Medicine and the Ethical Problem of Modern Man - Erich Fromm
Practising Non-Evidence-Based Medicine: Ethical Issues in ... · Practising Non-Evidence-Based...
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PractisingNon-Evidence-BasedMedicine:
EthicalIssuesinthePracticeofTraditionalChineseMedicineinCanada
WinnieFok
FacultyofPhilosophy
SaintPaulUniversity
May2018
AthesissubmittedtotheDepartmentofGraduateStudiesinpartialfulfillmentofthe
requirementsfortheMasterofArtsdegreeinPublicEthics.
©WinnieFok,Ottawa,Canada,2018
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TableofContents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................3Disclosure................................................................................................................................................4Preface......................................................................................................................................................5Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................6
Introduction............................................................................................................................................7I.OverviewofTCMPractice............................................................................................................ 11TCMRegulationinCanada ........................................................................................................................ 11TCMCharacteristics .................................................................................................................................... 14TCMEthicalFrameworks .......................................................................................................................... 19TCMisNon-Evidence-BasedMedicine .................................................................................................. 23
II.RespectforAutonomy................................................................................................................. 31SurveyMethodology.................................................................................................................................... 32SurveyResearchEthics(REBFileNumber:1360.6/17) ................................................................. 35SurveyParticipants ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Table1:DemographicData(n=17) .......................................................................................................................... 38SurveyFindingsandInterpretation ...................................................................................................... 40
Table2:AwarenessofTCMasnon-EBMandFrequencyofUsingTCM(n=17) ...................................... 40Table3:AnswersfromGroupA(participantswhohavemoreexperienceofusingTCMn=13) ...... 42Table4:AnswersfromGroupB(participantswhohavelessexperienceofusingTCMn=5) ............ 43Table5:AwarenessofTCMasnon-EBMandtheCorrespondingRankingsof“Beneficence”,“Justice”and“Nonmaleficence”(n=17) ................................................................................................................................... 45Table6:Rankingsof“Beneficence”,“Justice”and“Nonmaleficence”ofAllParticipants(n=17) ..... 47
ConclusionsoftheSurvey ......................................................................................................................... 47III.BeneficenceandNonmaleficence .......................................................................................... 50MoralCharacter............................................................................................................................................ 53Practitioner-PatientRelationshipModel............................................................................................. 57Teacher-ApprenticeLearningModel .................................................................................................... 61StudentSelection.......................................................................................................................................... 63IntensiveClinicalPractice......................................................................................................................... 67
IV.Justice .............................................................................................................................................. 71MedicareandInsuredHealthService ................................................................................................... 72ShouldTCMbeanInsuredHealthService? ......................................................................................... 78UtilitarianismandCost-BenefitAnalysis ............................................................................................. 81ValuesofEquity,FairnessandSolidarity............................................................................................. 86
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................ 92AppendixASurveyPackage ........................................................................................................... 96WorksCited ...................................................................................................................................... 103
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Abstract
TraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)isnon-evidence-basedmedicine.Thepurposeofthis
thesisistoidentifyandaddresssomepotentialTCMethicalissuesthatareparticularly
relatedtonon-evidence-basedmedicine.InapplyingBeauchampandChildress’sfour
principlesapproach(principlism),Iidentifythreepotentialethicalissuesinthepracticeof
TCMinCanada.ThefirstissuepertainstoenablingTCMpatientstomaketheinformed
decisionconcerningtheuseofTCM.ThesecondissuerelatestotheobligationofTCM
practitionerstodistinguishshamsfromeffectiveTCMtreatments.Thethirdissueconcerns
equalaccesstoTCMcareinthecontextoftheCanadaHealthAct.Afteridentifyingeach
issue,Iputforwardsuggestionstoaddressit.
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Disclosure
Theauthorisaself-employedRegisteredTCMPractitioner(R.Ac.,R.TCMP)inOntario.The
opinionsexpressedinthisthesisarethoseoftheauthoranddonotnecessarilyreflectthe
positionofotherindividuals,organizationsortheTCMprofession.
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Preface
IenterthisresearchasaTCMpractitioner.Thankstotheworkofotherscholarsand
practitioners,itisestablishedthatTCMisrecognizedasahealthcareprofessioninCanada.
IneednotdebatethevalueofTCMoritsrightfulplaceinhealthcareinthisthesis.
