST

PRIVATELY

OWNED

Core zone 10% 80% 0% 10%

Buffer zone 0% 10% 2% 90%

Development zone 5 % 20% 15% 60%

No important changes in land tenure are foreseen at the present time; however

suggestions have been made to the Lebanese Government to purchase all private

properties in the Core Zone to maintain the integrity of the SBR. The importance of such

appropriation presents an important asset for the biosphere protection.

Moreover, there is a number of adverse effects of land uses or activities occurring within

or outside the Shouf Biosphere which are due to the following factors:

Visitors: The number of visitors to the core zone of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve

are increasing every year (62.000 visitors in 2013). Shouf Biosphere Reserve

visitors data base, 2014. However the Management Plan clearly sets the policies

regulating visitor activities and restricts them to well defined walking trails and

scenic areas (Abdallah P., 2010)44

.

43


44

Abdallah P., 2010.Eco-tourism strategy of Shouf Biosphere Reserve. Page 10


Development activities: Housing estates, in the buffer and transition zones of the

SBR, are a potential threat. The declaration of a biosphere reserve in the area will

encourage a more responsible and sustainable approach to this activity (ECODIT,

2010)45

.

Hunting: The lack of enforcement of any rules or regulations concerning hunting

in Lebanon is a grave threat to all forms of wildlife, particularly birds (ECODIT,

2001)46

. The most serious threat is to migrating birds of prey during their bi-

annual passage over the SBR development zone.

C.2.4.6 Future land use as a biosphere reserve

The Shouf region already serves as a pilot site for promoting the sustainable development

of the region by encouraging the conservation of nature, environmental friendly

agriculture, preservation of water catchment areas, protection of scenic area, controlled

development, tourist facilities and clean roads. The SBR and the municipalities of the

region are at the forefront of the movement to improve the income generating capacity of

the area without causing irreversible harm to its natural resources (Abu-Izzeddine F.,

2012).47

45

ECODIT, 2010 . Business and Marketing plan for the rural products, Shouf Biosphere Reserve. Page 4

46

ECODIT, 2001. Lebanon State of the Environment Report (SOER). Lebanon : Ministry of Environment,

Lebanese Environment & Development Observatory (LEDO).

47



C.3. STATE OF THE AGRICULTURE IN LEBANON AND THE

SHOUF AREA

C.3.1: Agriculture in Lebanon Agriculture is a small part of the Lebanese economy and

has remained relatively stable as a share of GDP at an average of 6.4 percent annually

from 2001 to 2010 (Source: The World Bank)48

.This is significantly less than in

neighboring Arab countries and is consistent with Lebanon’s higher income, as well as its

more urbanized and diversified economy. Agriculture value added per square kilometer is

higher in Lebanon than in many nearby countries, reflecting a higher intensity of

production and greater production focus on higher value fruit and vegetables (FAO -

MOA, 2012)49

.

According to the most recent Agricultural Census (2010/11), the total agricultural area is

estimated at 332 000 hectares (32 percent of total surface area). A total of 230 000

hectares is cultivated of which half is irrigated. Land use in Lebanon has gradually

shifted from production systems based on cereals towards high value-added crops

(mainly fruits and vegetables). Total agricultural value production remained stable in the

last few years. The livestock sector contributes around 30 percent of the total value of

production.

Approximately 20 to 25 percent of Lebanon’s active population is involved in the

agriculture sector, including full-time and part-time workers as well as seasonal family

labour (FAO, 1991)50

. There are a total of 40 agricultural homogenous zones, which

possess very distinct socio-economic and geopolitical characteristics. For example, the

agricultural zones located in the Bekaa and northern Lebanon provinces cover 67 percent

of the total agricultural land and typically belong to large commercial farmers. In

contrast, southern zones comprise smaller farmers, many of whom live in remote rural

areas.

In many villages in the South as well as in Baalbeck and Hermel, which also are the

poorest sections of the country, agriculture is reported to contribute up to 80 percent of

the local GDP and represents the major income-earning and employment opportunity.

48

World Bank, 2009. Lebanon Agriculture Public Expenditure Review Note.

49

MOA - FAO, 2012. LEBANON Country Programming Framework 2012–2015 (Joint Statement of the

Ministry of Agriculture and FAO), pages 9-13.

50

FAO 1991. Technical report on land cover mapping of Lebanon. Remote sensing center, Rome.


Throughout Lebanon, many of these people depend on agriculture as the primary source

of income and employment, particularly the poor. Over 20 percent of heads of

households engaged in the sector are very poor. Women farmers constitute some 9

percent of the total farmers. Women are involved mainly in the production of dairy

products, food preserves and subsistence farming.

Rural women are among the most vulnerable groups of the population, marked by an

increased incidence of poverty. Despite their significant contribution to farm activities,

rural women have long been deprived from effective participation in the decision-making

process. The contribution of women to the development process is rather underestimated

and undervalued as a result of a number of cultural and policy biases. Rural women still

face a number of constraints (legal, cultural, socio-economic) and challenges in rural

development, emphasized by gender bias in the delivery of rural services. Women access

to land, farm inputs, markets and marketing services in addition to appropriate

technology and extension services is challenged. The main issues include: (a) the

Lebanese labor law does not include any specific legislation or provisions that protect

and regulate rural women’s (or men’s) work, nor do they participate in the benefits of the

National Security Social Fund (NSSF); (b) women in rural areas have little access to

land, which is caused by legal (inheritance laws, property rights), economic and cultural

constraints. Most of the land parcels cultivated by women are fragmented (less than 0.6

ha) compared to 1.3 ha for the parcels operated by men; (c) technology transfer in rural

areas is generally not geared towards women’s needs and concerns; and (d) the lack of

access to credit is one of the most important challenges facing rural women. The limited

access of rural women to formal financial services is mainly due to (i) limited income

(subsistence agriculture), (ii) lack of collateral (land ownership), (iii) and other socio-

cultural constraints (FAO / MOA, 2012)51

.

Moreover, Lebanon has a youthful population, 45 percent of which is below the age of

youth unemployment rates in the country is at 22.6 percent (MOA, 2010)52

, almost twice

the overall unemployment rate, with young people constituting 70 percent of the total

51

MOA - FAO, 2012. LEBANON Country Programming Framework 2012–2015 (Joint Statement of the

Ministry of Agriculture and FAO), pages 9-13.

52

MOA, 2010. MOA Strategic Framework 2010-2014.


unemployed population. Youth unemployment has been recognized as a major issue by

the government and as an obstacle to the development of Lebanese economy, including

the rural sectors. However, agriculture has the potential to generate decent job

opportunities for youth, addressing this major country issue, and could play an important

role in employment and pro-poor growth.

In recent years poverty and other social indicators have improved marginally in most

regions. However, around 28.5 percent of the Lebanese population is still considered as

living below the upper poverty line (estimated at US$4 per capita per day) of which 8

percent are under the lower poverty line (US$2.4 per capita per day),(UNDP, 2007)53

with large regional disparities in household consumption and poverty rates, being the

highest in the North (Akkar) followed by South, then Bekaa. Rural areas witness a higher

incidence of extreme poverty vs. suburban areas which have the highest number of poor;

rural areas are characterized by limited off-farm employment opportunities, with

agriculture being an important source of income. Rural poverty in remote areas is

correlated with low-income potential from agriculture where agriculture workers are

among the poorest in addition to female-headed households. In many cases, the poorest

households in rural areas rely on self-consumption.

A recent study revealed that direct income from agriculture accounts for about 52 percent

of total income in nine Agricultural Homogeneous Zones; the share of agricultural

income increases in low-income households (IFAD, 2007)54

. The agriculture component

of income is subject to climatic risks and lower production which might offset the

increase in output prices, if any, and thus increase vulnerability of low-income

households where agriculture constitutes a considerable source of income.

Lebanon is a net food importer. In 2011, Lebanon total agricultural and food imports

amounted to US$ 3181 million while agricultural and food exports were valued at US$

581 million. (FAO, 1999 & 2010)55

The country is highly vulnerable to price volatility of

53

UNDP, 2007. Poverty, Growth and Inequality study in Lebanon.

54

IFAD, 2007. Livelihoods and gender analysis of the war damage in rural areas of Lebanon.

55

FAO. 1999 & 2010. “Lebanese Observatory for Agricultural Development Project”, Agricultural Census

1999 and 2010.


food and other agricultural commodities with a food import bill reaching US$2.6 billion

yearly.

Animal production is one of the major economic activities in the South and North of

Lebanon which represent the highest poverty indicators in the Country’s rural areas. The

animal production sector is considered the mainstay of the Southern, Norhern and Beqaa

rural economy and has a key impact on household well-being and poverty alleviation,

through: (i) generating cash income by sales of live and animal products; (ii) livestock

being one of the main users of manpower in rural areas as there are a few opportunities

for employment, such as industrial activities in South Lebanon; and (iii) most of the low

income rural families in rural Lebanon rely on livestock for food security, nutritional and

economic status. The traditional dairy products, particularly the “laban” and “labneh”

from goat and cows are the most popular protein sources in Lebanese culinary habit

which accompany daily food, providing high quality dietary protein for people, mainly

for children and women, and elderly .

The dairy sector is composed of many semi-artisanal plants which do not have good

control over milk quality and have a low innovation capacity in terms of cheese and dairy

products reference. Cattle meat production remains very limited, with livestock imported

from different countries (mainly EU) and slaughtered in Lebanon. The production of

sheep meat and milk suffers from competition from imported meat from Australia,

Turkey and Syria. The artisanal production of sheep milk not being constant over the

year, the dairy and cheese factories have to depend on other sources to maintain their

output. Goat production seems to be suffering as well, although the demand for goat meat

and milk products remains large and some 10 000 families have this production as their

major source of income.

Although some NGOs have implemented development projects for the support of goat

production, most herders still suffer from the lack of access to services, markets and

credits. In the dairy cattle small production system, women represent some 15 percent of

the total number of farmers. The different studies undertaken at national level show that

the young generation is no longer interested in the dairy or agriculture business; dairy

farmers aged less than 40 years represent only 28 percent; and 25 percent of dairy

farmers have large families with more than eight dependents. The large holdings

requiring important investments, the social status of their owners is by far different and


not comparable by any means to that of the small holdings, except when it comes to the

workers within these large farms (FAO, 2011).

Almost 60 percent of livestock farmers depend on dairy as their main source of living,

while 20 percent depend on dairy with crops as a secondary source of income and 22

percent depend on dairy and other businesses such as casual daily work, trading,

retirement allowances, etc. With the exception of the large, modern dairy farm owners,

most dairy farmers (71 percent) rank as either poor or very poor for their living and

livelihood standards (FAO, 2011)56

.

The agricultural sector faces institutional, policy, technological and financial resources

constraints, resulting in the sector’s low performance. The interplay of all these

constraints results in: small and fragmented land holdings (70 percent of the total farm

holders have an area of less than one hectare, and cultivate less than 20 percent of the

total cropping area), low farmers' income resulting from low productivity; inequality in

ownership and access to productive assets, rural poverty, increased vulnerability of rural

women, and decreasing food security; (ii) lack of farmers' access to infrastructure

(irrigation networks, agricultural roads, marketing outlets for agricultural and agro

processed products); (iii) widespread use of foreign labor; (iv) rural-urban migration; (v)

insufficient knowledge of modern techniques and environment-friendly practices,

excessive use of pesticides; (vi) high cost of production resulting from high costs of

inputs, labor, and energy; (vii) degradation of natural resources; and (viii) low

competitiveness of the agricultural products coupled with an increase in the agricultural

trade deficit. Poor management of natural resources hinders the development of the

agriculture sector. Scarce mobilization, storage and distribution of irrigation water are

currently limiting the expansion of agricultural production; farmers in rural areas often

lack required investments for water harvesting and for developing modern irrigation

techniques. In 2010, agriculture water demand was estimated at 900 million m3 (60

percent of total). According to the projections of the World Bank, the total exploited

resources (about 1 500 million m3) do not meet the current annual demand and the

projected demand after 2020 would exceed exploitable renewable resources (2000–2500

million m3). Despite investments in expanding water supply networks, developing

56

FAO, Asmar F., 2011. Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles.


additional water resources, developing capacities of concerned institutions and improving

service delivery, overall progress has been slow.

In addition, while forests represent a precious source of income for rural populations,

several hazards are leading to the degradation of forests and rangelands (including fires,

adverse climate, pest outbreaks, overgrazing, unsuitable practices). Forest area is

estimated at 139136 hectares while other wooded lands cover 108378 hectares making

about 23 percent of green cover in the total area of the country. (FAO, 2010)57

C.3.2: Agriculture in the Shouf Area

The mountainous upper Shouf is known for diverse microclimates that allow the

production of many different crops: olive trees (50% of the cultivated area in

Mountainous Shouf area), fruit trees like apples, peaches, cherries, and grapes (38% of

cultivated land in Mountainous Shouf area) in addition to vegetables (MOA, 2006)58

. The

upper Shouf depends largely on agricultural production and has little industrial

production. Like Lebanese farmers, Shouf farmers sell their products to local residents

but they mainly depend on external markets through the middlemen. Fifty percent of the

local community and the families from the study area are living in the city mainly in

Beirut suburb.

Most of the people who inhabit the villages of the SBR rely on agricultural activities. In

the winter season, some of them become construction workers, and a few are also

employees of small businesses and government workers (police, army, etc.). The general

trend is that of a downscaling of traditional agricultural activities, mainly due to an aging

resident population, poor marketing strategies and low competitively on the national

markets, and soil impoverishment due to the intensive use of chemical pesticides and

fertilizers (Pagliani M., 2009)59

.

