Precursors to Threat: An Early Warning Systemfor School Counsellors

2005

Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth Cataloguing in Publication Data

371.782 When words are not enough : precursors to threat :an early warning system for school counsellors

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-7711-3470-3

1. School violence—Prevention. 2. Schools—Risk management. 3. School crisis management.4. Educational counselling. 5. Student assistance programs.6. Behavioural assessment. I. Manitoba. Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth.

Copyright © 2005, the Crown in Right of the Government of Manitoba as representedby the Minister of Education, Citizenship and Youth. Manitoba Education, Citizenshipand Youth, School Programs Division, 1970 Ness Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J 0Y9.

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Introduction 2Focus on the Student: A Risk Continuum 4Dynamics of Behaviour 6Baseline Behaviour 8Step 1: Observing Normal Patterns of Development 9Unsettling Behaviour 10Step 2: Detecting Change 11Step 3: Intervening and Referring 11Worrisome Behaviour 12Using Threat Assessment Protocols 13High-Profile Worrisome Behaviour 14Threat-Making Behaviour 16Immediate Risk Behaviour 18Conclusion 20References 20

Conclusion

School counsellors support students as they grow anddevelop. As first responders in schools for social, emotional,and behavioural issues, it is reasonable to expect thatcounsellors are often the first adults in the building to becomeaware of changes in the typical behaviour of individualstudents. Knowing the precursors to worrisome and/orthreatening behaviour is a good first step to prevention andearly intervention in the lives of young people.

ReferencesCameron, J. Kevin. Threat Assessment Training Guide,

2nd ed. Lethbridge, AB: Lethbridge Community College,2004.

National Association of School Psychologists. NASP FactSheet — Threat Assessment. <www.naspcenter.org/factsheets/threatassess_fs.html> 2002.

Sawyer, D. and Cameron, J.K. Assessing Violence Potential:Protocol for Dealing with High-Risk Student Behaviours,4th ed. Lethbridge, AB: The Alberta Government, 2004.

Contents

When Words Are Not Enough 192 When Words Are Not Enough

You see him in the hall. Again. The teacher is millimetres from his face. Crimson.Teacher words are pouring out of her mouth. That unsettled feeling descends upon you. Somethingisn’t right here. You never used to see this student introuble. In the hallway. Out of class. Slouching like this. Later, the teacher admits she’s tried everything to reach“this kid.” Nothing works. She’s tried talking to him.Talking to his parents. Talking until she was hoarse. Noamount of cajoling, encouraging, threatening, ordemanding changes his behaviour. It wasn’t always likethis.

Sometimes, words are not enough. And often, actions speaklouder than words.

When Words Are Not Enough is designed for trained schoolcounsellors. Based on the threat assessment protocolsdeveloped by Kevin Cameron (2004), this booklet has beencreated as an early warning system that may increase earlyintervention to prevent, delay, or de-escalate impendingbehaviour that is threatening. The booklet focuses onbehavioural indicators that often precede worrisome behaviourand prompt intervention by the Threat Assessment Team.

When immediate risk behaviours are identified, dialing ‘911’(where available), and accessing the RCMP or the local policeforce is the first order of business. The principal of the schoolthen initiates pre-established safety protocols, based onemergency preparedness plans. The Threat Assessment Team is not involved in situationsposing immediate risk. It is only once the situation is resolved,and follow-up activities are required, that the ThreatAssessment Team may become involved.In immediate risk situations, the crisis intervention team,including the school counsellor, is usually mobilized to supportstudents who may have been traumatized by witnessingevents.

Introduction

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By listing the most likely markers of change, it is hoped thatthere will be increased opportunities for school counsellors tointervene with services for at-risk students who previously hadbeen unidentified. As trained observers of human behaviour,educators often notice subtle cues that hint at change before itbecomes so entrenched, severe, or destructive that thepossibility of self-harm or harm to others is imminent. Astrained interveners in human behaviour, school counsellorsoffer on-site supports, resources, and connections to agenciesthat provide protective and supportive services within andbeyond the school.

Established threat assessment protocols are essential to crisisintervention procedures that keep students safe while in ourcare. Multi-agency Threat Assessment Teams allow us to worktogether, using specialized skills when there is a perceivedthreat. Knowing the precursors to worrisome and threateningbehaviour creates an early warning system that assistsschools in providing prevention and early intervention services.