InBuildingonValues:TheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,RoyRomanowstatesthat
“Canadiansviewmedicareasamoralenterprise,notabusinessventure.”1Being
recognizedasahealthcareprofessionalinCanadaisaprivilegeandwithitcomesthe
responsibilitytoexercisemoralreasoninginourpractice.Mythesisintendstoaddress
somepotentialethicalissuesinthecontextofpracticingTCMinCanada.InTheMethodsof
Ethics,HenrySidgwickexplainsthat:
...thehistoryofMoralPhilosophy...wouldbeahistoryofattemptstoenunciate,in
fullbreadthandclearness,thoseprimaryintuitionsofReason,bythescientific
applicationofwhichthecommonmoralthoughtofmankindmaybeatonce
systematisedandcorrected.2
SidgwicksummarizesthemostprofoundlessonthatIhavelearnedfromstudyingpublic
ethics.Inwritingthisthesis,Istrovetopracticetheaboveapproachinformulatingmy
1RoyJ.Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada:FinalReport(Saskatoon,Sask.:CommissionontheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,2002),xx,https://login.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/login?url=http://books.scholarsportal.info/viewdoc.html?id=/ebooks/ebooks0/gibson_cppc/2009-12-01/6/207365.2HenrySidgwick,TheMethodsofEthics,6thed.(London;NewYork:MacMillanandCo.Limited;TheMacmillanCompany,1901),413–14,http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/4YWos4.
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thoughts.Myuseofempiricaldataandpersonalexperienceisforthepurposeofreasoning.
Thereisnointentiontodivulgeanyprivilegedinformation.
Acknowledgements
In2015,IequippedmyselfwithinadequatecredentialstoapplyfortheMasterofArtsin
PublicEthicsProgram.MygratitudetoAmyandPaulfortheirsupportintheprocess.Iam
gratefulfortheconditionaladmissionatSaintPaulUniversity.IshallputwhatIlearnhere
togooduseforsociety.
Iamindebtedtomysupervisor,Dr.MoniqueLanoixforhersupportinwritingthisthesis.
Sheisgenerousinsharingherideasandkeepsmefocusedonworthyresearch.Without
herguidance,Iwouldnothaveorganizedorexpressedmythoughtsproperly.
MythankstoDr.RajeshShukla,Dr.RichardFeistandDr.MatthewMcLennanfortheir
interestingcoursesinmoraltheoriesandappliedethics.Iwasinspiredtowritearesearch
thesisbecauseoftheirwisdomandencouragement.
Totheparticipantsintheempiricalstudyofthisthesis,thankyoufortheinput.Thethesis
wouldmeanverylittlewithoutyourinterestinTCM.
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Introduction
TCMisnotrecognizedasevidence-basedmedicineandhence,itisconsideredasnon-
evidence-basedmedicineforthepurposeofthisthesis.Non-evidence-basedmedicineis
nottheequivalentofmedicinewithnoevidence3astherearedifferentlevelsofevidence4.
Nevertheless,beingnon-evidence-basedmedicineimpliescertainclinicalrealitiesand
constraints.Therearepotentialethicalissuesforpractitionersaswellaspatients.The
purposeofthisthesisistoidentifyandaddresssomeofthepotentialethicalissuesthatare
facingTCMpractitioners.IapplyBeauchampandChildress’sfourprinciplesapproach
(principlism)astheinitialethicalframeworktoidentifythreeissues.Thefirstissue
pertainstoenablingTCMpatientstomakeaninformeddecisionregardingtheuseofTCM.
ThesecondissuerelatestothedifficultyandobligationofTCMpractitionerstodistinguish
shamsfromeffectiveTCMtreatments.ThethirdissueconcernsequalaccesstoTCMcarein
thecontextoftheCanadaHealthAct.Afteridentifyingeachissue,Iputforwardsuggestions
toaddressit.
PrinciplismisacommonethicalframeworkinWesternbiomedicine.Itisgroundedinwhat
BeauchampandChildresscall“commonmoralitytheory”andusesfourprinciples:respect
3IzetMasic,MilanMiokovic,andBelmaMuhamedagic,‘EvidenceBasedMedicine–NewApproachesandChallenges’,ActaInformaticaMedica16,no.4(2008):219–25,https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2008.16.219-225.4‘OxfordCentreforEvidence-BasedMedicine-LevelsofEvidence(March2009)’,CEBM,11June2009,https://www.cebm.net/2009/06/oxford-centre-evidence-based-medicine-levels-evidence-march-2009/.
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forautonomy,beneficence,nonmaleficenceandjusticeasthestartingpointforbiomedical
ethics.5IacceptBeauchamp’sclaimthatitisatheoryandpracticalmethodforcliniciansto
yieldpracticaljudgementsinbioethics6.Therefore,principlismistheethicalframeworkto
identifyethicalissuesinthisthesis.