57

FAO, MOA, 2010. National Forest Assessment program.

58

Ministry of Agriculture/Lebanon and United nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1996. Biological

Diversity of Lebanon – Country Study Report.

59

Pagliani M., IUCN, 2009. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Program Portfolio.


Most of the people are employees (60 %), farmers (15%), merchandises who owning

groceries and other small shops (15%), and working abroad (10%) (Hani N., 2013)60

.

60

Hani N., 2013. Project proposal prepared by the municipality of Barouk and submitted to US

International Development Agency – USAID, page 8


D. STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

D.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

In the scope of this study we will only concentrate on the Shouf Biosphere Reserve

(SBR) western side which comprises 10 villages (nine municipalities): Ain Zhalta,

Barouk, Fraidiss, Maasser, Batloun, Khraibeh, Baadaran, Mrusti, Jbaa and Niha. The

SBR includes 4 kinds of land use types in the three zones (core, buffer and development

zones); refer to section B 2.4:

1- Totally protected land which is located in the core area of the reserve

2- Abandoned and grazing land which is located in the buffer and development

zones of the reserve

3- Agricultural land which is located in the development zone of the reserve

4- Urban land which is located within the village built part which is located in the

development zone of the reserve

Figure 5 The four types of land use that exist in the three zones of the study area (Source: this

study based on SBR zoning system)


Following to the table of the SBR population (Section C.2.4.2), the population of the

study area is 37.300 inhabitants.

The total surface of the study area is 13,737 hectares distributed on 10 villages (9

municipalities)

Table 3 The surface area of each of the ten villages in the study area in square meters and in hectares (MOE,

1998)

Village Name Surface m2 Hectare

Ain Zhalta 20572300 2057.23

Fraidiss 8767560 876.756

Barouk 18825700 1882.57

Batloun 5545440 554.544

Maasser el Shouf 18422300 1842.23

Khreibeh 7418870 741.887

Baadarane 8198810 819.881

Mrosti 6499560 649.956

Jebaa 5726650 572.665

Niha 37396400 3739.64

Total 137,373590 13,737.359

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000Total: 37.300 inhabitants

Figure 6 Population of the study area distributed in the nine selected municipalities


Figure 7 The surface area of each of the ten villages in the study area in hectares (MOE, 1998)

The number of farmers in the study area who own fruit yards mainly apple, peaches,

cherries and grapes with total surface 484 hectares are 871 (an average of 0.55 hectares

per farmer) and olive yards with total surface 124 hectares are 462 farmers (an average of

0.26 hectares per farmer) also there are also 65 beekeepers who owned 1428 beehives

and 4 agriculture cooperatives and 9 shepherds who owns 100 to 300 heads each. The

shepherds use the grazing areas that identifies by the Reserve in close cooperation with

the municipality and the land owners, in winter the shepherds move their goats to warmer

coastal regions to avoid the cold snowy winter (Agriculture extension center in Deir El

Kamar, 2013, based on un-published FAO-MOA statistics)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Hectare


Table 4 The main fruit trees surface area and number of farmers in respective villages

(Agriculture extension center in Deir El Kamar, 2013)

Figure 8 The main fruit trees surface area (m²) and number of farmers in respective villages

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

800000

Peach

Apple

Olive

Summer crops

Number of farmers

Village Name Peach Apple Olive Summer

crops

Number of

farmers

Baadaran 0 206450 123350 26000 165

Khraibeh 0 98700 512150 5000 176

Niha 126740 518150 327760 163

Barouk/fraidiss 577700 757600 19500 95000 241

Batloun 0 452350 17000 35250 128

Jbaa 0 349950 87650 21400 137

Ain Zhalta 349000 202936 17600 10000 62

Mrusti 87125 775930 27000 39000 156

Maasser el Chouf 176565 167050 111425 1000 104

Sub-total in m2 1317130 3529116 1243435 232650 1332

Sub-total in hec. 131.7 352.91 124.3 23.2 1332

TOTAL in hectare 632.11 1.332


According to the land use land cover map in Lebanon, 1998, the agriculture territories in

the study area cover 1,539.2 hectares including orchards, field crops, intensive agriculture

and heterogeneous horticultural plots. This represents 11% of the total surface area of the

villages under the study area (13,737.359 Ha; Table 3, MOE, 1998)61

Table 5 Agriculture territories in the study area based on land cover land use map (MOE,1998)

Agriculture territories Surface in hec.

Orchards (vineyards and fruits trees) 1,208.1791

Field crops 274.7612

Intensive agriculture 1.0596

Heterogeneous horticultural plots 55.2336

Total 1,539.2335

The total agriculture area currently cultivated is around 632.1 hectares (Table 5, MOA,

FAO, 2012)62

. Hence, we are estimating based on these figures but further validated by

field visits covering the study area, that the arable abandoned agriculture land is around

901 hectares (the difference between arable and currently cultivated land).

The agriculture surface area that is suggested to be restored for the purpose of this study

represents around 70% of the 901 hectares hence covering a total of 600 ha.

The following map (figure 9) represents the different types of land use (agriculture,

artificial land, natural land and water bodies)

61

MOE, 1998. Land Cover/Land Use maps (scale 1/50,000) for the Lebanese coast, and for South

Lebanon.

62

MOA-FAO, 2012. The national agriculture survey, modified by the Agriculture Extension Center in Deir

El Kamar in 2013.


Figure 9 Map of the agriculture territories in the study area based on land cover land use map (MOE, 1998).


D.2. AGRICULTURE CHALLENGES IN THE STUDY AREA

Although the Shouf region is in better socio-economic shape than other parts of the

country, the whole area is facing several serious challenges. The socio-economic picture

is subject to a negative trend, because of continued central government inability, lack of

resources and human capacity, and economic hardship. Moreover, security issues and

political instability are having a marked adverse impact on people's livelihoods: the 2006

war, in particular, was a breaking point, and economic activity has not yet returned to

pre-war status. The lack of employment opportunities is leading to increased migration to

the cities and abroad, and the local society is heavily dependent on the revenues from the

Diaspora (Pagliani M., 2009)63

.

Lebanon exports agricultural products to many Arab countries through the Syrian

gateway. The closing of the Syrian gateway has had negative repercussions on Lebanese

and Shouf farmers. According to the head of the Farmers’ Syndicate, at least four ships

would be needed for the sea transportation to become a full alternative to the Syria route

(the cost per truck for the trip to Aqaba would be $2,000). (Daily Star, 2013)64

.

According to the Investment Development Authority of Lebanon (IDAL), agricultural

exports fell in 2011 to reach only 504,000 tons after the beginning of civil unrest in Syria

(IDAL, 2013)65

.

All the above old and new reasons in addition to the civil war lead for the agricultural

land abandonment in the study area.

D.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOUR ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

SCENARIOS:

In the aim of restoring un-built land in the study area, the present study describes and

analyzes different scenarios of restoration. Two of these scenarios were developed and

suggested by a study conducted in 2013(Calmer R., et al, 2013) 66 by the Shouf

63

Pagliani M., IUCN, 2009. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Program Portfolio. 64

Halawi D., June 1, 2009. Organic farmers in Lebanon face export hurdles, Daily Star Lebanon. 65

IDAL, 2013. Lebanon agriculture fact sheet.

66

Colomer R., Regato P., 2013. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Ecosystem Restoration Plan. Pages 24-41


Biosphere Reserve in cooperation with a Spanish ecosystem restoration team. The

restoration of the Reserve and the surrounding is based on the different type of lands

located in the three zones of the Biosphere (refer to section C1). In the following section,

four different restoration scenarios are discussed:

4.1: Scenario 1 as suggested by the SBR restoration plan: restoration for protected land in

the core zone (4.1.1 Direct sowing and 4.1.2 planting seedlings of forest trees);

4.2: Scenario 2 as suggested by the SBR restoration plan: restoration for

abandoned/grazing land (4.2.1 Planting seedlings in fenced plots (within the grazing

area); 4.2.2 Planting seedlings of shrubs for economic value in abandoned terraces; 4.2.3

Thinning of Dalboun oak forest.

4.3: Scenario 3 as suggested in the scope of this present study: improvement of existing

apple orchards and vegetable plots to become more profitable and sustainable with

minimal impact on the environment

4.4 Scenario 4 as suggested in the scope of this present study: beautification scenario for

vacant residential built areas

These scenarios are described below:

D.4.1: Scenario 1: restoration for protected land in the core zone of the Shouf

Biosphere Reserve

D.4.1.1: Direct sowing

The objective is to prevent erosion and bring connectivity

between cedar forest patches in high mountain denuded areas by

supporting the establishment of a dense cushion-like Quercus

brantii layer that could have a nursery-effect, improving soil

fertility and micro-climate conditions, and facilitating the

natural colonization and growth of cedar seeds and seedlings, as

well as other plant species. Direct sowing is a restoration

method that imitates the natural dispersal of plants. Quercus

brantii was selected as the most appropriate species for direct

sowing.

Photo 7 An oak seedling (by

Nizar Hani)


This area represents the highest point of the project and it is located between 1,500 and

2,000 meters, with high rainfall from November to March, physiological drought of

approx. 4.3 months and a growing period of 4 months. The potential frost period goes

from November to December and from March to April, with actual frost during the

months of January and February. The average temperature is 11.6 º C.

The restoration method in this area involves the direct sowing of seeds in excavated

holes.

In order to avoid erosion problems in a landscape of considerable slope and scarce

vegetation it is necessary to obtain a complete green cover of the ground. Thus, the initial

sowing density is 1,100 holes/ha, with a sowing framework of 3.15 x 3.15 meters

between holes.

The preparation of the different holes for sowing should begin in October, starting in the

highest areas first. The holes should be left open, with the excavated soil to the side

allowing it to become oxygenated and moistened by the autumn rains.

The holes should be made with a mechanical digger with auger of 12 cm in diameter.

Holes should have a truncated pyramid shape, with an upper area of 40 cm, a bottom of

30 cm and a depth of 40 cm. The estimated performance for this work per operator is of

20 holes per hour.

Acorns of Quercus brantii will be collected from local trees or from a similar region. The

acorns should be sufficiently moist (never below 35%), and with no bites or signs of

germination. Very small seeds should be avoided, as bigger seeds have more reserves and

a better chance of survival. The separate of low quality acorns should be made by

flotation in water (the bad seeds will float). In case of low humidity (outer shell much

separated from embryo), the seeds should be kept in water for up to 12 hours prior to

sowing so as to ensure rehydration.

The sowing has to take place in the late fall, once the vegetative period is clearly over to

prevent unwanted germination just before winter. The most appropriate time for sowing

would be between 1 November and 31 December, before the snow prevents the execution

of the work. The first seedlings should not be expected before May or June because of the

high altitude of the area.


The total amount of seeds required for one hectare will therefore be:

Table 6 Amount of seeds required for the direct sowing area

Species Nº holes Density of

sowing Nº of seeds

Weight for

1,000 seeds Purity

Total

quantity

Quercus brantii

بروتي بلوط

Brantʼs oak

Chêne de Brant

1,000 2 seeds/hole 2,000 10 kg 98% 24 kg

Manual sowing

1. By hand or with a small hoe or other hand tool fill most of the hole with soil

from around the hole.

2. In the center of the hole put two acorns horizontally and cover them with the

rest of the soil to a thickness equivalent to 1.5 to 2 times the diameter of the seed.

3. Compact the soil with the hands to eliminate empty air gaps and make sure the

filled hole does not exceed the natural soil level.

4. Having finished the sowing, sprinkle the ground a few times with a spray bottle

filled with generic cologne, because in certain areas it acts asa good repellent for

wild boars which may dig up the seeds and eat them.

Microwatersheds

Successful reforestation in Mediterranean environments is limited mainly by the

availability of water, especially during

periods of high water stress.There are

different soil preparation techniques such

as microwatersheds aimed at increasing

the amount of water in the holes to be used for

seeding and planting. This basically consists of digging two 1.5 m long, 0.20 m high

ridges forming an oblique angle upslope from the planting hole (see example in figure 6).

In order to maximise benefit of runoff water the layout of holes should be set as shown in

the figure.

The estimated sowing performance per operator is of 15 holes per hour.

Figure 10 Direct sowing (by Enrique Enciso Encinas)


D.4.1.2: Planting Seedlings

The objective is to enhance habitat functionality and restore species diversity in the

mountain cedar forest belt by establishing

scattered copses of several trees and tall

shrubs in between cedar forest stands and

thickets of shrubs and small trees in the edge

of forest stands. Restored copses and thickets

will act as sources of seeds and will provide

habitat for a wide range of species including

seed-dispersal birds and mammals, thus

accelerating natural regeneration and the

colonization of forest in adjacent open areas.

Restoration in this area depends on planting seedlings in high mountain areas located

between 1,500 and 2,000 meters. This area represents the highest point of the study with

high rainfall from November to March. The physiological drought is about 4.3 months

and growing period is 4 months. Possible frost from November to December and from

March to April, and certain frost during the month of January. The average temperature is

11.7 º C.

Photo 8 Five years old cedar seedling (by Nizar

Hani )


Table 7 Species and quantities required for planting seedlings

Species Common Names (Nehmeh M., 1977)67

Number of

seedlings

Cedrus libani أرز لبناني

Cedar of Lebanon

Cèdre du Liban

350/600

Quercus brantii بروتي بلوط

Brantʼs oak

Chêne de Brant

40/600

Crataegus azarolus زعرور

Common azarole

Azerolier

45/600

Sorbus flavellifolia غبيراء مروحية الورق

Fan–leaved service tree

Sorbier à feuilles en éventail

45/600

Sorbus torminali غبيراء

Wild service-tree

Sorbier tormina

35/500

Acer tauricolum قيقب طوروس

Taurus maple

Erable du Taurus

25/600

Prunus ursina خوخ الدب

Bear plum

Prunier des ours

25/600

67

Nehmé M, 1977. Fleurs sauvages du Liban. 3 versions, Arabic, 1981; English, 1978. Beirut : Conseil

National de la Recherche Scientifique.