Immediate RiskBehaviour

Change in baseline behaviour

Change in diagnostic symptoms

Risk to self

Dangerous impulsivity

Risk to others

Threat with a specific plan,timeline, and opportunity

Armed inside the building

Armed outside the building

If we have learned anything about human behaviour over theyears, it is that it is complex; unique to individuals; affected byheredity, education, and environment; and constantly evolving.We are all “a work in progress.” People change. Assessing student behaviour in terms of risk levels andpotential for threat to self or others requires specializedtraining. What doesn’t require specialized training is beingobservant and caring. The diagram below illustrates a risk continuum towardthreatening behaviours. Typically, trained counsellors andclinicians intervene with students who have baseline indicatorsthat affect their ability to live successful and happy lives, in

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WorrisomeBehaviour

UnsettlingBehaviour

BaselineBehaviour

Focus on theStudent: A Risk

Continuum

School Counsellor(including consultation and referrals as required)

Any threat-making behaviours are immediately reported to theprincipal, who activates the Threat Assessment Team to begininitial assessments of the situation. School counsellors are usually part of the Threat AssessmentTeam because of their relationship of trust with students.Often, the student making the threat is known to thecounsellor, who is then able to expedite the data collectioncomponent of the threat assessment process and providesupport to students who have been affected by the threat. The indicators for threat-making behaviours (as listed in thediagram to the left) are behaviours that generally breach theCriminal Code of Canada. Because of this fact, it is usually theRCMP or local police who determine whether the ThreatAssessment Team will begin to intervene, or whether criminalcharges will be laid.

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and beyond the school setting. Generally, responding tounsettling student behaviour is part of the regular duties of acounsellor or clinician in the school system. Multi-agency Threat Assessment Teams typically respond tostudents who do not respond to counselling, and/or students whoexhibit worrisome behaviours or behaviours that pose aperceived threat to themselves or others.It is important to note that no list of indicators or riskcontinua fully describes students who may pose a threat tothemselves or others. There is no magic list.

Note: This continuum is neither a checklist nor a predictive scale.

High-ProfileWorrisomeBehaviour

Threat-Making

Behaviour

ImmediateRisk

Situations

Threat-MakingBehaviour

Threat Assessment Team(including school counsellor)

Change in baseline behaviour

Change in diagnostic symptoms

Risk to self

Dangerous impulsivity

Risk to others

Threat with a plan—no specifictimeline, possible opportunity

Verbal or written threat tokill self and/or others

Internet website/MSNthreats to kill others

Possession of weapons(including replicas)

Bomb threat

Fire-setting

Human behaviour is complex. Determining which behavioursmay indicate a threat to oneself or others is difficult. Somestudents show no outwardly visible hints to their internalmotivations. Some students show an array of behaviours thatclearly reveal intent toward harm. And some students show anarray of behaviours that seem to reveal intent toward harm,but the students have no harmful intentions whatsoever. Thereis also fluidity between homicidal and suicidal intent, and thereare contextual issues and personality factors that make itimpossible to predict an individual’s actions.What is possible is to offer indicators that are frequentlyassociated with risky or threatening behaviours. The chart onthe following page illustrates common dynamics that maycontribute to the likelihood of threatening or risk-takingbehaviour. It is important to note that even when all of thedynamics listed on the chart are present, a student may notpose any harm at all. The list is not designed as a way toprofile or stereotype behaviour. Rather, it is intended as areminder of possible areas in which to search for furtherinformation.

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Dynamics ofBehaviour

Identifying high-profile worrisome behaviour begins withrecognizing that the worrisome behaviour of a student, whencombined with a heightened sensitivity in the school orcommunity (as listed in the diagram to the left) or a highlyvisible or public setting, increases the possibility of trauma toother students or staff. It is the added dimension of the publicnature of the behaviour, or the possible trauma associatedwith the behaviour, that causes the Threat Assessment Teamto view high-profile worrisome behaviour as an exceptionalcase.In high-profile worrisome behaviour situations, the schoolcounsellor often is required to support students who may havebeen traumatized by witnessing events.

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High-ProfileWorrisomeBehaviour

Change in baseline behaviour

Change in diagnostic symptoms

Risk to self

Dangerous impulsivity

Possible risk to others

Subtle or generalized threatswithout a specific timeline,

plan, or opportunity

Elevated sensitivity of othersto threat due to recent orlocal violent incident(s)

Probability of trauma forothers based on over-reaction, echo-effect

Family Dynamics:

• Turbulent parent-child relationship

• Acceptance of pathological behaviour

• Access to weapons

• Lack of intimacy

• Student “rules the roost”

• No limits or monitoring of TV/Internet

School Dynamics:

• Detached from school

• Tolerance for disrespect

• Inequitable discipline

• Inflexible culture

• Student pecking order

• Code of silence

• Unsupervised computer access

• Unmonitored access to violent media, entertainment,technology

• Violent/extremist peer group

• Drug and alcohol use

• Violent/extreme outside interests

• Copycat effect

Using Threat Assessment ProtocolsKnowing threat assessment protocols and the continuum ofindicators typically found in students with worrisome tothreatening behaviour does not replace specific training inthreat assessment, strategic interviewing, and traumaresponse. A multi-disciplinary team approach enables professionals withunique training to work together in their areas of specialty toquickly determine the level of risk and/or threat.