Themaincontentofthisthesisisorganizedintofoursections.SectionIisanoverviewof
TCMpracticeinCanada.SectionII,“RespectforAutonomy,”sectionIII,“Beneficenceand
Nonmaleficence,”andsectionIV,“Justice,”arenamedaftertheethicalprinciplesthat
identifytheissues.InadditiontomyTCMtraining,Ireviewedavarietyofbooksand
journalarticlesrelatedtoChinesemedicine,bioethics,evidence-basedmedicine,
qualitativeresearch,ethicseducation,cost-benefitanalysisandmedicare.Theliterature
wasaccessedmainlythroughtheUniversityofOttawalibrary.Ialsoreferredtoseveral
onlinecoursesonedx.orgtofurthermyunderstandingofrandomizedclinicaltrialsand
Chinesephilosophy.TheinformationrelatedtoTCMregulationsorCanadaHealthActis
basedonthepublicwebsitesofTCMassociations,TCMregulatorsandHealthCanada.
SectionIdescribeshowTCMisregulatedinCanada,introducessomeTCMcharacteristics,
highlightsthemainethicalframeworksforTCMpractitionersandexplainswhyTCMisnot
recognizedasevidence-basedmedicine.Itfollowsthatsomepotentialethicalissues
deserveourattention.
5TomL.Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,7thed..(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2013),Ch.1.6TomL.Beauchamp,‘TheTheory,Method,andPracticeofPrinciplism’,16July2015,1,https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732365.013.31.
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SectionIIpertainstoenablingTCMpatientstomakeaninformeddecisiontouseTCM.This
sectionfocusesonanempiricalstudyintheformofaquestionnairesurvey.Thepurposeof
thesurveyistogaugetheawarenessofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicineamong
theparticipantsanditsimpactontheirdecisionstouseTCM.Thefindingsalsosuggest
someTCMpatientcharacteristicsamongtheparticipants.Theresultsarequalitativewith
nostatisticalpowertomakegeneralization.TheempiricalstudywasapprovedbytheSaint
PaulUniversityResearchEthicsBoard(REBFileNumber:1360.6/17)beforedata
collection.SectionIIdiscussesthemethodology,ethicsreview,resultsandinterpretationof
thestudyindetails.AppendixAincludesacopyoftheResearchEthicsBoardapproval
certificateandthefullpackageofthesurveyinvitation.
SectionIIIrelatestothedifficultyandobligationofTCMpractitionerstodistinguishshams
fromeffectiveTCMtherapies.ThesafetyandefficacyofTCMinCanadarelyontheethical
standardsandcompetencyofTCMpractitioners.Emphasisonmoralcultivationandthe
idealmodelofpractitioner-patientrelationship7inTCMtrainingcaneffectivelypromote
highTCMstandardsofpracticeforthelongterm.Isuggestexploringtheteacher-
apprenticelearningmodelinTCMtraininginordertofacilitatesuchanendeavour.
SectionIVconcernstheissueofequalaccesstoTCMcareinthecontextoftheCanada
HealthAct.AfterprovidinganoverviewofCanada’spublichealthcaresystem(medicare)
andtheinsuredhealthservice,IaskifTCMshouldbeincludedinthecoverage?Cost,
7EzekielJ.EmanuelandLindaL.Emanuel,‘FourModelsofthePhysician-PatientRelationship’,JAMA267,no.16(22April1992):2221–26,https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03480160079038.
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benefitandthefoundingvaluesofmedicare(equity,fairnessandsolidarity)areprominent
factorsinCanada’smedicarepolicy.Iexplorewhetherutilitarianismandthevaluescan
shedlightonthequestionofTCMcoverageinmedicare.
Toconcludemythesis,Isummarizealltheresearchfindingsandsuggestionsfromsections
II,IIIandIVinthefinalchapter.Theconclusionalsoincludesalistofresearchareasthat
areworthyoffurtherinvestigationinCanada.
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I.OverviewofTCMPractice
ThefollowinginformationaboutTCMisrelevanttothesubsequentdiscussionsinmy
thesis.Itisorganizedundertheheadingsofregulation,characteristics,ethicalframework
andnon-evidence-basedmedicine.
TCMRegulationinCanada
InCanada,therearefiveprovincesthatregulateTCMundertheprovinciallegislation.
