Pre-Functionalism 1Pre-Functionalism 1

MARX: Substructure and SuperstructureMARX: Substructure and SuperstructureSuperstrucural institutions are organised in Superstrucural institutions are organised in such a way as to maintain the economic such a way as to maintain the economic relationships of the base. That is, the relationships of the base. That is, the superstructure is superstructure is functionalfunctional for the base e.g. for the base e.g.

a)a) MediaMedia individualises problems individualises problems

b)b) Law Law protects private propertyprotects private property

c)c) ReligionReligion provides comfort for the provides comfort for the disadvantageddisadvantaged

Pre-Functionalism 2Pre-Functionalism 2

DURKHEIM: Functions and social orderDURKHEIM: Functions and social order

Actions have unexpected outcomes that Actions have unexpected outcomes that

help maintain the social system e.g. help maintain the social system e.g.

the functions of deviancethe functions of deviance

a)a) identifies the normative boundaries identifies the normative boundaries

b)b) enables reaffirmation of commitment to enables reaffirmation of commitment to shared normsshared norms

c)c) opportunity for collective cohesionopportunity for collective cohesion

d)d) ‘experiment’ with new social forms‘experiment’ with new social forms

What does FUNCTION mean?What does FUNCTION mean?

The consequence for a social system of a The consequence for a social system of a social occurrence where this occurrence is social occurrence where this occurrence is regarded as making an essential regarded as making an essential contribution to the working and contribution to the working and maintenance of this systemmaintenance of this system

Jary& Jary Jary& Jary Collins Dictionary of SociologyCollins Dictionary of Sociology

The Theory of Structural FunctionalismThe Theory of Structural Functionalism

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

3 Important Facts3 Important Facts

Parsons was initially trained as a biologistParsons was initially trained as a biologist

His dad was a Professor of EnglishHis dad was a Professor of English

He got an obituary in the P&JHe got an obituary in the P&J

Forms of UnderstandingForms of Understanding

1.1. AnalysisAnalysis‘‘the division of a physical or abstract whole into the division of a physical or abstract whole into its constituent parts to examine or determine its constituent parts to examine or determine their relationship’their relationship’

2.2. SynthesisSynthesis‘‘the process of combining objects or ideas into a the process of combining objects or ideas into a complex whole’complex whole’Source: Collins Concise DictionarySource: Collins Concise Dictionary

Structural functionalism is synthesis; it Structural functionalism is synthesis; it shows how individual parts ‘fit into’ the shows how individual parts ‘fit into’ the social whole: the social whole: the systemsystem

Parsons: Parsons: The System of RealityThe System of Reality

Human existence is composed of:Human existence is composed of:

1. 1. Physical realityPhysical reality ( (mattermatter))

2. 2. Biological realityBiological reality ( (lifelife))

3. 3. Social realitySocial reality ( (actionaction))

4. 4. Spiritual realitySpiritual reality ( (valuesvalues))

Parsons’ Action Frame of ReferenceParsons’ Action Frame of Reference

1.1. Resources (Resources (meansmeans))

2.2. Goals (Goals (endsends))

3.3. Persons (Persons (actorsactors))

4.4. ValuesValues ((purposespurposes))

The Unit ActThe Unit Act

‘‘PERSON’ selects appropriate PERSON’ selects appropriate ‘RESOURCES’ to reach desired ‘RESOURCES’ to reach desired ‘‘GOALS’ justified by dominant GOALS’ justified by dominant ‘‘VALUES’.VALUES’.

There is the assumption that rational There is the assumption that rational calculation links these elements together re calculation links these elements together re WEBERWEBER **‘Person’ is not equivalent to individual.‘Person’ is not equivalent to individual.**Collectivities are ‘persons’Collectivities are ‘persons’

Conditions of ActionConditions of Action

1.1. Possibility of action is dependent upon the Possibility of action is dependent upon the AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES.AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES.