Worrisome BehaviourSchool counsellors, teachers, and principals are often the firstadults to notice students who exhibit worrisome behaviour.Often, these students come to the attention of school staffbecause of disciplinary matters or breaches in the school’scode of conduct. Prior to any decision to suspend or expel astudent, it is critical that the opportunity is taken to determinethe behavioural status of the student.However, just as often, students who are exhibiting worrisomebehaviour do not come to the attention of school staff becauseof disciplinary matters. Addressing worrisome behaviourbegins with recognizing a change in baseline behaviour,combined with other personal indicators (as listed in thediagram to the left), or actively listening to other students whohave noticed behaviours that fit with the characteristics ofworrisome behaviour.Mobilizing the Threat Assessment Team according to school-or school division-based protocols begins the process ofincreasing safety, and reducing or eliminating the possibility ofthreat.

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BaselineBehaviour

Clinical Diagnoses such as:Conduct disorder

Oppositional Defiant disorderADD/ADHD

Mood disordersPersonality disorders

FAS/FAEPsychopathology

Child abuse/neglectOther

Undiagnosed/Unreported Factors

Personality Traits:Frustration/tolerance levels

Coping skillsResiliency levels

Connection/alienationEmpathy levels

Superiority/inferiority levelsSelf-esteemTrust levels

Humour/perspectiveRigidity

Violence levels/defiant behaviourBullying/bullied

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WorrisomeBehaviour

Change in baseline behaviourChange in diagnostic symptoms

Unable to forget/forgive past perceived or real injusticesBehaviour appears relevant to carrying out a threat

Leakage (clues to impending violence)Subtle threats

Subtle boastingFantasies

Attitudes/ultimatumsThoughts/feelings

Low tolerance for frustrationPoor coping skillsLack of resiliency

Failed love relationshipUnusual interest in sensational violence

Fascination with violence-filled entertainmentSigns of depression

NarcissismAlienation

Dehumanizes othersLack of empathy

Exaggerated sense of entitlementAttitude of superiority

Exaggerated/pathological need for attentionExternalizes blame

Masks low self-esteemAnger management problems

IntoleranceInappropriate humour

Seeks to manipulate othersLack of trust

Closed social groupChange in behaviour

Rigid/opinionatedNegative role models

Step 1: Observing Normal Patterns of Development Most behaviour falls along a generally predictable path.Generally, as children gain in positive life experiences, age,and maturity, their behaviour reflects a pattern of evolutiontoward more sophisticated, independent, and self-sufficientchoices. While every person is unique, the behaviours usuallyreflect socially acceptable choices that result in a gain ofpersonal satisfaction. From time to time, though, children and youth veer from thispath and begin another path that is more negative anddestructive in nature. We need to notice that change indirection. As trained counsellors, our job is to care, tointervene, and/or to seek additional supports to empower theyoung person to face the source underlying the change intypical behaviour, and to work toward a healthier, happierfuture. The diagram to the left provides a list of features in a person’sbehaviour that are good indicators to aid in detecting change,and the direction of that change.

Step 2: Detecting ChangePatterns of development are unique to each individual. Indetecting change, you are looking for changes in the typicalpattern or “baseline” of a specific young person. Whenstudents begin to veer away from their normal baselinebehaviour, take note. For instance, a student who normallyaccepts changes in daily events with ease, but suddenlybecomes enraged over an unannounced test, would bemoving away from his or her baseline behaviour. Moving awayfrom the baseline becomes unsettling when the movement istoward less developmentally appropriate realms. Any studentwho becomes more withdrawn than normal, more aggressivethan normal, more anxious than normal, and/or more defiantthan normal—his or her ‘baseline’ normal—could benefit fromcounselling. The diagram to the left shows indicators that pointtoward more risky or threatening patterns. Remember, theitems listed are not designed as a checklist or a predictivescale; they represent areas in which change may occur. Theyare listed as a means for focusing your attention.

Step 3: Intervening and ReferringSchool counsellors are uniquely positioned to intervene whenunsettling behaviour is detected. Located within the schooland familiar to students, counsellors have the ability to beginopen, honest conversations with students, and to offercounselling services. Unless the counsellor has training in thespecific area of concern, a referral to clinical services orexternal agencies should be made. If, once counselling hascommenced, it is clear that the student’s behaviour isescalating, consultation with the Threat Assessment Team isrequired.

When Words Are Not Enough 1110 When Words Are Not Enough

UnsettlingBehaviour

Change In:Baseline behaviour

Diagnostic symptomsSocial groupLife event

Academic functionAttendanceBehaviour

Violence levelsActivity levels

FamilyTolerance/stress

Attachment

Trauma/Tragedy

Humiliation/Shaming Event

Loss of Support

Increased:Impulsivity

Self-deprecationRisk-taking

SecrecySelf-harm

Absenteeism/withdrawalPreoccupation

BullyingAttention-seeking behaviour

Home and School:Concerned:

Peer(s)Teacher(s)Parent(s)