TheseprovincesareBritishColumbia,Alberta,Ontario,QuebecandNewfoundlandand
Labrador.TopracticeTCMlegallyintheseprovinces,onemustregisterwiththeregulator
oftheprovinceoftheirpractice.Thetablebelowliststheregulatorsforeachprovince:
BritishColumbiaCollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofBritishColumbia(CTCMA)
https://ctcma.bc.ca
Alberta CollegeandAssociationofAcupuncturistsofAlberta(CAAA) http://acupuncturealberta.ca
OntarioCollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofOntario(CTCMPAO)
http://www.ctcmpao.on.ca
Quebec OrderofAcupuncturistsQuebec(OAQ) http://www.o-a-q.org
NewfoundlandandLabrador
CollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofNewfoundlandandLabrador(CTCMPANL)
http://ctcmpanl.ca
Source:http://www.cmaac.ca/public/tcm-regulation-in-canada8
8‘TCMRegulationinCanada|C.M.A.A.C.–PromotionTCMandAcupuncture’,accessed28September2017,http://www.cmaac.ca/public/tcm-regulation-in-canada.
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Together,thesefiveregulatorsformTheCanadianAllianceofRegulatoryBodies–
TraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturists.Theallianceisresponsible
forensuringthecompetencyrequirementsforthepracticeofTCMinCanada.Thealliance
alsodesignsthenationalPan-CanadianExaminationandClinicalCase-StudyExaminations
forallTCMstudentgraduates.Inordertobeeligiblefortheexaminations,anapplicant
mustmeettheminimalTCMtrainingrequirement.Theprerequisitesforbeingqualifiedto
writethePan-CanadianExaminationsvaryfromprovincetoprovince.Ingeneral,
applicantsfortheregistrationofAcupuncturistarerequiredtohaveaminimumof1900
hoursofTCMeducationincludingbetween450and600hoursofpracticalclinicaltraining
inthreeacademicyears;andtheapplicantsfortheregistrationofTCMPractitionerare
requiredtohavecompletedaminimumof2600hoursoftraditionalChinesemedicine
programwithatleast650hoursofpracticalclinicaltraininginfouracademicyears.9, 10All
TCMregistrationapplicantsarerequiredtopasstheirrelevantPan-CanadianExaminations
beforebeingeligibletoregisterwiththeprovincialregulatorfortheprotectedtitles,such
asRegisteredAcupuncturists(R.Ac.)orRegisteredTCMPractitioner(R.TCMP),within
theirprovinceofpractice.
Similartootherhealthcareprofessionssuchasdentistryornursing,theTCMprofessionis
self-regulated.Self-regulationmeansthattheprovincialgovernmenthasmadealegislative
statute.Forexample,inOntario:thestatuesaretheRegulatedHealthProfessionsAct,1991
andTraditionalChineseMedicineAct,2006.Thesestatutesgiveagoverningbodytheduty9‘TCMRegulationinCanada|C.M.A.A.C.–PromotionTCMandAcupuncture’.10‘EducationProgramReview|CTCMA-CollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturists’,accessed23October2017,http://www.ctcma.bc.ca/resources/education-program-review/.
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toregulatetheTCMprofession.InOntario,thegoverningbodyistheCollegeofTraditional
ChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofOntario.11TheBoardofDirectorsof
theCollegeestablishesthepoliciesoftheCollegeandoverseesitsadministration.The
mandateoftheCollegeistoservethepublicinterestbyensuringthattheTCMprofession
actshonestlyandcompetently.Unliketheroleofaprofessionalassociation,theCollege
doesnotservetheself-interestoftheprofessionnorcanitlobbythegovernmentonbehalf
oftheinterestsoftheprofession.12OtherprovincesthatregulatethepracticeofTCMalso
havetheirownstatutesandgoverningbodieswithsimilarroles.
AccordingtotheTraditionalChineseMedicineAct(2006)inOntario,“Thepracticeof
traditionalChinesemedicineistheassessmentofbodysystemdisordersthrough
traditionalChinesemedicinetechniquesandtreatmentusingtraditionalChinesemedicine
therapiestopromote,maintainorrestorehealth.”13Registeredpractitionersareauthorized
topracticethefollowing:
1.Performingaprocedureontissuebelowthedermisandbelowthesurfaceofa
mucousmembraneforthepurposeofperformingacupuncture.
2.CommunicatingatraditionalChinesemedicinediagnosisidentifyingabody
systemdisorderasthecauseofaperson’ssymptomsusingtraditionalChinese
11‘Regulations·CTCMPAOWebsite’,accessed6November2017,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/regulation/.12‘JurisprudenceCourse·CTCMPAOWebsite’,handbookp.4-5,accessed28October2017,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/applicant/jurisprudence-course/.13‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’,accessed31January2018,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/regulation/standards-of-practice/.