2.2. The acceptability of action is dependant upon The acceptability of action is dependant upon the the IMPOSITION OF NORMATIVE IMPOSITION OF NORMATIVE STANDARDSSTANDARDS..

3.3. The orientation of action is dependant upon the The orientation of action is dependant upon the MOTIVATION OF ACTORS.MOTIVATION OF ACTORS.

4.4. The continuity of action is dependant upon its The continuity of action is dependant upon its COORDINATION WITH OTHER ACTION COORDINATION WITH OTHER ACTION UNITSUNITS..= the STRUCTURE (framework) of action = the STRUCTURE (framework) of action

SystemSystem

‘‘System is the concept that refers to a System is the concept that refers to a complex of interdependencies between complex of interdependencies between parts, components and processes parts, components and processes that that involves discernible regularities of involves discernible regularities of relationshiprelationship and to a similar type of and to a similar type of interdependency between such a complex interdependency between such a complex and its surrounding environment’ and its surrounding environment’

Society as System of ActionSociety as System of Action

Society = system of mutual interdependence of Society = system of mutual interdependence of action units through exchangeaction units through exchange

e.g.e.g.

Family Family Education Education Work Work StateState

FUNCTIONFUNCTION

The ‘function’ of an action unit is whatever The ‘function’ of an action unit is whatever it contributes to the maintenance of the it contributes to the maintenance of the overall system of actionoverall system of action..

Functional Pre-requisitesFunctional Pre-requisites & ( & (InstitutionsInstitutions))

““AGIL”AGIL”

AAdaptation daptation ((economyeconomy))

GGoal attainment oal attainment ((politypolity))

IIntegration ntegration ((communitycommunity))

LLatencyatency ( (culturycultury) )

= STRUCTURE= STRUCTURE

Note the parallel to “the system of reality” Note the parallel to “the system of reality”

Function and StructureFunction and Structure

Function=Function=What any action unit contributes to the What any action unit contributes to the production of :production of :AAdaptation, daptation, GGoal-attainment, oal-attainment, IIntegration, ntegration, LLatency atency System=System=through utilising the output of other action through utilising the output of other action unitsunits

Action as ExchangeAction as Exchange

Therefore social action is the exchange of Therefore social action is the exchange of essential resources among interdependent essential resources among interdependent action units.action units.

What one action unit requires to perform its What one action unit requires to perform its function is provided by other action units:function is provided by other action units:

school and workschool and work

Structural-FunctionalismStructural-Functionalism

'Theoretical approach in which societies are 'Theoretical approach in which societies are conceptualised as social systems and conceptualised as social systems and particular features of social structures are particular features of social structures are explained in terms of their contribution to explained in terms of their contribution to the maintenance of these systems e.g. the maintenance of these systems e.g. religious ritual explained in terms of the religious ritual explained in terms of the contribution it makes to social integrationcontribution it makes to social integration ''

Source: Jary & Jary Collins Dictionary of SociologySource: Jary & Jary Collins Dictionary of Sociology

Biological MetaphorBiological Metaphor 1 1

Hinduism: Hinduism: social order as the body of Brahmasocial order as the body of Brahma

St. Paul:St. Paul: the church as the body of Christ the church as the body of Christ

Biological MetaphorBiological Metaphor 2 2

1.1. re Parsons’ training as a biologist re Parsons’ training as a biologist

2.2. Think of society as we would think of a biological Think of society as we would think of a biological organism; a unity composed of mutually organism; a unity composed of mutually interdependent parts.interdependent parts.re re DurkheimDurkheim on organic solidarity on organic solidarity

3.3. Society, like an organism in nature, becomes more Society, like an organism in nature, becomes more differentiated in terms of social structure through differentiated in terms of social structure through evolutionary changeevolutionary change

Abercrombie et al Penguin Dictionary of SociologyAbercrombie et al Penguin Dictionary of Sociology (re Parsons (re Parsons ‘Societies’) ‘Societies’)

Function and changeFunction and change

Argument:Argument: structural functionalism can only structural functionalism can only explain things as they are, therefore cannot explain things as they are, therefore cannot explain change; therefore is ‘conservative’ i.e. explain change; therefore is ‘conservative’ i.e. staticstatic

Counter-argumentCounter-argument change is part of any change is part of any functioning social system. That is, functioning social system. That is, change is change is adaptation to new circumstancesadaptation to new circumstances re re MarxMarx on on change in the mode of production.change in the mode of production.