76Berberis libanotica بربريس لبناني

Lebanon barberry

Berbéris du Liban

15/600

Cotoneaster nummularia عرفج نقدي

Nummular cotoneaster

Cotonéastre nummulaire

15/600

Lonicera

nummulariifolia

ياسمين بري

Nummular leaved Honeysuckle

Chèvre feuille à feuilles nummulaires

15/600

Styrax officinalis حوز او لبنى

Storax

Aliboufier officinal

15/600

A mix of coniferous and broadleaved species is always planted at a higher density than

pure broadleaved species. The initial

density proposed is 600 seedlings/ ha. To

reach the required density the planting

framework should be 4.5 x 4.5 meters.

Preparation of the different holes for

planting should begin in October starting

with the highest areas first. The holes

should left open with the excavated soil

to the side allowing it to become oxygenated and moistened by the autumn rains.

The holes will be made by individual mechanical digger with auger of 12 cm in diameter.

They will have a truncated pyramid shape, with an upper base of 40 cm, a bottom of 30

cm and a height of 40 cm. If you do not have the mechanical auger, you can make holes

with a spade or pick with a minimum depth of 40 cm and an opening of 40x40 cm.

The operator will move forward according to a level curve and locate the point where to

dig the hole, making sure the place does not fall on an area of dense brush or a rocky

Figure 11 Seedling planting sketch showing the depth of the hole (40cm)

and the elevation of the edge (10 cm). by Enrique Enciso Encinas


spot. Should this happen, look for another spot within a radius of 1.5 meters. If an

appropriate spot is not found, then skip this cell and move to the next one.

Plants should be 1-2 year old seedlings and grown in containers, especially for Quercus

species where the container helps preventing root spiraling. The main substrate is usually

peat. The plant should be sufficiently lignified and the proportion between aerial and

subterranean parts will be balanced where the length of the aerial part of the plant is not

much longer than the container length. Avoid plants with injuries, deformations, dry or

damaged leaves, spiral roots or un-branched stems, absence of healthy terminal buds, and

pruned plants. Before planting, the plant should be heavily irrigated in the nursery.

For planting you should follow the depths and placing of the plant according to the above

drawing. The ground shall be compacted to the root ball for a good establishment of

roots. Try to deepen part of the stem (2-4 cm) of the plant as shown and the root ball

should be moist enough from the nursery’s irrigation at the last moment before taking the

plant to the field for planting. Consider micro watersheds as in the Direct Sawing Area.

The most appropriate time to plant seedlings would be between 1 November and 31

December, before the snow prevents work.

D.4.2: Restoration Scenario for abandoned terraces which is mostly privately owned

D.4.2.1: Fenced Plots (grazing land)

The objective is to restore “woodland

islets” in extensive overgrazed open areas,

developing a landscape of grassland with

scattered tree cover that can provide an

integral set of ecological, social and

economic services:(i) act as a source of

propagates, which greatly accelerates

woodland development in the surrounding

denuded land, greatly enhancing species

diversity; (ii) improve soil fertility and

microclimate conditions facilitating the germination and growth of plant species, and

Photo 9 A worker installing a fence for the fenced plots in

grazing areas in Fraidiss village (by Mounzer abou Wadi)


providing protection for livestock and wild fauna during hot days; (iii) provide habitat

and food for seed-dispersal fauna (birds and mammals) that play a major role in natural

forest regeneration; (iv) provide additional fodder supply from tree pruning, and edible

fruits for local food production; (v) represent a flexible restoration approach supporting a

diverse set of land uses, from extensive livestock, to the production of wood and non-

wood forest products and ecotourism (vi) restoration costs are reduced because

intervention areas are small.

Restoration in this area makes use of fenced plots in current grazing areas located

between 1,000 and 1,500 meters. This represents an intermediate area of work with high

rainfall from November to February. The physiological drought is about 4.4 months and

growing period is 4 months. Probable frost extends from November to December, from

March to April, and actual frost in January. The average temperature is 0.7 ° C higher

than in the upper zone. One of the objectives of restoration work is to increase the plant

diversity in grazing areas. To accomplish this, it was decided to install 2 fenced plots per

hectare and plant them with different species that are protected from herbivores.

The fence will be made of metal poles placed at a distance of 3-4 meters and firmly

anchored meters with dimensions of 25 x 25 meters. To install the poles, the same

machinery to dig the holes for plantings can be used. They must be covered up at least 40

cm, leaving a minimum fence height of 1 m above ground. Place barbwire on top of fence

to prevent livestock from jumping. The 4 corners of the fence should be strengthened

with braces.


Table 8 Species and quantities required for the fence

68



Species Common Names (Nehmeh,

1977)68

Number of seedlings

Quercus infectoria ملول

Cyprus oak

Chêne tinctorial

60/240

Sorbus flavellifolia غبيراء مروحية الورق

Fan–leaved service tree

Sorbier à feuilles en éventail

30/240

Sorbus torminalis غبيراء

Wild service-tree

Sorbier tormina

25/240

Acer tauricolum قيقب طوروس

Taurus maple

Erable du Taurus

25/240

Prunus ursina خوخ الدب

Bear plum

Prunier des ours

30/240


Common azarole

Azerolier

25/240

Quercus calliprinos سنديان

Kermes oak

Chêne kermès

15/240


While broadleaved trees are usually planted at a density of 500 to 1,000 stems per

hectare, it is more useful to increase the initial density to take advantage of the work and

installation costs of the fence. The increased plant density will reduce excessive sun

exposure to the plants during the first year. However, thinning operations will need to be

performed in later years without delay.

Preparation of the different holes for planting should begin in October starting with the

highest areas first. The holes should left open with the excavated soil to the side allowing

it to become oxygenated and moistened by the autumn rains.

Plants will be 1-2 year old seedlings and grown in containers. Especially for Quercus

species it will be essential to use containers that prevent root spiraling (containers

separated from the ground and provided with a ribbed interior).

The plant should be sufficiently lignified and the proportion between aerial and

subterranean parts should be balanced. A minimum diameter of root collar of about 4 mm

for Quercus and of about 3 mm for Acer, Prunus, Rosa, Crataegus and Sorbus is

recommended. Avoid plants with injuries, deformations, dry or damaged leaves, spiral

roots or unbranched stems, absence of healthy terminal buds, and pruned plants. Before

planting make sure the containers are heavily irrigated in the nursery.

The most appropriate planting period would be between 1 November and 31 December,

before the snow prevents the work.

Crataegus monogyna زعرور

Azarole

Azerolier

15/240

Rosa canina ورد الكالب

Dog rose

Rosier des chiens

15/240


D.4.2.2: Abandoned terraces

This area includes abandoned terraces formerly used

for the cultivation of crops, mainly vineyards. It

contains formerly tilled terraced fields and crops,

generally vines, which have been abandoned and

colonized by oaks, pines and aromatic plants.

According to the SBR restoration plan in this area,

more aromatic plants and shrubs with economic value should be planted: 1000 seedlings

per hectare. The following table details the seedlings number and species per hectare:

Table 9 Species and quantities required for the abandoned terraces

69



Species Common Names

(Nehmeh, 1977) 69

Number per hectare, out of a

total of 1000 seedlings/hectare

Origanum syriacum

صعتر

Syrian marjoram

Origan de Syrie

225/1000

Salvia fruticosa قصعين

Sage

Sauge

225/1000

Thymbra spicata صعتر دق

Mediterranean thyme

Thynm

75/1000

Lavandula officinalis خزامة

Lavender

Lavande

75/1000

Rhus coriaria 75/1000 سماق

The study area represents a low

elevation with precipitation from

November to February. The

physiological drought is about 4.8

months and growing period is 6

months. Frost extends from

November to April and the average

temperature is 2.5 ° C higher than in

the upper zone of the Reserve.


Tannerʼs sumach

Sumac des corroyeurs


Dog rose

Rosier des chiens

50/1000

Gundelia tournefortii عكوب

Tournefort’s gundelia

Gundélie de Tournefort

75/1000

Amygdalus communis

لوز بري

Common Almond

Amandier commun

50/1000

Ziziphus jujube عناب

Jujuba

Jujubier commun

50/1000

Crataegus azarolus

زعرور

Common azarole

Azerolier

50/1000

Myrtus communis

leucocarpa

حنبالس

Common Myrtle

Myrte commun

50/1000


the objective is to restore viable traditional

farming systems in terraces based on the

cultivation of high quality produce from

native and cultivated species requiring low

maintenance, such as aromatic, medicinal or

culinary herbs, and productive trees while

preserving the ecological niche of the

numerous species of flora and fauna that

colonize the stones, holes and soil of the

terraces.This will also provide

complementary touristic attraction based on the cultural, biodiversity and landscape value

of the terrace systems.The growing of medicinal and aromatic plants provides a good

complementary source of revenue, driven by the increasing market demand linked to the

growing prestige of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve.

This study will discuss this section into details for its economic return and suggest a

combination scenario between intensive oregano and forest economic value shrubs and

trees (Section E3).

D. 4.2.3: Thinning of Dalboun Oak Forest

In this Area the restoration is not based on the introduction of new plants but on the

removal of part of the biomass from too dense unmanaged coppice woodlands with

growth stagnation conditions and low plant diversity.

The Dalboun Oak Forest is located in the western part of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve

and consists of some 150 hectares of continuous Quercus calliprinos,

Photo 10 Oregano plants irrigated with drip irrigation

system (by Nizar Hani)


with some specimens of Quercus infectoria. It is a very dense forest with clumps of 3 to

10 saplings of Quercus calliprinos.

Restoration in this area focuses on the removal of excess timber to reduce the risk of fire,

allowing the establishment of plants that need more light, increasing forest biodiversity,

and creating better grazing conditions.

It is proposed that traditional clear cutting should be stopped and replaced by thinning

work, as a first step in the process of turning this scrubland into a high forest with oak

saplings. The restoration work can make the forest a long-term sustainable environment

by:

- Reducing the risk of fire

- Opening the forest to the growth of light loving species

- Creating better grazing

- Preventing the re-growth of the strains through grazing goats

- Allowing the remaining plants to grow resulting in larger amount of biomass

- Encouraging forest visits

It is important to develop a management plan for the forest that allows the use of

firewood and maintains forest sustainability.

Photo 11 Thinning of Dalboun Oak forest (by Mounzer Buwadi)


D.4.3: Improvement Scenario for agricultural land mainly apple and vegetables

The objective of this scenario is to improve the traditional agriculture land to be more

productive with better quality and less impact on nature.

Based on the needs that highlighted by the farmers in the situation analysis section of the

agriculture in the region we recommend the following:

Build the capacities of the farmers on good and sustainable agricultural practices:

integrated pest management, conservation agriculture and organic agriculture

when possible

Strengthen the 4 existing cooperatives on the administrative and technical levels

Introduce the cultivation of inter-cropping such as edible and aromatic plants in

the traditional fruit orchards to increase the revenue per unit surface area. The

suggested aromatic plants are oreganum syriacum, salvia triloba, and lavandula

officinalis, among others

Build the capacities of the farmers on appropriate harvesting and post-harvesting

practices. This could include the introduction of new tools, equipment and

materials such as pruning shears, refrigerated trucks, special gloves for

harvesting, smooth edges field containers, etc

Enhance the existing infrastructure mainly establishing a small packaging house

in each village mainly Barouk, Ain Zhalta and Mrusti, establish a market for

farmers nearby Beirut, establish more hill lakes to collect rain water.

Plant new varieties of fruit trees mainly apple using certified rootstocks which are

virus free, drought tolerant and of good varietal quality. Improve marketing

opportunities by seeking better marketing channels and by overcoming the role of

the middlemen or by improving their ability to negotiate better contracts with

middlemen

Initiate and support organic agriculture with key farmers

Enhance the processing food business in the region on small industrial scale by

establishing processing units or build on existing cooperative and community

kitchens


Strengthen the organization of farmers and processors to work as a group (formal

or informal groups) and establish a network of the existing cooperatives to have

better linkages and negotiating power with public and private institutions.

D.4.4: Beautification Scenario for vacant residential / built areas

Parks and Natural green spaces70

are essential elements of our cities and the ecosystem

they belong to. The World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) have set a minimum of 9 m2 green space per inhabitant

(Kuchelmeister G., 1998)71

. Required green space per capita in cities is an emerging

policy, and design concept. The benefits of green space comprise climate change

mitigation, health benefits and a diverse array of physical and socio-cultural activities,

green space provides social support to communities (Barbosa O., 2007)72

. Parks and

natural green spaces can be used for recreation; water bodies and forests supply storm-

water drainage and wildlife habitat; farms and forests provide aesthetic benefits to

surrounding residents.

The vacant areas in the villages are owned by the municipalities and individuals, the

areas that owned by municipalities can be transformed to picnic areas that will be a green

spaces for the local communities as well as the visitors to the region.

We proposed to restore these vacant areas by planting several shrubs and plant species

such as cedrus libani, pinus pinea, populus alba, Quercus calliprinos, styrax officinalis,

cercis siliquastrum, Rosa canina, Crataegus azarolus, Rhus coriaria, Lavandula

officinalis, Origanum syriacum, rosmarinus officinalis, etc.