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medicinetechniques.14
TherearemultiplemodalitiesoftherapiesortreatmentinTCM.ThemostcommonTCM
treatmentmodalitiesinCanadaareherbaltherapyandacupuncture.Ingeneral,a
registeredacupuncturist(R.Ac)isqualifiedtopracticeacupuncture.AregisteredTCM
practitioner(R.TCMP)isqualifiedtopracticeacombinationofacupunctureandherbal
therapies.15
TCMCharacteristics
Theterms“TraditionalChineseMedicine”and“Chinesemedicine”refertothesamesystem
ofmedicineforthepurposeofthisthesis.InChina,theterm“traditional”isoftenomitted
whenreferringtoChinesemedicine.IntheWest,mostscholarsandpractitionersusethe
term“TraditionalChineseMedicine”torefertoChinesemedicine.16Taylorexplainsthat
“theterm‘TraditionalChineseMedicine’firstappearedduringthelatterhalfoftheyear
1955,anditappearedfirstnotinmedicaldocuments,butinpoliticalones.”17
14‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’,accessed5October2017,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/regulation/standards-of-practice/.15‘PublicRegisterSearch·CTCMPAOWebsite’,accessed4October2017,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/publicregistersrc/.16VolkerScheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,E-DukeBooksScholarlyCollection(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2002),3,https://login.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/login?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/9780822383710.17Kim Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63: A Medicine of Revolution, Needham Research Institute Studies (London ; New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005), 84.
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Scheidpointsoutthat“theterm‘traditional’invokestheinappropriatesensethatChinese
medicineisunchangedorunchanging,neitherofwhichistrue.”18Indeed,the
contemporarypracticeofTCMisgroundedinmodernbiomedicalscience.Justasa
physicistneedstoknowengineeringsciencetobuildfunctionalmachines,aTCM
practitionerneedstoknowbiomedicalsciencetocareforahumanbody.AcompleteTCM
curriculumforTCMpractitionerstodayincludestudiesinsubjectssuchasanatomy,
microbiologyandtoxicology.19, 20Inclinicalpractice,TCMpractitionersneedtounderstand
someWesternbiomedicineinordertocooperateandcomplementconventionalmedicine
withappropriateTCMtherapies.TCMpractitionersalsoneedtocollaboratewithandrefer
patientstoWesternbiomedicineprofessionalsaccordingtopatientsituations.21
TheCollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofOntario
statesthat:
TraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)wasoriginatedinancientChinaandhasa
historyofovertwothousandyears.InfluencedbyancientChinesephilosophy,
culture,andscienceandtechnology,ChinesemedicineusesthetheoryofYinand
18Scheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,3.19HKBU,‘BachelorofChineseMedicineandBachelorofScience(Hons)inBiomedicalScience’,accessed7November2017,http://scm.hkbu.edu.hk/en/education/undergraduate_programmes/bachelor_of_chinese_medicine_and_bachelor_of_science_Hons_in_biomedical_science/index.html.20OCTCM,‘AcupunctureSchool|’,Acupunctureschool|OntarioCollegeofTCMToronto,accessed7November2017,https://www.studytcm.ca.21‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’.
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YangandthetheoryofWuXingtoexplainthemechanismofbalancingthefunction
ofthebody.22
TCMtheoryisbasedonQiandteachesthathealthistheresultoftheinternalbalanceofYin
andYang.23ThedifferencesbetweenTCMandWesternbiomedicinearerootedinhow
medicalconditionsarerepresented.TCMoftenrepresentsamedicalconditionwitha
metaphor.Forexample,Westernbiomedicinerepresentstheconditionofaheadachein
termsofoveractivepainreceptorsorvasoconstrictionofcerebralbloodvessels,butinTCM,
a headacheis representedasasyndromesuchasWind-ColdorHyperactivityofLiverYang.
IntranslatingTCMfromthelogographicChineselanguagetothedescriptivelanguageof
English,manyTCMmetaphorsbecomenonsensicaldescriptionsformany.
Forexample,thesymbolofYinYangTheory isametaphorthatdepictstwoopposing
matterswhichco-existandareinterdependent.YinandYangtransformintoeachother.