Social Change and Social ExchangeSocial Change and Social Exchange

Social Change is change in Social Change is change in the frequency and the frequency and significance of exchange significance of exchange among action unitsamong action units

Instance:Instance:

Secularisation is the process Secularisation is the process through which functional through which functional exchange between religion exchange between religion and other action units and other action units diminishesdiminishes

(Problems of ) Functional Explanation(Problems of ) Functional Explanation

1.1. Function (Function (after the action: after the action: ‘in order to’‘in order to’))

2.2. CauseCause ( (before the action: before the action: ‘because’‘because’))

3.3. Teleology (Teleology (problem of purposeful causesproblem of purposeful causes):):

giraffes and tall treesgiraffes and tall trees

Human beings have purposes: does society?Human beings have purposes: does society?

Function and PurposeFunction and Purpose

The term is not quite a synonym for The term is not quite a synonym for ‘consequence’ or ‘purpose’ but combines ‘consequence’ or ‘purpose’ but combines elements of both……Functional elements of both……Functional consequences are not mere accident. Rather consequences are not mere accident. Rather it is because these consequences are it is because these consequences are beneficial for the system .. that the action beneficial for the system .. that the action occurs or the institution exists. Hence occurs or the institution exists. Hence functions have a purposefunctions have a purpose but it is not but it is not necessary for functionalism that actors be necessary for functionalism that actors be conscious of the functions of their actionsconscious of the functions of their actions

Source: Bruce & Yearly Source: Bruce & Yearly Sage Dictionary of SociologySage Dictionary of Sociology(emphasis added)(emphasis added)

Durkheim on Functional ‘explanationDurkheim on Functional ‘explanation

When, then, the explanation of a social When, then, the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the efficient cause which separately the efficient cause which produces it and the function it fulfils. We produces it and the function it fulfils. We use the word ‘function’ in preference to use the word ‘function’ in preference to ‘end’ or ‘purpose’ precisely because ‘end’ or ‘purpose’ precisely because social social phenomena do not generally exist for the phenomena do not generally exist for the useful results they produceuseful results they produce’’Source: Durkheim Source: Durkheim The rules of sociological method The rules of sociological method (1938) (1938) p.96 Italics added p.96 Italics added

Adapting the modelAdapting the model

From biology: society as integrated systemFrom biology: society as integrated system

To cybernetics: society as learning systemTo cybernetics: society as learning system

““Science of systems of control and Science of systems of control and communications in animals and machines”communications in animals and machines”

Source: Oxford English DictionarySource: Oxford English Dictionary

e.g. thermostatic control, sweat reflexe.g. thermostatic control, sweat reflex

Feedback LoopFeedback Loop

In a system where a In a system where a transformation occurs, there transformation occurs, there are inputs and outputs. The are inputs and outputs. The inputs are the result of the inputs are the result of the environment's influence on the environment's influence on the system, and the outputs are the system, and the outputs are the influence of the system on the influence of the system on the environment. Input and output environment. Input and output are separated by a duration of are separated by a duration of time, as in before and after, or time, as in before and after, or past and present. past and present.