The density of planting is 900-1000 seedlings per hectare.

70

Green space includes all types of accessible vegetated public lands. Three main components of green

space are more or less common across the reviewed literature: patch (public parks or gardens and forest

patches), corridor (linear parks and street planting) and network arrangement (a layout system connecting

all patches and corridors)

71

Kuchelmeister Guido, “Urban forestry in the Asia-Pacific region: status and prospects” Forestry Policy

and Planning Divison, Rome and Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1998. 5.1-5.1.7Laurif,

2000.

72

Barbosa O., “Who benefits from access to green space? A case study from Sheffield, UK,” Landscape

and Urban Planning 83 (2007): 187-195


Table 10 Species and quantities required for the vacant built areas

Species Common Name (Nehmeh

M., 1977)73

Number

Pinus pinea

صنوبر مثمر

Stone pine

Pin pignon

200/1000

Populus alba الحور األبيض

While poplar

Peuplier blanc

100/1000

Quercus calliprinos سنديان

Kermes oak

Chêne kermès

50/1000

Cercis siliquastrum زمزريق

Judas tree

Arbre de Judée

100/1000

Rhus coriaria سماق

Tannerʼs sumach

Sumac des corroyeurs

100/1000


Dog rose

Rosier des chiens

100/1000

Cedrus libani أرز لبناني

Cedar of Lebanon

Cèdre du Liban

50/1000

73




Species Common Name (Nehmeh

M., 1977)73

Number


Common azarole

Azerolier

50/1000

Origanum syriacum صعتر

Syrian marjoram Origan

de Syrie

150/1000

Lavandula officinalis خزامة

Lavender

Lavande

150/1000


D.4. PROBLEMATIC

The ecosystem in the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR), the buffer and development zones

is susceptible for degradation on both ecological and physical levels, mainly the old

abandoned terraces. This abandoned land will have subsequent negative environmental

impact and reduced economic return.

D.5. MAIN OBJECTIVE

The main objective is to assess the socio-economic of the ecosystem restoration with a

focus on abandoned terraces by rehabilitating and transforming it into an income

generating agriculture activity.

D.6. METHODOLOGY:

The study consists a series of interviews with the concerned key persons in the region,

mainly presidents of the agriculture cooperatives, farmers, Shouf Biosphere Reserve

president and management team, the coordinator and team of the agriculture extension

center in Deir El kamar, Mayors of Barouk, Maasser, Ain Zhalta, Mrusti, the teachers of

the agriculture school in Baakleen, oak forest thinning workers, concerned NGOs such as

Al-Shouf Cedar Society (ACS) Green Hand, Association for Forest Conservation and

Development (AFDC), quality control companies, a creative designer, couple of

international consultants in the ecosystem restoration and fog catchers. A list of the key

persons interviewed is annexed (Annex I)

The interviews with the cooperatives discussed the agriculture sector in the region in

general, identified the weaknesses and strengths of the domain mainly the marketing.

With the farmers the interviews focused on the used practices, using pesticides, their

knowledge about organic agriculture, difficulties, market, etc.

While the focus with the agriculture extension center in Deir el Kamar was about

statistics, number of farmers in the study area, surfaces, number of active cooperatives,

the support that MOA provides to the farmers, training, traps, pesticides, materials, etc.


The mayors were more interested in the market and the labeling, the Barouk mayor

stressed on the importance of creating one label for the region to promote the fresh goods

while the Maasser Mayor (president of the SBR) expressed his concern of thinning the

oak forests. Despite the economic value of thinning the oak forest and its role in

prevention of fire, his main concern is that will harm the beauty of the landscape.

The international Spanish consultants who interviewed focused on the big potential to

this region to be a success story in ecosystem restoration and that will enhance the quality

of life in this region on all levels and will give this region more international good

reputation in nature conservation and integration with local community development.

The restoration plan of the SBR reviewed and discussed mainly the below two scenarios

1. Restoration Scenario for protected land in the core area of the Shouf

Biosphere Reserve

2. Restoration Scenario for abandoned terraces land which is mostly privately

owned

Also two other scenarios have been conducted in the framework on this study:

3. Improvement Scenario for agricultural land mainly apple and vegetables

4. Beautification Scenario for vacant residential / built areas

As well as many field visits were organized to visit the different related sites and

facilities in the study area (reforestation sites in the Reserve, agricultural lands, aromatic

plants initiatives mainly Origanum syriacum, cooling room in Barouk village, point of

sales, Souk El Tayeb, traditional product ateliers, and natural food coop in USA..

In addition, secondary data sources and desk studies were reviewed, relevant articles,

reports, management plans, action plans, movies, documentaries, studies, on the local,

regional and international levels.

As for land use type and corresponding surface areas, we relied on two sources:


1- Secondary data source: MOA/FAO agriculture statistic (FAO-MOA,

2012)74

, survey validated by Deir el Kamar extension center MOA to

validate the MOA/FAO statistics on the ground, the latter survey adjusted

the types and surface area and the following was noted: peach orchards

were identified as one of the agriculture type also summer crops mainly

tomatoes were identified as an agriculture although on a small scale.

2- As for actual surface area considered in this study, it is 901 ha, where only

70% is considered in the study equivalent to approximately 600 ha. It

relies as detailed in section C.1 (Description of the study area) on the land

use map for arable agriculture land (Table 5,:MOE, 1997) and on the

areas currently cultivated according to the statistics (FAO-MOA, 2012).

Based on the preliminary, secondary data and the experience in the study area and the

data collected from the interviews, a situation analysis was conducted to identify all

relevant key actors and identify the role of each of them and their concerns. The analysis

also covers the weaknesses and strengths of the agriculture sector in the study area.

Based on all results, the four scenarios of ecosystem restoration described in section 4,

two scenarios are analyzed and discussed for this study (taken from Scenario 1-2,

Colomer R. et al, 201375

). The present study suggests a combination of 4 scenarios that

are sustainable to the SBR ecosystems taking into consideration the agriculture and built

areas.

Furthermore, in this study each scenario different interventions are discussed. As for

scenario 2 “the abandoned terraces”, two different options are proposed to restore the

abandoned terraces through a profitable agriculture action while preserving the ecosystem

also a cost benefit analysis and net present value are conducted for added value crops

including a marketing strategy and action plan.

74

MOA-FAO, 2012. The national agriculture survey.

75

Colomer R., Regato P., 2013. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Ecosystem Restoration Plan. Pages 24-41


E. SITUATION ANALYSIS

E.1. ACTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS

A considerable number of actors are playing an important role in the agriculture sector in

the study area. These actors are important and relevant players at the local, national, or

international levels. Many of them have been involved in the consultation process carried

out during the development phase of this thesis, and have provided their input and

feedback. These stakeholders are set to play a potentially important role in the future to

enhance the ecosystem situation mainly agriculture sector in the study area, on different

levels technical and/or financial assistance, decision makers, beneficiaries, etc.

Local stakeholders:

- Municipalities of the study area (9 municipalities)

- Federation of Municipalities of the Higher Shouf (Moukhtara)

- Agriculture cooperatives (Barouk, Batloun and Mrusti)

- Shouf Biosphere Reserve

- Ministry of agriculture – Deir El Kamar extension center

- Al-Shouf Cedar Society

- Ministry of agriculture - Agriculture technical school in Baakline

- Local Environmental NGOs: Green Orient, Friends of Green Environment, the

Lebanese Home for the Environment

- Small and medium entrepreneurs in the rural economy sector: beekeepers,

farmers, shepherds, collectors

- Agriculture-related enterprises

- Private sector and providers of tourism-related services: restaurants (20

stakeholders); guesthouse owners (7 stakeholders); hotel and hostel owners (4

stakeholders); shop owners (40 stakeholders)

- Private Land Owners

- Local Schools and education associations


National stakeholders:

- Ministry of agriculture

- Lebanese research agriculture center (LARI) in Lebanon

- Lebanese Ministry of Environment

- Universities in Lebanon (AUB, LU, etc)

- The Environment and Sustainable Development Unit at AUB (ESDU)

- National NGOs: arcenciel, Souk el Tayeb, etc.

- Quality certification bodies such as Liban cert (stopped their work in 2014) and

IMC.

- Lebanese alternative agriculture experts

- Lebanese Media (TV, radio, press)

International and regional stakeholders:

- IUCN particularly Regional Offices for West Asia and Mediterranean regions

- International UN Organizations: UNEP, UNDP, FAO, IFAD, UNESCO, etc

- International universities, researchers and technicians

- Members of the Donor community active in Lebanon: Italian Cooperation, GIZ,

USAID, SDC, AFD, European Commission

- Embassies of Donor Countries (Japan, USA, Finland, Canada etc.)

- Private donors such Rotary Club, lions, etc


E.2. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE AGRICULTURE

SECTOR:

Based on the interviews that have been done with agriculture stakeholders in the study

area the current situation of the agriculture is as follow:

Weaknesses:

Issues related directly to farmers:

Lack of knowledge, capacities and skills of most of the farmers

Lack of cooperative mentality, they don’t collect their goods together to get better

price and the existing agriculture cooperatives need support on all levels

Lack of transparency with some farmers (the MOA distribute some materials

mainly medicines for beekeeping, traps, etc and sometimes the team of the

agriculture extension center in Deir El Kamar finds those materials are selling at

the agriculture pharmacies in the region)

Farmers are not so open to use new varieties, technologies, methods, etc

The farmers are not so honest in using pesticides, pruning practices, new

technologies, methods, etc

Lack of equipment and machineries (for example 3 workers can collect manually

200-250 kg of olives per day while if they have a harvesting machine they will

collect 500 kg at least) and to minimize harvest and packing damage such as

special gloves for harvesting, smooth edges field containers, etc.

Lack of infrastructure (no packing house, no cool trucks in the villages, one

cooling private room in Barouk village, water drip irrigation, etc).

Issues related to Market:

The market is so limited mainly after the Syria crises, the goods sell at the local

market

A big quantity of the olive oil of the last year still not sold because they did not

reach a good agreement to sell to the army

Reliance on middlemen/ mediators to reach the wholesale market

No marketing strategy as well as no branding, labeling, etc.


Issues related to the national and local policies:

Effective management of the cooperatives

The difficulties to establish new cooperatives

No cooperation between the cooperatives

No enough cooperation between cooperatives and ministry of agriculture

The distribution system of the MOA support needs to be more effective

Strengths:

Most of the villages are rich is water and water canal network in addition to the

Barouk and Nabia el Safa rivers and water sources there are about 20 hill lakes to

collect the rain water (four in Niha, three in Jbaa, six in Mrusti, two in Khraibeh,

one in Baadaran, and two

in the Reserve nearby

Barouk and Ain Zhalta

cedar forests)

New varieties are being

cultivated by some

farmers

A good quantity of the

goods are sold in the

villages to the restaurants, and directly on the main road mainly in Barouk – Ain

Zhalta/Nabia el Safa using small tents to display the produce

The existence of 3 agriculture cooperatives in Barouk, Batloun and Mrusti

The cooperative in Barouk has initiated the production of apple molasses which is

being gradually known and the big quantity is promoted at the Reserve entrances

The SBR has established three ateliers in Baadaran, Mrusti and Jbaa villages for

traditional food processing, oregano drying unit and honey packaging and all of

them are working effectively

Photo 12 A hill lake in Barouk village (by Eddy Choueiri)


The villages involve actively in the processing food program (Rural development

program) managed by the Al-Shouf Cedar Society; more than 70 processing food

products are produced, labeled, and promoted in and outside Lebanon.

Barouk is one hour drive from Beirut, hence not very far from the wholesale

market of Beirut.

About 62,000 visitors visit the Reserve on yearly basis through four entrances:

Ain Zhalta, Barouk, Maasser, Niha and this year a new entrance will be

established in Mrusti village

Big potential of planting new species, medicinal and aromatic plants in the

abandoned terraces that mentioned above


E.3. OPTIONS PROPOSED FOR THE RESTORATION OF THE

ABANDONED TERRACES:

For the purpose of the present study, two options are proposed for scenario 2

“ Abandoned terraces”, which will be analyzed for their economic feasibility and degree

of acceptance by the local communities. The options are:

Option 1: Rain fed forest species with economic value: to plant 1000 different forest

species without changing in the status of the terraces and without intervening in the land

preparation (ploughing or else) with high economic value.

Option 2: Intensive oregano planting with some other rain fed economic species: to plant

oregano intensively with selected rain fed forest species with economic value; this

intervention requires land preparation and installation of a drip irrigation system and /or

fog catcher system.

Photo 13 Abandoned terraces in Baadaran village (by Nizar Hani)


The two options are summarized in the tables below:

Table 11 Option 1, Rain fed economic species: species

and quantities required in the abandoned land

Table 12 Option 2, Intensive oregano planting with some

other rain fed economic species: species and quantities

required in the abandoned land

Species Number per

hectare, out if a

total of 1000

seedlings/hectare

Origanum

syriacum

225/1000

Salvia fruticosa 225/1000

Thymbra spicata 75/1000

Lavandula

officinalis

75/1000

Rhus coriaria 75/1000

Rosa canina 50/1000

Gundelia

tournefortii

75/1000

Amygdalus

communis

50/1000

Ziziphus jujuba 50/1000

Crataegus

azarolus

50/1000

Myrtus communis

leucocarpa

50/1000

Species Number of

seedlings per

hectare

Origanum syriacum 45,000 (4500

seedlings per

dunnum.