Thisimpliesthatwithinahealthybodysystem,YinandYangdynamicallyrebalanceeach
otherandtransformfromonetoanother.InTCM,thismetaphorplaysanimportantrolein
guidingthechoiceofherbs,acupuncturemethods,exerciseordietsintherapy.Ifthe
translationofthelogoissimplydescribedasacirclewithhalfofitbeingblackcolourwith
awhitedotandtheotherhalfbeingwhitecolourwithablackdot,themetaphorislost.The
translationdoesnothaveanymeaningtoTCM.Theepistemologicalandontological
22‘AboutTCM·CTCMPAOWebsite’,accessed28September2017,https://www.ctcmpao.on.ca/public/about-tcm/.23ChangguoWu,BasicTheoryofTraditionalChineseMedicine,ed.WuGuochang(Shanghai:ShanghaiCollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePress,China,2002),11.
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differencesbetweenTCMandWesternbiomedicineremainabarrierformanyto
understandTCM.24
LeonAntonioRochaexplainsthat:
OnenoticeablegapinourunderstandingofChinesemedicineremains:the
narratives,subjectivities,andexperiencesofpatients.Iamespeciallyinterestedin
howanindividualbecomesapatientofChinesemedicine:themultipleways
throughwhichapatientencountersandcomestoelectacupunctureandChinese
herbalmedicine.25
Inmypersonalexperience,mostpatientsinCanadaconsiderTCMonlyifWestern
biomedicinefailstohelpthem.TCMpatientsoftenarenotfamiliarwithTCMandreadily
acceptTCMasablackbox.Tothem,TCMisacomplementarymedicinewhenthereareno
betteroptions.Thispatientcharacteristiccanmakethemespeciallyvulnerabletounethical
practiceanddeservesourattention.InsectionIIofthisthesis,thefindingsoftheempirical
studyrevealsomepatientcharacteristicsamongtheparticipants.
RegardlessofthedifferencesbetweenTCMandWesternbiomedicine,TCMisahealthcare
intervention.AvisittoaTCMpractitionerinCanadawouldbeastandardprocessofgiving
consent,obtainingadiagnosis,formulatingatreatmentplanandthenreceivingthetherapy
accordingly.
24Fengli Lan, Culture, Philosophy, and Chinese Medicine: Viennese Lectures., Culture and Knowledge ; v. 22 (Frankfurt am Main ; New York: Peter Lang, 2012), 274.25HowardChiang,HistoricalEpistemologyandtheMakingofModernChineseMedicine(ManchesterUniversityPress,2015),238.
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TCMdiagnosis(alsoknownasBianzhenglunzhi辨証論治)isanessentialstepinaTCM
treatmentprocess.Itsprincipleistorepresentapatient’sconditioninTCMsyndrome
differentiation(alsoknownaspatterndifferentiation).Scheidwritesthat:
BianzhenglunzhiisthusrememberedtodayasthedefiningfeatureofChinese
medicine.Itscomplexhistoryhasbeenrewrittensothatforpatientsand
practitionersalike;comparisonsbetweenChinesemedicineandWesternmedicine
nownaturallyevoketheoppositionbetweenpatternanddiseasedifferentiation.26
InWesternbiomedicine,physiciansprescribetreatmentbasedonthediseasediagnosis.In
TCM,practitionersprescribetreatmentbasedontheTCMsyndromedifferentiation.Again,
Iuseaheadacheasanexampletoexplainthecontrast.InTCM,aheadachecanbe
representedbydifferentsyndromesasillustratedbelow:
26Scheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,228.
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InWesternbiomedicine,thetreatmentfordifferenttypesofheadachemaybethesame
classofprescriptiondrugs.However,inTCM,adifferentTCMsyndromerequiresa
differentTCMtreatmentplan.Forexample,aWind-Coldheadacheneedsadifferent
treatmentfromthatofaQiandBloodDeficiencyheadache.Therefore,thesamebiomedical
disease,aheadache,canrequiredifferentTCMtreatments.Twopatientswiththesame
biomedicaldiseasemayhavetwodifferentsyndromesandrequiredifferentTCM
treatments.Thesamepatientwiththesamebiomedicaldiseaseatdifferenttimesmayhave
differentsyndromesandrequiredifferentTCMtreatments.Thisfeatureof“thesame
diseasewithdifferentTCMtreatments”isauniquecharacteristicofTCM.Itisalsoan
importantfactorofwhyTCMisdifficulttostandardizeorbecomeevidence-basedmedicine.
TCMEthicalFrameworks
AlthoughTCMisamedicalsystemwhichhasitsowncompletesetoftheoriesand
treatmentmethods,thereisnouniversalTCMethicaltheoryorframeworkformoral
reasoning.AfterreviewingseveralsourcesofTCMethics,IconcludethatTCMethicsin
Canadaareinfluencedbythreedifferentsources:Chinesephilosophy,TCMmastersand
provincialregulations.
