Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1....
-
Upload
patience-evans -
Category
Documents
-
view
214 -
download
0
Transcript of Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1....
![Page 1: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Predation
Great White Shark and Fur Seal
![Page 2: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when:
1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed to much damage and fewer defenses if cost of defense is high
2. More defenses are allocated within an organism to valuable tissues that are at risk
3. Defense mechanisms are reduced when enemies are absent and increased when plants are attacked - mostly true for chemicals not structures
4. Defense mechanisms are costly and cannot be maintained if plants are severely stressed by environmental factors
![Page 3: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Pine beetle infestation – British Columbia
![Page 4: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Pine Beetle and Pitch Tube
![Page 5: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Serengeti Grazing System
![Page 6: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Serengeti Grazing System
![Page 7: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Serengeti Grazing System
![Page 8: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Grazing facilitation
• Grazing facilitation occurs when the feeding activity of one herbivore species improves the food supply for a second species
![Page 9: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Opuntia stricta – prickly pear
![Page 10: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Prickly pear infestation in Australia
![Page 11: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Area infested with prickly pear before biocontrol
![Page 12: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Same area after biocontrol
![Page 13: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Biocontrol Agent – Cactoblastis cactorum
![Page 14: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Symbiosis
![Page 15: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Symbiosis
• Symbioses - species living in close association
• Parasitism +,- parasite benefits, host harmed
• Commensalism +,0 or 0,0 can have positive effect for one species or for neither
• Mutualism +,+ both species benefit
![Page 16: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Gopher Tortoise – Commensal Host
![Page 17: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Gopher Tortoise Distribution
![Page 18: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
![Page 19: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Epiphytes
Bird’s NestFern
![Page 20: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Nalini Nadkarnistudying epiphytes
![Page 21: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Epiphytes
Figure 1: Hypothetical tree illustrating how vascular epiphytes in humid forests tend to partition substrates illustrating sensitivity to micro climate, particularly humidity, and associated development of the organic rooting media required by some populations.
![Page 22: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Parasitism and Disease
Lyme Disease Cycle in the UK
![Page 23: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Parasitism
• Parasitism - intimate association between two species in which the parasite obtains its nutrients from a host - parasite usually causes some degree of harm to its host - either reduced growth or reproduction
• Pathogen – disease causing agent
• Disease – abnormal condition of host due to infection by a pathogen that impairs physiological functioning
![Page 24: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Parasites on Plants
![Page 25: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Insects are green,Fungi are brown,Worms are blue,Protozoa are yellow
![Page 26: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Parasitism occurs on a continuum from:
• ectoparasites - live outside hosts body and experience same conditions as host - ticks, mites, fleas, aphids
• endoparasites - live inside host's body cavity - buffered from outside conditions - tapeworms, flukes
• intracellular parasites - live inside individual cells of the host - viruses, bacteria, protozoa - often called microparasites
![Page 27: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Or another way to divide parasites:
• microparasites - viruses, bacteria, protozoa - small, often live intracellularly, main point is that they reproduce in host and will have very large numbers in host
• macroparasites - tiny to very large - nematodes, tapeworms, flukes - larger individuals that grow in host but multiply by producing infective stages that are shed by host to environment where they infect new hosts
![Page 28: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
![Page 29: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Parasite Transmission
• Direct transmission – from one host to another of the same species via air, water, coughing, blood, feces, etc.
• Indirect transmission – from one host to another of the same species via another species called a vector
• Vector – species which transmits parasite or pathogen from one host to another
![Page 30: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Microparasites Macroparasites
Direct transmission
HIV virus,Amoebic dysentery,Mildews on plants
Lice, fleas, ticks, aphids, hookworm, pinworm,mistletoe
Indirect transmission
Plasmodium (mosquito),Plant viruses (aphids),Trypanosoma (tsetse fly)
Tapeworms,Schistosomes (snails),Rust fungi
![Page 31: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Powdery Mildew on Grape Leaf
![Page 32: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Powdery Mildew Life Cycle
![Page 33: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
![Page 34: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Head Lice and Life Cycle
![Page 35: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Mistletoe
![Page 36: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Mistletoe Life Cycle
![Page 37: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Malaria disease cycle
![Page 38: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
![Page 39: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Schistosomiasis - Life cycle of the schistosome worm
![Page 40: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Worldwide incidence of schistosomiasis
![Page 41: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Worldwide incidence of schistosomiasis
![Page 42: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Rust Fungus Canker
![Page 43: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Rust Fungus Life Cycle
![Page 44: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Two ways to study parasite numbers
• Prevalence – percent of host population that is infected – best for microparasites
• Intensity – number of parasite individuals per host – usually best for macroparasites
![Page 45: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Frequency of infection
Parasites usually occur in aggregated distributions – due to 4 possible factors:
1) random colonization events followed by asexual reproduction in hosts that do get parasitized
2) environmental "hot spots" where parasite eggs and infective stages survive well
3) dispersal constraints - geographic or behavioral barriers limit dispersal of parasites to just a few hosts
4) variation in susceptibility of individual hosts - due to nutrition, genetics
![Page 46: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
European rabbits as pests in Australia - 1938
![Page 47: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Introduced pests in Australia – red fox, rabbit, cat, pig, & goat
![Page 48: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
![Page 49: Predation Great White Shark and Fur Seal. Plant defenses are developed at a cost to fitness when: 1. Organisms evolve more defenses if they are exposed.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062519/56649e875503460f94b8bd97/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)