In every feedback loop, as the name suggests, information about the In every feedback loop, as the name suggests, information about the result of a transformation or an action is sent back to the input of the result of a transformation or an action is sent back to the input of the system in the form of input data. If these new data facilitate and system in the form of input data. If these new data facilitate and accelerate the transformation in the same direction as the preceding accelerate the transformation in the same direction as the preceding results, they are positive feedback - their effects are cumulative. If the results, they are positive feedback - their effects are cumulative. If the new data produce a result in the opposite direction to previous results, new data produce a result in the opposite direction to previous results, they are negative feedback - their effects stabilize the system. In the first they are negative feedback - their effects stabilize the system. In the first case there is exponential growth or decline; in the second there is case there is exponential growth or decline; in the second there is maintenance of the equilibrium…..The examples are numerous: chain maintenance of the equilibrium…..The examples are numerous: chain reaction, population explosion, industrial expansion, capital invested at reaction, population explosion, industrial expansion, capital invested at compound interest, inflation, proliferation of cancer cells. However, when compound interest, inflation, proliferation of cancer cells. However, when minus leads to another minus, events come to a standstill. Typical minus leads to another minus, events come to a standstill. Typical examples are bankruptcy and economic depression. In either case a examples are bankruptcy and economic depression. In either case a positive feedback loop left to itself can lead only to the destruction of the positive feedback loop left to itself can lead only to the destruction of the system, through explosion or through the blocking of all its functions. The system, through explosion or through the blocking of all its functions. The wild behaviour of positive loops - a veritable death wish - must be wild behaviour of positive loops - a veritable death wish - must be controlled by negative loops. This control is essential for a system to controlled by negative loops. This control is essential for a system to maintain itself in the course of time.maintain itself in the course of time.Source: Principia Cybernetica Web, Source: Principia Cybernetica Web, http://pespmc.1.vub.ac.be/FEEDBACK.htmlhttp://pespmc.1.vub.ac.be/FEEDBACK.html

Positive Social Feedback LoopPositive Social Feedback Loop

MORAL PANIC MORAL PANIC ((Cohen & TaylorCohen & Taylor))

This expression refers to the alleged over-This expression refers to the alleged over-reaction of the mass media, police and local reaction of the mass media, police and local community leaders to the activities of community leaders to the activities of particular social groups which are relatively particular social groups which are relatively trivial, both in terms of the nature of the trivial, both in terms of the nature of the offence and the number of people involvedoffence and the number of people involved

Source: Abercrombie et al Source: Abercrombie et al Penguin Dictionary of SociologyPenguin Dictionary of Sociology

HomeostasisHomeostasis

the tendency of a system to the tendency of a system to maintain internal stability, maintain internal stability, equilibrium,equilibrium, owing to the owing to the coordinated response of its coordinated response of its parts to any situation parts to any situation that that tends to disturb its normal tends to disturb its normal conditioncondition..

Social Order as Dynamic EquilibriumSocial Order as Dynamic Equilibrium

The condition of a system that maintains a state of The condition of a system that maintains a state of balance among its parts balance among its parts through continuous through continuous motion and changemotion and change e.g. e.g. a gyroscopea gyroscope

that is: change and order are not opposed; social that is: change and order are not opposed; social change maintains the social order through the change maintains the social order through the adaptive capacity of the social system.adaptive capacity of the social system.

Is society an ‘intelligent’ system that ‘learns’?Is society an ‘intelligent’ system that ‘learns’?

CYBERNETIC HIERARCHYCYBERNETIC HIERARCHY

1.1. Combining the models (biology & cybernetics)Combining the models (biology & cybernetics)

2.2. Developing evolutionary stages are dominated by a Developing evolutionary stages are dominated by a particular functional pre-requisite. This is based on the particular functional pre-requisite. This is based on the cybernetic principle that as a system develops so ‘mass’ is cybernetic principle that as a system develops so ‘mass’ is replaced by ‘information’ e.g. computers replaced by ‘information’ e.g. computers

3.3. Hence:Hence:

Adaptation Adaptation Goal Attainment Goal Attainment Integration Integration Latency Latency

4.4. Postmodernity as the information age; knowledge industriesPostmodernity as the information age; knowledge industries