InfluencedbyvariousschoolsofChinesephilosophysuchasConfucianism,Buddhismand
Daoism,TCMethicsgravitatetowardsprinciplessuchas“Ren仁,”whichisoftentranslated
as“compassion”and“benevolence”;“Yi義,“whichisoftentranslatedas“righteousness”;
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“De德,“whichisoftentranslatedas“virtuosity”;and“Zhi智,”whichisoftentranslatedas
“wisdom”and“knowledge”.27,28Nieclaimsthat:
AsTCMevolvedinChina,itspractitioners...developedsomecoreprinciplesof
professionalethicsincludingtheconceptsofthevirtuousphysician(liangyi),
medicineastheartofhumanityorhumaneness(yinairenshu),sincerityormoral
excellence(cheng),andcompassion(ci).29
SimilartoWesternvirtueethics,Chinesephilosophyoftenemphasizesthecultivationof
moralcharacter.
LunDayiJingchengisanothersourceofTCMethics.Thebookiswrittenbyaninfluential
TCMmaster,SunSimiao(581-682).LantranslatesoneofSun’smostfamousparagraphs,
whichstatesthat“agreatdoctorshouldbeexpertinmedicalskillsandsinceretothe
patients”andthat:
whenwell-qualifieddoctorstreatpatients,theyshouldbecalmandconcentrated
withoutanydesireoravarice.Firstofall,theyshouldhavegreatsympathyforthe
patientsandthenbedeterminedtosavepeoplefromsuffering.Whenpatients
cometoaskforhelp,theyshouldnottreatthemdifferentlybywhethertheyarerich
orpoor,oldoryoung,beautifulorugly,enemyorfriend,Chineseorforeigner,
foolishorwise.Theyshouldtreatallthepatientsliketheirclosestrelatives...Being
27Chad Hansen, ‘Humanity and Nature in Chinese Thought | 中国哲学思想中的人类与自然观 | EdX’, accessed 26 October 2017, https://www.edx.org/course/humanity-nature-chinese-thought-zhong-hkux-hku03x.28Lan, Culture, Philosophy, and Chinese Medicine, section II.29Jing-Bao Nie, Medical Ethics in China: A Transcultural Interpretation, Biomedical Law and Ethics Library (London ; New York: Routledge, 2011), 181–82.
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qualifieddoctors,theyshouldregardthepatients’sufferingastheirownandhave
deepsympathyforthem.Theyshouldnottrytoavoiddangerifbeingconfronted
withit.Nomatterindaytimeornight,winterorsummer,nomattertheyarehungry
orthirsty,tiredorexhausted,theyshouldtreatorsavepatientswithheartandsoul
withoutdelayorworryingaboutpersonalgainsorlosses.Onlybysodoingcanthey
becomegreatdoctorsforpeople.30
SunSimiaopreachesselflessness,benevolenceandnon-discriminationastheHolyGrailof
TCMethics.ScheidexplainsthatSun’sideaofa“goodphysicianischaracterizedbyfour
attributes:heismorallyhonorableinhisaction(xingfang行方),hasacomprehensive
knowledge(yuanzhi圓智),andiscareful(xinxiao心小)yetalsocourageous(danda胆
大).”31Niestatesthat:
ThekeytenetofSun’sethics,asthetitleofthisimportanttextindicates,isthata
physicianmustbesimultaneously‘jing’(proficient,oratleastcompetent,inthe
studyandpracticeofmedicine)and‘cheng’(sincereinone’smoralcommitment,
honestandvirtuous).SunSimiaowasthefirsttoputforwardtheidealof‘dayi’(the
MasterPhysician)andtoarticulatetheethicalprinciplesandconductappropriateto
therole.32
Regrettably,neitherChinesephilosophynorthestudyofSun’sLunDayiJingchengare
mandatoryeducationinatypicalTCMcurriculuminCanada.ChinesephilosophyandSun’s
30Lan,Culture,Philosophy,andChineseMedicine,170.31Scheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,150.32Nie,MedicalEthicsinChina,187.
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LunDayiJingchengarerarelytaughtinaTCMschoolinCanada.TheirinfluenceinCanada
islimited.