Rhus coriaria 100/500

Rosa canina 100/500

Amygdalus communis 100/500

Ziziphus jujuba 100/500

Crataegus azarolus 100/500


Option 1 (1000 rain fed forest species and oregano seedlings per hectare):

When mixing different species with different sizes, the suitable density is 1,000 plants /

ha. The distribution of plants per species will be linear, to facilitate harvesting. The

number of lines per terrace will depend on the width of the terrace. Distribution of the

new plants will depend on the existing vegetation because as mentioned before in this

option we will not be changing in the status of the land.

The density of planting is:

- For Origanum syriacum, Salvia fruticosa, Thymbra spicata, Lavandula officinalis:

separation 0.3 to 0.5 m.

- For Rhus coriaria, Rosa canina, Gundelia tournefortii: separation 1 m.

- For Amygdalus communis, Ziziphus jujuba, Crataegus azarolus, Myrtus

communis: separation 4 m.

A total of 1.000 plants per hectare to be planted between 1 April and 15 May.

This option may be is not the best on the direct revenue level but it is very useful for

ecosystem functions and dynamics.

Photo 15 Abandoned terraces in Mrusti village (by Eddy Chouiry) Photo 14 Abandoned terraces in Khraibeh village (by

Nizar Hani)


Option 2 (500 rain fed forest seedlings and 45000 oregano seedlings per hectare):

The terraces will be cleaned from weeds, and

rocks, the stone wall will be restored. The land

will be planted intensively with Oregano

seedlings, 40 cm spacing between seedlings and

50 cm between rows and the other 500 native

shrub seedlings will be distributed on the edges of

the terraces 2-3 m apart. to avoid shading on the

oregano and not to harm the movement of the

farmers in the land.

For this option and for the proper growth and

rooting of plants in these terraces, drip irrigation

system will be installed. It includes the installation of header tank and a main and

secondary network of dripper hose. The water will be provided from different sources,

water sources and /or hill lakes and /or fog catchers.

The condensation panels or fog catchers are recommended to be installed. Fog catchers

have been used for years in Europe to irrigate areas of low rainfall. This technique

consists of placing low-cost panels in order to condensate the fog in specific areas and

then using its water to irrigate plants. Fog is common feature in the Shouf Biosphere

Reserve especially during the early hours of the day because of its proximity to the sea

and high altitude slopes that face the sea coast.

Multiple screens and fog catchers can be placed in the abandoned terraces to collect the

water during the early hours of the day, especially in summer. This condensed water will

be used to fill a number of water tanks that will supply the drip irrigation system.

These fog catchers have been tested in many countries mainly South Africa, Chile, Peru

as well as Yemen, Oman and present a high potential of adaptability to our context, the

FogQuest is a non-profit, registered Canadian charity dedicated to planning and

implementing water projects for rural communities in developing countries.

FogQuest utilizes innovative fog collectors as well as effective rainfall collectors

to make optimum use of natural atmospheric sources of water. Both options can be

used to ensure enough income for the farmers and healthy ecosystems for the

environment.

Fog Catchers are vertical panels of

polyethylene mesh that collect water from

fog and channel it to a storage tank

http://wateradvocate.org/fogcatcher.htm

Photo 16 Fog catcher in a rural area in Chile (by

FogQuest)

http://wateradvocate.org/fogcatcher.htm


F. COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR RE-PLANTING IN THE

ABANDONED TERRACES

This section of the present study analyses the economic value of re-planting the

abandoned terraces with the proposed plant species. The results will allow to estimate the

economic advantages of such interventions. The following sections present the cost-

benefit analysis of proposed options/strategies for re-planting the abandoned terraces

based on different species and two different options (option 1: rain fed forest species with

economic value; option 2: intensive irrigated oregano planting with rain fed economic

species (refer to Section D3 page 54).

The cost benefit analysis is conducted using

F.1. PRODUCTS

The 11 species suggested to be introduced as added value crops on these old terraces are

listed in the table below with the respective products and value and/or use:

Table 13 Respective products and value and/or use

Species, common name,

Arabic transliterated

name

Products /Economic Value Details

Origanum syriacum

Oregano

Zaatar

Young fresh leaves (Salads)

Dry leaves and flowers (Oregano for

Mankouchi, distilled water and syrup,

oregano with wild pine nuts, oil)

The oregano has a very large

market in and outside Lebanon

and good price mainly for the

high quality product

Salvia fruticosa

Sage

Kasein

Flowers and leaves (dried herbal tea,

distilled water, syrup and oil)

Medicinal plant, its distilled

water used widely in Lebanon

for stomach and intestinal

problems

Thymbra spicata

Thyme

Zaatar Khlat or Zaaitri

Fresh leaves (Salad, mixed with cheese

and olive oil or with olive oil only)

High economic potential

(herbal tea and culinary uses;

essences)


Lavandula officinalis

Lavender

Khzam

Flowers (distilled water, decoration, oil) Easily produced by seeds and

cuttings; potential nursery role

facilitating the growth of tree

seedlings in the field

Rhus coriaria

Elm-leaved sumac or

Tanner’s sumac

Semak

Fruit (use as a spice instead of lemon) Medicinal and edible shrub

uses widely in the Lebanese

cuisine

Rosa canina

Dog rose

Wared barri

Fruits (jam and dried for herbal tea)

Flowers (dried for herbal tea)

Medicinal and edible shrub

Gundelia tournefortii

Tournefort’s gundelia

Akoub

Plant (stewed or fresh) Very delicious and well know

wild edible plant in the study

area

Amygdalus communis

Wild almond

Lawz Barri

Flower (herbal tea)

Fruit (food)

An infusion of dried flower

petals used for a hot tea-like

drink

Ziziphus jujuba

Jujube or Jujuba

Innab

Fresh fruit (edible)

Dry fruit (herbal tea)

Edible fruits; medicinal uses;

wood handicraft

Crataegus azarolus

Common azarole

Zaarour

Fruit (jam and fresh)

Flower (herbal tea)

Fruit species attracting seed-

dispersal fauna (birds and

mammals)

Edible fruits; medicinal uses;

wood handicraft


Myrtus communis

leucocarpa

Common myrtle

Rihan or Himbalass

Fruit (Jam)

Flower (herbal tea)

Fruit species attracting seed-

dispersal fauna (birds and

mammals)

High economic potential

(herbal tea and culinary uses;

essences)

F.2. COST ANALYSIS

2.1: Option 1 “Rain fed forest species initial cost of the production: the cost of the

production includes the cost of the land preparations, cost of the seedlings for year 1

Cost of the land preparation and planting :

Table 14 Cost of the land preparation and planting (Option 1)

Item Unit

Price

L.L

Nº of

seedlings

Cost in L.L.

Site preparation in staggered rows using mechanical

auger of 12 cm in diameter. Will have a truncated

pyramid shape, with an upper base of 40 cm, a bottom of

30 cm and a height of 40 cm. Or by manually performing

hole digging holes of 40x40x40 cm depth and 20x20 cm

and at the bottom with hoe, shovel, pick or similar in

transition field and slope less than 50%

2000 1000 2.000.000

Manual planting, including cover and carrying a small

tree surround below 50 cm in diameter, on slopes less

than 50%, including plant layout, or micro watershed if

slope greater than 15%.

1000 1000 1000.000

Forest plant in container 1 year seedling 1800 1000 1.800.000

Sub-total: 4.800.000

Unit: 4.800


2.2: Expected revenues of one hectare for the option 1 “Rain fed forest species” based on

the below list of species

Table 15 Expected revenues of one hectare for the option 1

Species Number of

seedlings per

hectare

Cost* per

Unit L.L

Revenue** per year per

hectare in L.L

Origanum syriacum 225/1000 4800 1000 x 6 years x 225 = 1.350.000

225.000 per year

Salvia fruticosa 200/1000 4800 1000 x 6 years x 200 = 1.200.000

200.000 per year

Thymbra spicata 75/1000 4800 1000 x 6 years x 225 = 1.350.000

225.000 per year

Lavandula officinalis 75/1000 4800 1500 x 6 years x 75 = 675.000

112.500 per year

Rhus coriaria 75/1000 4800 7500 x 14 years x 75 = 7.875.000

562.500 per year

Rosa canina 50/1000 4800 7500 x 14 years x 50 = 5.250.000

375.000 per year

Gundelia tournefortii 150/1000 4800 1500 x 6 years x 150 = 1.350.000

225.000 per year

Amygdalus communis 50/1000 4.800 7500 x 14 years x 50 = 5.250.000

375.000 per year

Ziziphus jujube 50/1000 4.800 7500 x 10 years x 50 = 3.750.000

375.000 per year


Species Number of

seedlings per

hectare

Cost* per

Unit L.L

Revenue** per year per

hectare in L.L

Crataegus azarolus 50/1000 4.800 7500 x 14 years x 50 = 5.250.000

375.000 per year

Sub-total without

irrigation

1000 4.800 3.050.000 L.L. per year

Net Revenue (around 20% of total Revenue will be used for maintenance)

Sub-total per hectare 2.440.000 L.L. per year

Sub-total per dunnum 244.000 L.L. per year

*cost=cost of the land preparations and planting (Section E 2.1)

** Revenue: estimated with farmers who grows such species on small scale

The advantage of this option is:

The maintenance work needs a little money because no need to do a big efforts in

managing the land.

Can be implemented on larger scale

Very useful for ecosystems and biodiversity

The irrigation will enhance the production and the quality of production however

it necessitates investing in the irrigation system and water source or in fog

catchers (Annex 2)

This option does not generate high economic profit


2.3: Option 2: Intensive irrigated oregano planting with some other rain fed forest

species

Cost (L.L) – detailed cost is annexed – Annex 4

Table 16 Cost of land preparations and planting for option 2

per dunnum Unit Cost Number Cost

Land preparation 50.000 1 50.000

Workers 35.000 5 175.000

Seedlings 200 4000 800.000

Irrigation system 2.250.000 1 2.250.000

Harvesting (3 seasons) 150.000 3 450.000

Other seedlings 3000 50 150.000

Total Cost per dunnum 3.375.000

Total Cost per hectare 30.375.000

Annual Expenses details:

Table 17 Annual Expenses for Option 2

per dunnum Unit Cost Number Cost

Land cleaning (workers) 35.000 4 140.000

Water (250 ml per week per

oregano seedling per 45 weeks) 25.000 20 500.000

Harvesting (3 seasons) – 12

workers 35.000 12 420.000

Grinding 1500 154 231.000

Total Cost per dunnum 1.291.000

Total Cost per hectare 12.910.000


Revenue per dunnum per year in L.L.

Table 18 Revenue per dunnum per year in L.L. for option 2

Oregano*

Productio

n per kg

according

to survey

Production

as used in

kg in the

Net Present

Value

(NPV)

Price of 1 Kg

(15,000 L.L.)

according to

the survey

Price of 1 Kg

(15,000 L.L.)

according to

the NPV

Revenue

per year

according

to the

survey

(L.L)

Revenue per

year as used

in the NPV

(L.L.)

year 1 127 kg 100 1.905.000 1.500.000

year 2 270 kg 200 4.050.000 3.000.000

year 3 -7 (4) 480 kg x

4 300 x 4 28.800.000 18.000.000

Per dunnum 34.755.000 22.500.000 4.965.000 3.214.285

Per hectare 340.755.000 225.000.000 49.650.000 32.142.850

Crataegus / Sumac / jujuba / Almond / Rosa **

Productio

n per kg

Kg price

15000 L.L

Revenue

per year

year 1-3 0 kg 0 kg 0 0

year 4 1 kg 1 kg 15.000 15.000

year 5 2 kg 2 kg 30.000 30.000

year 6 -14 63 kg 63 kg 3.795.000 945.000

Revenue per

tree 990.000 990.000

Per dunnum

(50 trees) 495.00.000 49.500.000 3.535.417 3.535.417

Per Hectare

(500 trees) 495.000.000 495.000.000 35.354.170 35.354.170


*the estimations of oregano growing based on previous experiences mainly in the south

and north of the country

**the estimations based on interviews with farmers growing the rain fed species on small

scale

In Summary:

Table 19 Summary for expenses and revenue for Option 1 and Option 2

Option Cost (per

hectare)

L.L.

Revenue (per

hectare) according

to the survey L.L.

Revenue (per

hectare)

according to NPV

L.L.

Net revenue

Option 1: Rain fed forest

species

610.000

(without the

initial cost)

3.050.000 - 2.750.000

Option 2: Intensive

irrigated oregano planting

with some other rain fed

forest species

46.660.000 85.004.170 67.497.020 Max:

38.344.170

Min:

20.837.020

Total Revenue

Per Dunnum 8.500.417 6.749.702

Per Hectare 85.004.170 67.497.020

Revenue after deducting the initial cost 3.375.000

Per Dunnum 4.625.417 2.874.702

Per Hectare 46.254.170 28.747.020

Annual Expenses

per dunnum 1.291.000 1.291.000

Per Hectare 12.910.000 12.910.000

Net Revenue

Per dunnum 3.834.417 2.083.702

Per Hectare 38.344.170 20.837.020

Nizar Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 1 0 0

Both options estimations based on direct contact with farmers and institutions which

implemented such activities in Lebanon mainly the oregano plantation in the South and

North of Lebanon, regarding the trees and shrubs our estimations mainly on farmer

experiences and knowledge on small scale.

The proposed innovative approach in the present study is the combination of both in one

plot, using sustainable and innovative cultural practices such as drip irrigation and fog

catchers. The main objective remains to be the income generating aspect of the activity

whereby the sustainable practices are still maintained and enhanced to enable the

restoration and good management of the ecosystem.

Based on the results of the cost benefit analysis the option two is more beneficial for the

farmer on a minimum of one hectare. Farmers would work as a group to be able to make

the benefit aimed for, and establish a partnership with the land owners who are not able

to restore their lands. Restoring surfaces of 2-3 hectares will be useful for the ecosystems,

landscapes, famers and land owners.

F.3. NET PRESENT VALUE CRITERION FOR OPTION 2:

According to this criterion, a project is economically viable if its “Net Present Value –

NPV” is greater than zero. ‘Net Present Value (NPV)’ is defined as the difference

between discounted benefits and discounted costs of a certain project. The rate of

discount applied represents the cost of capital to the owners of the project and the period

of discounting extends until the terminal year of the project. A salvage value, if it exists,

is credited at the last year. The project is considered economically viable if the NPV is

greater than zero.

The NPV can be expressed as follows:

NPV = -C0+ R1-C1/(1+r)^1 +R2-C2/(1+r)^2 +…..+ Rn-Cn +Sn/(1+r)^n

Where

C0: Immediate capital cost of the project.

C1….Cn: Capital cost and operating cost incurred in each respective year.

R1....Rn: Expected revenue stream of project.

r: Rate of discount used which is equivalent to the cost of capital to the owner.

n:Life span of the project.

Sn: Salvage value of the investment at year n.


According to this formula, NPV varies directly with the benefits and / or revenues stream

and inversely with the cost stream of the project and the rate of discount applied. Thus

assuming other variables to remain constant, the higher the revenues are the higher is

NPV; the higher costs and rate of discount are the lower is NPV.

The feasibility study is calculated using the NPV criterion.

For a negative value, the project is not feasible.

For a positive value, the project is feasible.

Inversely, when the cost increase the NPV decrease.

In this study the calculation is done in US dollars currency (1 US dollar =1500 L.L) .

The loan interest rate in the Lebanese Market is 12 % (source, Lebanese Central Bank).

This interest rate takes into consideration the inflation which could happen during the

course of the project.

The following tables 13 to 15 summarize the NPV of the two types of crops: Oregano and

native tree shrubs:

Oregano for 7 years

Table 20 Net present value for the oregano cultivation

year

Cost per dn Revenue stream 1/(1+r)^n

Net revenue NPV*

Rn-Cn (Rn - Cn)/(1+r)^n

0 C0 0 R0 0 0 0.00

1 C1 4,025,000 R1 1,500,000 0.893 -2,525,000 -2,254,464.29

2 C2 1,360,000 R2 3,000,000 0.797 1,640,000 1,307,397.96

3 C3 1,510,000 R3 4,500,000 0.712 2,990,000 2,128,222.94

4 C4 1,510,000 R4 4,500,000 0.636 2,990,000 1,900,199.05

5 C5 1,510,000 R5 4,500,000 0.567 2,990,000 1,696,606.30

6 C6 1,510,000 R6 4,500,000 0.507 2,990,000 1,514,827.05

7 C7 1,510,000 R7 4,500,000 0.452 2,990,000 1,352,524.15

Total 14,065,000 7,645,313.17


Trees shrubs for 14 years

Table 21 Net present value for the added value shrubs cultivation

year


Net revenue NPV*


0 C0 0 R0 0 0 0.00

1 C1 250,000 R1 0 0.893 -250,000 -223,214.29

2 C2 0 R2 0 0.797 0 0.00

3 C3 0 R3 0 0.712 0 0.00

4 C4 70,000 R4 750000 0.636 680,000 432,152.29

5 C5 105,000 R5 1500000 0.567 1,395,000 791,560.46

6 C6 140,000 R6 2250000 0.507 2,110,000 1,068,991.67

7 C7 175,000 R7 3000000 0.452 2,825,000 1,277,886.53

8 C8 210000 R8 3750000 0.404 3,540,000 1,429,746.63

9 C9 245000 R9 4500000 0.361 4,255,000 1,534,395.66

10 C10 280000 R10 5250000 0.322 4,970,000 1,600,206.99

11 C11 315000 R11 6000000 0.287 5,685,000 1,634,301.65

12 C12 350000 R12 6750000 0.257 6,400,000 1,642,720.59

13 C13 385000 R13 7500000 0.229 7,115,000 1,630,574.36

14 C14 420000 R14 8250000 0.205 7,830,000 1,602,173.13

Total 46,555,000 14,421,495.68


Oregano and trees/shrubs

Table 22 Net present value for both cultivation: shrubs and oregano

year


Net revenue NPV*


0 C0 0 R0 0 0 0.00

1 C1 4,275,000 R1 1,500,000 1 -2,775,000 -2,477,679

2 C2 1,360,000 R2 3,000,000 1 1,640,000 1,307,398

3 C3 1,510,000 R3 4,500,000 1 2,990,000 2,128,223

4 C4 1,580,000 R4 5,250,000 1 3,670,000 2,332,351

5 C5 1,615,000 R5 6,000,000 1 4,385,000 2,488,167

6 C6 1,650,000 R6 6,750,000 1 5,100,000 2,583,819

7 C7 1,685,000 R7 7,500,000 0 5,815,000 2,630,411

8 C8 4,235,000 R8 5,250,000 0 1,015,000 409,941

9 C9 1,605,000 R9 7,500,000 0 5,895,000 2,125,796

10 C10 1,790,000 R10 9,750,000 0 7,960,000 2,562,907

11 C11 1,825,000 R11 10,500,000 0 8,675,000 2,493,855

12 C12 1,860,000 R12 11,250,000 0 9,390,000 2,410,179

13 C13 1,895,000 R13 12,000,000 0 10,105,000 2,315,805

14 C14 1,930,000 R14 12,750,000 0 10,820,000 2,213,986

Total 74,685,000 25,525,160

The results of NPV detailed in the tables above show the following:

Planting oregano alone is feasible (NPV= 7,645,313.17)

Planting added value shrubs alone is feasible (NPV =14,421,495.68 )

Planting both in one plot is more feasible (NPV =25,525,160)

Using such restoration scenario, while we were very conservative in the net present value

in comparison with the results of the survey for example the quantity of oregano


produced in year 1 is 100 kg instead of 127 kg and 200 kg instead of 270 kg in year 2 as

well as 300 kg in year 3 instead of 480 kg.

Also we calculated the cost of one kg of oregano in 15.000 L.L and that is the minimum

cost for big quantities, if the farmer is able to follow the labelling, packaging and

marketing recommendations of this study the price of one kg of oregano can be sold

between 30.000 and 40.000 L.L. and that is applicable on the added value shrubs/trees

which can produce several economic value products using the fruits and flowers as

mentioned in the section E1.

The combination of oregano and rain fed forest native shrubs is a safer cropping system

which also reduces the risk of loss of oregano due to any adverse climatic conditions

and/or market fluctuation which will affect oregano since it is more sensitive than the

shrubs.


G. SOME MARKETING ACTIVITIES : BRANDING,

PACKAGING AND MARKETING PLAN

Based on the feasibility of re-cultivating the abandoned terraces, more profit can be

sought for through a food some marketing activities to add value to the produce. This is

done by improving the labeling, packaging, and marketing channels to get best prices and

high sales.

G.1. INITIATION OF A BRAND NAME AND PACKAGING FOR

THE PRODUCTS

The aim of creating and promoting a

brand name is to promote all the goods

and the products of the region under it

and that gives an identity for the region

as well as maintains a sustainable

growth. Branding image must be simple

and convey intended message. Also

branding and packaging give trust for

the customers and reflects

professionalism of the brand owners.

G.1.1: Branding:

The Shouf Biosphere Reserve (SBR) and

Al-Shouf Cedar Society (ACS) are

promoting the processed traditional food

products of the region under the SBR/ACS

Logo, the fresh goods and herbs suggested

products for the purpose of this study can

be promoted under the same logo with

different packages for the goods (fresh

A marketing strategy: is a marketing plan which is designed to

achieve marketing objectives. It is a process that allows an

organization to concentrate its limited resources on the greatest

opportunities so as to increase sales and achieve a sustainable

competitive advantage.

One of the main functions of a marketing strategy is to identify

a target audience and determine the most efficient ways of

reaching that audience

Sustainable Marketing Mix: The marketing mix, also known as

the four Ps of marketing, is the combination of product, price,

place (distribution), and promotion. Marketers develop

strategies around these four areas in marketing to enhance

branding, sales, and profitability. The marketing mix forms the

foundation for creating a sustainable marketing strategy.

Sustainability marketing, unlike traditional marketing, needs to

adhere well to sustainability principles throughout the

marketing mix. This helps to (1) strengthen the brand identity;

(2) provide credibility; and (3) ensure honest, truthful

communications and radical transparency with stakeholders,

one of the cornerstones of good sustainability marketing

principles.

Photo 17 Labeling of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (by

Alaa Monzer)


products and dried).

The Reserve brand name is the only brand name that exists currently in the study area,

the Al-Shouf Cedar Society promotes the processing food that is produced at the

Reserve’s workshops (ateliers), which is located in the villages of Baadaran, Mrusti and

Jbaa, in addition some of these products are made at the household level (ex. Bmohray,

Ain Zhalta and Barouk).

Most of the products, mainly the fresh goods are promoted without brand name and no

quality control despite the efforts of the Ministry of agriculture and the agriculture

cooperatives such as Barouk agriculture cooperative that established in 2008 mainly for

apple bio-products (molasses , vinegar and jam)

SBR is seeking to develop a quality mark to improve the marketing opportunities in the

region and encourage the owners of the restaurants and accommodation facilities to use

the local products of the fresh and processed goods.

The same brand can be modified for three sectors processing food, fruits and vegetables.

The following samples are suggested brand name and labels for:

1- the brown one is for the natural products and

2- the green is for the organic products

Figure 12 Brand name labels (the green for the organic products and the brown for the other products)


To give the label added value and attractiveness the name of the village and local

producer would be mentioned to highlight the local identity.

G.1.2: Packaging:

The current packaging of

the Reserve is using simple

bottles and jars available in

the market, in addition to

low cost carton boxes.

Also the Reserve use an

expensive wood luxury

carved boxes with different sizes for special occasions and private companies special

gifts.

Also a medium size biodegradable plastic bags are used with paper small bags and that is

very useful and environmental friendly practices.

While the fresh products are packed

mainly in big quantities (20 kg) with the

plastic boxes some of the farmers use

smaller plastic boxes (3-5 kg).

that packaging of the Reserve products is

very good and can be enhanced by

linking that with the handicraft and

artisanal work in the villages of the

study, the products can be covered by

the artisanal top made by the Sit el

Hessen artisanal workshop and permanent exhibition that exist in Khraibeh village.

Here are five steps to turn your packaging into a sales tool:

1- Think like a food marketer. Spend time in the grocery aisles.

2- Turn EVERY package into a billboard. Use that precious space to

SELL, SELL, SELL.

3- Understand your shopper. WHY do they buy? Look for the high

value niche.

4- Understand your product. Sell its advantages. Don’t simply re-state

what’s in the bag.

5- Know the trends and use them (eg: high in fibre changes to intestinal

health).

Photo 18 Wooden box for rural product


The packaging of the fresh goods can be enhanced by using recycled carton boxes with

smaller quantities (1-3 kg) with better sorting of the goods as well as special package

(photo 19).

New packages for the herbs can be proposed by mixing the artisanal embroidery and the

glass jar which will support the sustainable and practical use at the same time (photo 20).

Photo 19 Better packaging in USA (taken in Natural Food Coop in Vermont –USA (by Nizar Hani)

Photo 20 Practical cupboard mixing the fresh goods with processing

food


G.2. DEVELOPMENT OF SOME MARKETING ACTIVITIES FOR

THE PRODUCTS AND GOODS

The marketing plan will assess the market, the current situation and suggest new

marketing means and activities can help the farmers to have direct link with the market

and minimize the role of the middlemen, encouraging the fair trade concept through

establishing a local market, organic production, special agreement between a famer and

group of consumers, etc.

G.2.1: Current situation:

Currently the farmers are selling most of their goods in big quantities, sending them to

the whole market in Saida and Beirut or make a deal with a middleman in both cases the

prices in general are low and less than the real cost.

Part of the goods sells directly by the farmers through small iron tents located on the

main road in Barouk and Ain Zhalta / Nabia El Safa villages, as well as in the shops and

supermarket in the villages or the nearby towns mainly Bakaata and Baaklin ealso in

Nabia el Safa they sell some traditional processing food products.

The Shouf Biosphere Reserve promotes some of the processing food traditional products

of the region under the Reserve Logo through its Rural Development Program which was

launched in 1999. In 2006 this program established and equipped three kitchens in

Mrusti, Baadaran and Jbaa. These have been used by local women to produce products

that range from honey to compote. These products are then labeled under the Reserve

Label and sold at the entrances to the biosphere and some other selling points in Beirut

such as Bristol Hotel, TSC supermarket in the new souk in down town; etc .This program

has been quite successful and is continuing to expand its product line and currently

around 13 of those products are certified organic from a quality control company named

Liban Cert such as the cedar honey, oregano, Akoub, etc.

Al-Shouf Cedar Society (ACS) and Environmental Sustainable Development Unit

(ESDU) at the American University of Beirut (AUB) planned to establish a physical


market that will constitute an important point of sale for regional farmers and women.

Land for the market “Souq O Shouf” has been granted to ACS by Mr. Walid Joumblat

and is located off the highway at Multaka el Nahreyn, seventeen kilometers south of

Beirut. This land is the meeting point between the urban costal area and the rural Shouf

region and is an easy drive from Beirut. Currently the landscape department at the AUB

is working on the design of the market.

ACS/ESDU will oversee a training area for best agricultural practices and food

processing at the Market that will be used for scheduled teaching seminars on sustainable

agricultural and food processing practices. The products will range from raw goods to

traditional processed products.

G.2.2: Marketing actions on fair trade76

basis:

Establish and promote the “Souq O

Shouf” market which will be the most

important tool to link the farmers in the

study area villages directly with the

costumers as well as it will be a

common space that will allow the

farmers to work together and to change

knowledge, information and expertise

especially with the establishment of the training unit about organic agriculture.

Establish an organic natural food coop/shop in the village of Barouk and/or

Bakaata to promote organic and less pesticide agriculture goods and products to

raise awareness about organic agriculture and provide to the consumers better

taste products as well as the coop can provide breakfast and lunch and able to

receive small events related to organic agriculture, cooking, etc.

76

Fair trade: is a global trade system that ensures producers get a fair price for their goods. It is

the cornerstone of a sustainable economy. Empowers small-scale farmers organized in cooperatives to invest in their farms and communities, protect the environment, and develop the

business skills necessary to compete in the global marketplace.

Photo 21 Farmer Market (Souk) concept

design (by Nizar Hani)


Use the local festivals in the study area to

promote the farmer market as well as the

products and the goods while some of

those festivals are well known and able

to attract large number of visitors mainly

Nabiaa el Barouk, Jabalna Maasser el

Chouf and Mawassem Mrusti festivals.

Strengthen the linkage between the

farmers and the Reserve entrances that receive every year around 70,000 visitors

to promote in addition to the processing food products the fresh goods for

example we can gift an apple for each visitor.

Create a special program called “CEDARS and FARMERS” between groups of

consumers and small farmers, make an agreement between 10-12 consumers

living in the same neighborhood and a small farmer to produce their needed fruits

and vegetables as well as processing traditional products, in that case the

consumers can ensure a minimum quality of goods and the farmer can ensure

minimum income stability to sustain his farming investment (John P.,2008)77

.

Create linkages between the local restaurants, hotel and guesthouse owners and

the farmers to provide their needs especially in Barouk and Ain Zhalta / Nabiaa El

Safa where more than dozen of restaurants and accommodation facilities exist.

Establish in Ain Zhalta village a “Farm Restaurant” to provide special service for

the eco-tourists of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve as well as to promote the Shouf

Terroir products such as the Bioland –from farm to fork farm restaurant in

Batroun region (http://bioland-lb.com/home.php)

Establish a Food Heritage Trail to encourage the agro-tourism packages through

the Reserve eco-tourism program and share it with tour operators and travel

agencies and train the local guides and farmers about promoting agriculture to the

eco-tourists.

Organize by the agriculture cooperatives some summer activities to promote the

agriculture in the study area site for example Apple festival in Barouk, Cherry

77

John P., 2008. "The Lost History of Organic Farming in Australia", Journal of Organic Systems.

Photo 22 Middlebury Natural Food Coop (by

Nizar Hani)


festival in Niha, Peach festival in Ain Zhalta and Oregano festival in Mrusti in

close cooperation with the Reserve, municipalities and ministry of agriculture.

Foster the farmers to participate in the agro food national and regional exhibitions

such as HORECA, Garden show, Beirut cooking festival, Souk el Tayeb, Ataya

exhibition in Abou Dhabi.

Organize volunteering days to provide for the farmers the manpower and help the

farmers in collecting the goods, spraying the trees, cleaning the land, etc.


H. PROPOSAL FOR A 5 YEARS ACTION PLAN

A 5 years action plan is proposed in the scope of this study. The action plan will

include a list of the main actions in this thesis and will identify the actors who may

have a role in the implementation of the activities in addition to a tentative time table:

Action Actors Year

Implement the ecosystem Restoration Plan

Protected land in the core area of the Shouf

Biosphere Reserve

SBR, MOE 1-2-3

Abandoned / grazing land which is mostly

privately owned

Land Owners, Farmers,

Agriculture cooperatives,

Shepherds, Municipalities and

SBR

1-2-3

Agricultural land mainly apple and vegetables Land Owners, Farmers,

Agriculture cooperatives, MOA,

Private sector

2-3

Vacant residential / built areas Municipalities, SBR 3-4

Develop Branding and packaging

Branding and labeling Farmers, Agriculture

cooperatives, SBR,

Municipalities, labeling private

companies

2-3

Packaging Farmers, Agriculture

cooperatives, SBR,

Municipalities, labeling private

companies, Outlet owners

3

Conduct and realize a Marketing plan

Establish and promote the “Souq O Shouf”

Farmer Market

ESDU (AUB), ACS 1

Use the local festivals in the study area to Municipalities, Farmers, 1 to 5


promote the farmer market Cooperatives

Strengthen the linkage between the farmers and

the Reserve entrances

SBR, Farmers and Cooperatives

Create a special program called “CEDARS and

FARMERS” between groups of consumers and

small farmers

SBR, Municipalities,

Cooperatives and Farmers

3 -4

Create linkages between the local restaurants,

hotel and guesthouse owners and the farmers

to provide their needs

Agriculture Cooperatives,

Farmers, Service providers

3-4-5

Establish a Food Heritage Trail to encourage

the agro-tourism packages through the Reserve

eco-tourism program and share it with tour

operators and travel agencies

SBR, Farmers, Cooperatives,

Municipalities, MOT, Tour

operators and travel agencies

1to 5

Organize by the agriculture cooperatives some

summer activities to promote the agriculture in

the study area

Cooperatives, SBR,

municipalities

1 to 5

Organize volunteering days to provide for the

farmers the manpower and help the farmers in

collecting the goods

SBR, Universities, NGOs, etc. 1 to 5


I. LIMITATIONS

Despite the full cooperation of the study relative stakeholders and the study is in the

framework of my work as a manager of the Shouf Biosphere Reserve and accessibility

of the available data but some limitations faced the study:

1- The unavailability of accurate data on the production of the rain fed species that we

suggested to be planted in the abandoned terraces

2- The presence of only the small scale oregano growing projects in the study area

most of the big initiative that we based our cost benefit analysis on are located in

different regions in Lebanon with different climate change

3- The marketing strategy section is just including some guidelines to be baseline for a

more integrated marketing detailed strategy in future studies including the creation

of a brand for the region

4- The unavailability of enough references about the abandoned terraces in Lebanon

5- The action plan can be detailed more in future studies in case the restoration

activities of this study adopted in the study area and decide to be implemented

6- The use of some old references in some areas because of the unavailability of new

references such as the geological map of Lebanon dated 1955, the land use land

cover map dated 1998


J. CONCLUSION

More than 600 hectares are able to be restored in the study area using the restoration

scenario which is suggested in this study. The restoration cost of one irrigated hectare is

around USD 20,000 and the annual net revenue ranges between a minimum of USD

13,000 and a maximum of USD 26,000 per year. Hence, the restoration of the 600

hectares of abandoned terraces in the study area is able to provide an income to the area

between at least USD 7.8 million and can be reached 15.6 million per year.

Furthermore, this study will provide a new management approach of the old abandoned

terraces which is the establishment of cooperation between a group of land owners and

a group of active farmers to manage lands with surface ranging between 2 and 3

hectares.

These activities will participate in enhancing livelihoods of local small-scale producers

and hence the socio-economic situation in the region, providing hundreds of job

opportunities, strengthening the relationship between the land owners and producers,

creating better land use management and landscape in the area, giving the region its

uniqueness and reputation, enhance the eco-tourism attractions.


K. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this study, the following recommendations are proposed:

Providing water to the old terraces will be essential by establishing small hill lakes taking

into consideration the environmental impact assessment approach to protect and preserve

the landscape and resources which is the main value of the region.

Implementing a demonstration plot to encourage farmers to use the restoration scenarios

that this study is suggesting; one or two demonstration sites managed by a group of active

farmers would be a good stepping stone to replicate at a larger scale and in the region at

large.

Implementing a large scale area will also set a good example by combining small size

surface areas together to form a bigger surface area of 2 to 3 hectares, to be restored and

managed by agriculture cooperatives or group of active farmers in close cooperation with

research institutes, donors, municipalities and Shouf Biosphere Reserve. This will

necessitate cooperation between farmers and land owners to share benefits and possibly

management under pre-agreed contracts or relationships.

Encouraging and seeking support for the existing nurseries in the region mainly

Kahlounier (Baddi) and Ramlieh to produce good quality of certified oregano since the

current main source of oregano seedlings is a nursery in Tyre which is under different

climate conditions.

Using the brand of the Reserve or creating new brand for the whole Shouf region78

will

be a good tool for marketing the produce as well as for quality control because that will

give an added value for the goods of the region.

78

Currently many stakeholders in the Shouf region asked M&C Saatchi (a promotional company) to

prepare a branding and marketing campaign for the Shouf region


Designing appropriate packaging for both the fresh and processed products will help in

finding better marketing channels.

Developing a detailed marketing strategy will highlight main procedure to follow and

implement to seek better markets.

Establishment of specialty shops to promote the goods of the study area in the region as

well as in Beirut and big cities.

Establishment of a permanent farmers market. A new farmers market is currently in the

process of establishment in Moultaka el Nahrain region where farmers can market their

products on a weekly basis to urban and rural inhabitants.

Entice farmers to participate in local festivals to be promoted their local goods and

products. Such festivals are Jabalna in Maasser el Chouf village, Mawassem Mrusti and

Barouk water source.

Implementing a management for grazing to avoid any conflict in land use in the region

between shepherds and farmers to ensure a good restoration process.

Development of feasibility studies and business plans to evaluate the best scenario that

best suits small scale farmers and processors to improve their livelihoods while

sustainably managing the resources and respecting the SBR regulations.

Finally, building the capacities of the producers will ensure the good implementation of

the proposed scenarios and marketing strategy. The main topics would be as follows:

- Production of better seedlings

- Preparations of the land

- Water management using efficient water catchments and irrigation techniques

- Post-harvest and packaging and labelling

- Organizational and managerial skills to ensure cooperative work and

entrepreneurship thinking.


L. REFERENCES:

- Abdallah P., 2010.Eco-tourism strategy of Shouf Biosphere Reserve. Page 10

- Abi Said M., 2010. Grazing Assessment Report, Al-Shouf Cedar Reserve.

- Abu-Izzeddine, F., Hitchcock, P., Yamout, L. & A. Serhal. 1999. Al-Shouf Cedar

Nature Reserve Management Plan 2000 – 2005. Ministry of Environment,

Lebanon. Page 9

- Abu-Izzedine F., September 2012. Shouf Biosphere Reserve management plan.

Pages 16-25

- Abu-Izzedine F., Shouf Biosphere Reserve, 2013. Memoirs of a Cedar, a history

of deforestation, a future of conservation. Page 7

- Barbosa O., 2007. “Who benefits from access to green space? A case study from

Sheffield, UK,” Landscape and Urban Planning. Page 187-195

- Batisse, M., 1986. ‘Developing and focusing the biosphere reserve concept’,

Nature and resources

- Colomer R., Regato P., 2013. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Ecosystem Restoration

Plan. Pages 24-41

- Diamond, J.M. 2005. Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking

Pengium, New York.

- ECODIT, 2001. Lebanon State of the Environment Report (SOER). Lebanon :

Ministry of Environment, Lebanese Environment & Development Observatory

(LEDO).

- ECODIT, 2010 . Business and Marketing plan for the rural products, Shouf

Biosphere Reserve. Page 4

- FAO 1991. Technical report on land cover mapping of Lebanon. Remote sensing

center, Rome

- FAO, Asmar F., 2011. Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles.

- FAO, MOA, 2010. National Forest Assessment program.

- FAO. 1999 & 2010. “Lebanese Observatory for Agricultural Development

Project”, Agricultural Census 1999 and 2010.

- Halawi D., June 1, 2009. Organic farmers in Lebanon face export hurdles, Daily

Star Lebanon.


- Hani N., 2013. Project proposal prepared by the municipality of Barouk and

submitted to US International Development Agency – USAID, page 8

- Harris, J.A., Hobbs, R.J, Higgs, E. and Aronson, J. (2006) Ecological restoration

and global climate change. Restoration Ecology 14(2) 170 - 176

- Houghton, R.A. 1991. Tropical deforestation and atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Climate Change 19. Page 99

- IDAL, 2013. Lebanon agriculture fact sheet.

- IFAD, 2007. Livelihoods and gender analysis of the war damage in rural areas of

Lebanon.

- Ishwaran, N., Persic, A. and Tri, N.H. 2008. ‘Concept and practice: the case of

UNESCO biosphere reserves’, Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development.

- IUCN, 2012. Ecological Restoration for Protected Areas, Principles, Guidelines

and Best Practices, page 3-5.

- Jaradi G., Abi Said M., Tohme G, Sadek R., 2004. Al-Chouf Cedar Nature

Reserve. Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring in the Protected Areas. Final

Report. National Center for Scientific Research. Ministry of Environment,

Lebanon. Pages 43-47

- Jaradi G., Sadek R. & Abi Said Mounir, 2000. Fauna monitoring manual, part II.

Protected areas project. Green Line Association

- John D Liu, 2011. The Changing Nature of Human Security, Finding

sustainability in Ecosystem restoration, page 21.

- John P., 2008. "The Lost History of Organic Farming in Australia", Journal of

Organic Systems.

- Khalil W., 2012. Shouf Biosphere Reserve is a potential Global Geo-park.

- Kuchelmeister G., 1998. “Urban forestry in the Asia-Pacific region: status and

prospects” Forestry Policy and Planning Divison, Rome and Regional Office for

Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.

- Lichaa EL Khoury D., Bakhos W., 2003. Land cover-land use map of Lebanon:

technical report.

- Loca Liban website, 2013. www.localiban.org

- MAB France, 2011. Octavius on Biosphere Reserves.

http://www.localiban.org/


- Macdonald, 2002. The ecological context: a species population perspective.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

- McDonald, D., J.R. Grabtree, G. Wiesinger, T.Dax, N. Stamu, P. Fleury and A

Gibon, 2000. Agricultural abandoned in mountain areas of Europe:

Environmental consequences and policy response. Journal of environmental

management 59: 47-69

- Ministry of Agriculture/Lebanon and United nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), 1996. Biological Diversity of Lebanon – Country Study Report.

- MOA - FAO, 2012. LEBANON Country Programming Framework 2012–2015

(Joint Statement of the Ministry of Agriculture and FAO), pages 9-13.

- MOA - FAO, 2012. LEBANON Country Programming Framework 2012–2015

(Joint Statement of the Ministry of Agriculture and FAO), pages 9-13.

- MOA, 2010. MOA Strategic Framework 2010-2014.

- MOA-FAO, 2012. The national agriculture survey, modified by the Agriculture

Extension Center in Deir El Kamar in 2013.

- MOE, 1998. Land Cover/Land Use maps (scale 1/50,000) for the Lebanese coast,

and for South Lebanon.

- Nehmé M, 1977. Fleurs sauvages du Liban. 3 versions, Arabic, 1981; English,

1978. Beirut : Conseil National de la Recherche Scientifique.

- Pagliani M., IUCN, 2009. Shouf Biosphere Reserve Program Portfolio

- D.A Petersen, 2005. The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues

and unexplored realms, page 662.

- Pinto Correia, T. 1993. Land abandonment: Changes in the land use patterns

around the Mediterranean basin. Soils in the Mediterranean regions: use,

management, and future trend.

- Richard J. Hobbs, 2007. Why old fields? Socioeconomic and ecological causes

and consequences of land abandonment. Page 1

- Sattout E. & S. N. Talhouk. 2001. A Proposed Monitoring Program for the Flora

of the Natural Reserves of Al-Shouf, Ehden and the Palm Islands. Ministry of

Environment, Beirut, Lebanon & Green Line. Lebanon.

- Sattout E., 2010. Integrated biodiversity monitoring plan for Protected Areas in

Lebanon


- Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working

Group, 2004. The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration.

www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration International.

- Tohmé G., Tohmé H., Hraoui S., Karakira M. & Gèze R., 1999. Report on five

protected areas in Lebanon. National Council for Scientific Research. Project

UNDP , no. Leb. 95-G 31-AIG-

- Tsoumas, A., and D. Tasioulas. 1986. Ownership status and use of agricultural

land in Greece. Agricultural Bank of Greece, Athens

- UNDP, 2007. Poverty, Growth and Inequality study in Lebanon.

- UNESCO, 1996. Biosphere reserves: the Seville Strategy and the Framework

Statutory of the World Network. UNESCO, Paris. Page 5

- UNESCO, 2010. Madrid Action Plan 2008-2013. Pages 6-7

- Viki A. Cramer and Richard J. Hobbs, 2007. Old fields, Dynamics and

Restoration of Abandonment Farmland.

- Vitousek, P.M., H.A. Mooney, J. Lubchenco and J. Melillo, 1997. Human

domination of Earth’s ecosystems. Science 277. Page 494

- Wilson, E. O., 1988. Biodiversity. Washington DC: National Academy. ISBN 0-

309-03739-5

- World Bank, 2009. Lebanon Agriculture Public Expenditure Review Note.




M. ANNEXES

Annex 1: List of persons interviewed

Name Position

Mayors

Edwar Moughabghab Ain Zhalta

Elie Nakhlie Barouk / Fraidiss

Charles Noujaim Maasser

Nasser Zaidan Mrusti

Hassan Abou Hadir Niha

Cooperatives

Tawfik Abou Alwan Barouk

Raed Zaidan Mrusti

Agriculture Extension Center

Wissam Abou Daher President

Nabil Serryeddine Technician

Agriculture School

Mouhamad Ismail Director

Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Zaher Radwan Green Hand president

Sawsan Abou Fakheddine Association for Forest and Development Manager

Farmers

Issam Temraz Maasser el Chouf

Issam Azzam Maasser el Chouf

Dr. George Arbid Maasser el Chouf

Bassam Halawi Barouk

Talaat el Boustani Barouk / cooling room owner

Riskallah Mahmoud Barouk / Food processing producer

Rami Zouhainry Barouk (Organic)

Hafez Mahmoud Barouk / Owner of a restaurant

Mazen Halawai Mrusti


Samer Zaydan Mrusti

Bassam Halawani Mrusti / Shepherd

Rania Zaidan Food processing

Walid Nassereddine Karkatra (organic)

Jamal Hassan Batloun (Organic) and food processing producer

Certification company

Khalil Haddad Manager Liban Cert –AUB

Souk El Tayeb

Kamal Mouzawak Manager

Christine Codsi Partner

International Experts

Marco Pagliani Project management

Pedro Regato FAO

Rosa Colomer Eco-system restoration

Marlene Tomaszkiewicz PHD student - Water Resources & Environmental

Engineering- AUB

Annex 2: Cost of Fog and / or irrigation system

Item Unit Price Number Cost in $

US

Material and installation of fog catchers system

comprising: collecting screen 18 m2 (9x2 m), 3

tanks of 1.000 liters each, filter, programmer with

battery, general pipe, dripper line with emitters

every each 30/40 cm, for 2,000 m2.

$2,295.45 1.00 $2,295.45

Sub-total: $2,295.45

Unit: $2,30


Annex 3: Detailed Map of the agriculture territories in the study area based on land

cover land use map (MOE, 1998)


TYPE_N4 Calculation

Tissu urbain moyennement dense 1309.16

Tissu urbain peu dense 81158.496

Complexe touristique 2114.856

Zone industrielle ou commerciale 932.07098

Bâtiment d'exploitation agricole 762.50299

Extraction de matériau (carrière) 455406.07

Extension urbaine et/ou chantier 41367.767

Espace vert urbain 935.83197

Culture de plein champ en grande surface 41900.362

Culture de plein champ associée à des oliviers 2043.4399

Culture de plein champ associée à des fruitiers à feuilles caduques 723.66901

Mitage urbain sur culture de plein champ 7546.6281

Oliviers 6627.7099

Oliviers associés à des cultures de plein champ 6832.3101

Oliviers associés à des vignes 2807.05

Vignobles 80488.287

Vignobles associés à des fruitiers à feuilles caduques 2849.9589

Arbres fruitiers à feuilles caduques 100855.14

Arbres fruitiers à feuilles caduques associés à des cultures de plein

champ 1460.182

Arbres fruitiers à feuilles caduques associés à des oliviers 4799.98

Arbres fruitiers à feuilles caduques associés à des vignes 8329.11

Mitage urbain sur verger 57596.983

Cultures intensives en plein champ 606.12799

Forêt dense de pins (principalement P. brutia et P. pinea) 20096.686

Forêt dense de cèdres (C. libani) 29374.49

Forêt dense de chênes (Quercus ssp.) 50243.43

Forêt dense d'autres feuillus (Platanus, Populus, Salix) 733.844


Forêt dense mixte 2961.4701

Mitage urbain sur forêt dense 2577.24

Forêt clairsemée de pins (principalement P. brutia et P. pinea) 44354.356

Forêt clairsemée de cèdres (C. libani) 74899.008

Forêt clairsemée de chênes (Quercus ssp.) 277394.33

Forêt clairsemée d'autres feuillus (Platanus, Populus, Salix) 9160.0341

Forêt clairsemée mixte 6586.4499

Mitage urbain sur forêt clairsemée 14300.884

Végétation arbustive 401651.83

Végétation arbustive avec arbres dispersés 174289.4

Mitage urbain sur zone arbustive 50792.736

Végétation herbacée moyennement dense 321344.16

Végétation herbacée clairsemée 448593.71

Roche nue 14850.358

Sol nu 52863.479

Zone incendiée 1932.3199

Lac collinaire 1607.684


English legends based on the land cover land use map,1998 (Lichaa el Khoury D.,

2003)79

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

100-

Artificial

area

110- Urban area

111- Continuous urban

fabric

111a- Dense urban fabric

111b- Dense informal urban

fabric

112- Discontinuous urban

fabric

112a- Medium density urban

fabric

112b- Medium density informal

urban fabric

112c- Low-density urban fabric

112d- Low-density informal

urban fabric

112e- Tourist resort

112f- Diverse equipment

112g- Archeological site

120- Activity

area

121- Industrial or

commercial area

122- Port area

123- Airport

124- Railway station

130- Non built-

up artificial area

131- Mineral extraction

sites

132- Dumpsites

133- Landfill site

1. 79 Lichaa EL Khoury D., Bakhos W., 2003. Land cover-land use map of Lebanon:

technical report.



134- Urban extension

and/or construction site

135- Urban vacant land

140- Artificial,

non-agricultural

vegetated areas

141- Green urban area

142- Sport and leisure

facilities

200-

Agricultura

l area

210- Field crops

211- Field crops in

medium to large fields

212- Field crops in small

fields/terraces

210/112c- Urban sprawl on

field crops

220- Permanent

Crops

221- Olives

222- Vineyards

223- Fruit trees

224- Citrus fruit trees

225- Banana


permanent crops

230- Intensive

agriculture

231- Open horticulture

232- Protected agriculture


intensive agriculture

240- Agricultural

units

300-

Wooded

land

310- Dense

wooded land

311- Dense coniferous

wooded land

311a- Dense Pines

311b- Dense Cedars

311d- Dense Fir

311e- Dense Cypress

312- Dense broadleaved 312a- Dense Oaks



wooded land 312b- Dense - other types of

broadleaved trees

313- Dense mixed wooded

land


dense wooded land

320- Clear

wooded land

321- Clear coniferous

wooded land

321a- Clear Pines

321b- Clear Cedars

321c- Clear Juniper

321d- Clear Fir

321e- Clear Cypress

322- Clear broadleaved

wooded land

322a- Clear Oaks

322b- Clear - other types of

broadleaved trees

323- Clear mixed wooded

land


clear wooded land

330- Scrubland

331- Scrubland

332- Scrubland with some

dispersed bigger trees

330/112c: Urban sprawl on

scrubland

340- Burnt

wooded land

400-

Grassland

410- Dense

grassland

420- Clear

grassland



500-

Wetland

510- Inland

wetland

520- Marine

wetland

600-

Unproducti

ve area

610- Bare rocks

620- Bare soils

630- Beaches

640-Dunes

700-

Water

bodies

710- Continental

water bodies

711- Lake

712- Hill lake

720- Marine

water bodies

721- Sea

722- Port basin


Annex 4: Cost of oregano production per dunum per season

Crop: Oregano

Origanum

syriacum صعتر

Harvesting

time

July and

September

Spacing

between rows

40cm, between

plants 60cm

Item Description

Rent per

year in

L.L.

Number

of dn

Total

depriciated

price

L.L./dn/sea

son

Land tenure rent value 30,000 1 30,000

Cost per

year in

L.L.

Water fees Depend on

source 25,000 1 25,000

Drip

irrigation

unit price

LL /10 dn

Years of

depreciati

on

quantity

for 10

dunums

number of

dunums

reservoir/poly

ethylene

500,000 20 1 10 2,500

filter 2 inches 450,000 5 1 10 9,000

pump 1 inch 300,000 5 1 10 6,000

pipes +

dripline +

valves 500,000 5 1 10 10,000


mixer for

fertilizers

a used tank is

used for mixing

fertilizers 0 5 1 10 0

fuel for

irrigation 150,000

177,500

Ploughing

L.L./dn

Quantity/

dn

Number

of

ploughs

Years of

depreciati

on

25,000 1 2 6 8,333

8,333

Equipment 0

Fertilization

L.L./kg kg/dn

Number

of

applicatio

ns

Number

of

applicatio

ns

20-NPK fertigation 2,000 13 10 260000

L.L./bag kg/bag kg/dn

Number

of

applicatio

ns

Years of

depreciati

on

Manure goat manure 3,000 50 1,000 1 6 10,000

270,000

Pesticides NO Pesticides 0

Seeds

L.L./seedl

ing

seedlings/

dn

years of

depreciati

on

Seedlings

the plants stays

in the field 6-8 200 4,000 6 133,333


years

133,333

Labor

L.L./hr hours/dn

Number

of

workers/d

n

Number

of

interventi

ons

years of

depreciati

on

Manual

planting

one worker,

8hrs/day 3,000 8 2 1 6 8,000

Manual

weeding

two workers,

8hrs/day,

3times/season 3,000 8 2 3 144,000

Manual

harvesting

2 workers,

2hr/day, 2

times/season 3,000 2 2 2 24,000

176,000

Labor

(opportunity

cost for

farmer)

0

Post-harvest

L.L./hour hours/day

Number

of

workers

Number

of

interventi

ons

packaging

(harvesting,

drying,

grading,

thinning/remo

2workers, for

three days جّم

بالمقّص، تيبيس،

تعريب بالبيت،

36,000 3 2 2 3,000 توريق، تنقاية، تكييس


val of leaves,

bagging)

L.L./kg

yield

kg/dn

Grinding farmer

pay1500/kg for

the grindery 1,500 200 300,000

336,000

Yield kg/dn

Average

selling

price

L.L./kg

Gross

profit

Gross profit

L.L./dn 216 15,000 3,240,000

Total costs

L.L./dn 1,156,167

Net profit

L.L./dn 2,083,702

Prepared by: Nizar HANI - UNESCO Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 2 ABSTRACT The...

Documents

Transcript of Prepared by: Nizar HANI - UNESCO Hani, Master Degree in Agro Marketing (M2) P a g e | 2 ABSTRACT The...