ThethirdsourcesofinfluenceonTCMethicsaretheStandardsofPracticeandtheCodeof
Ethicsdevelopedbytheprovincialregulations.InOntario,“theStandardsofPracticereflect
theknowledge,skillsandjudgmentR.TCMPsandR.Acsneedinordertoperformthe
servicesandproceduresthatfallwithinthescopeofpracticeoftheprofession.”33The
StandardsofPracticeprovidesareferencetotheCodeofEthicsforTCMpractitionersin
Ontarioasfollows:
UndertheCollege’sStandardsofPracticeR.TCMPsandR.Acsareexpectedtobe:
Competent-meaningtohavethenecessaryknowledge,skillsandjudgmentto
ensuresafe,effectiveandethicaloutcomesforthepatient.ThismeansthatR.TCMPs
andR.AcsmustmaintaincompetenceStandardsofPracticeintheirpractice,must
refrainfromactingifnotcompetent,andmusttakeappropriateactiontoaddress
thesituation.
Accountable-meaningtotakeresponsibilityfordecisionsandactions.Thismeans
thatR.TCMPsandR.Acsmustaccepttheconsequencesoftheirdecisionsand
actionsandactonthebasisofwhattheyintheirclinicaljudgment,believeisinthe
bestinterestsofthepatient.
Collaborative-meaningtoworkwithothermembersofthehealthcareteamto
achievethebestpossibleoutcomesforthepatient.ThismeansthatthatR.TCMPs
andR.Acsareresponsibleforcommunicatingwithothermembersofthehealth
33‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’.
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careteam,andtakingappropriateactiontoaddressgapsanddifferencesin
judgementaboutcareprovision.34
TCMpractitionersmustadheretotheStandardsofPracticeandtheCodeofEthicssetby
theCollegeandtheBylaws.TheStandardsofPracticealsoincludeothertopicssuchas
communication,recordkeeping,advertising,andtheprohibitionofasexualrelationship
withapatient,etc.TheseguidelinesstrivetoprovideamodelforTCMpractitionersto
ensuresafe,effectiveandethicaloutcomesforpatients.35
TCMisNon-Evidence-BasedMedicine
Evidence-basedmedicineisanapproachthatintegratesindividualexpertiseandthebest
availabledatafromclinicalresearchintoclinicaldecision-making.36Inotherwords,
evidence-basedmedicineis“theconscientious,explicit,andjudicioususeofcurrentbest
evidenceinmakingdecisionsaboutthecareofindividualpatients.”37Inthecontextof
treatingapatient,evidence-basedmedicine“requiresahealthcareprovidertolocate
evidenceaboutdifferenttreatmentsforthepatient’sconditionandapplytheone
34‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’.35‘StandardsofPractice·CTCMPAOWebsite’.36DavidSackettetal.,‘EvidenceBasedMedicine:WhatItIsandWhatItIsn't.1996’,accessed1February2018,https://uottawa-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=UOTTAWA&afterPDS=true&docId=TN_medline17340682&loc=adaptor,primo_central_multiple_fe.37ColleenM.Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,CanadianElectronicLibrary.BooksCollection(Toronto[Ont.],Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2006),45,https://login.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/login?url=http://site.ebrary.com/lib/oculottawa/Doc?id=10219133.
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supportedbythebestevidenceabouteffectiveness”38.Thepurposeofanevidence-based
approachistooffermedicalpractitionersandpatientsmoreaccurateandup-to-date
informationabouttreatmentoptions.Ithasthepotentialbenefitofenhancingclinical
decisionmakingandoptimizationofclinicaloutcomes.39, 40, 41In1992,theEvidence-Based
MedicineWorkingGroupofAmericanMedicalAssociationclaimedthat:
...evidence-basedmedicinede-emphasizesintuition,unsystematicclinical
experience,andpatho-physiologicrationaleassufficientgroundsforclinical
decision-making,andstressestheexaminationofevidencefromclinicalresearch.
Evidence-basedmedicinerequiresnewskillsofthephysician,includingefficient
literature-searching,andtheapplicationofformalrulesofevidenceinevaluating
theclinicalliterature.42
Theimportanceofevidence-basedmedicinewasestablished.Evidence-basedmedicinehas
beenthenewparadigmformedicalpracticeandshapedtheeducationandpracticeof
biomedicinesincethe1990s.43, 44Greschnerclaimsthattheevidence-basedapproach“now
encompassesevidence-basedhealthcare,whichaspirestoextendtheprinciplesof
evidence-basedmedicinetoeverycornerofthehealthcaresystem,includingmanagement,
38Floodetal.,45.39PrasadKameshwar,‘FundamentalsofEvidenceBasedMedicine-Springer’,1,accessed24September2017,https://link-springer-com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/book/10.1007/978-81-322-0831-0/page/1.40Masic,Miokovic,andMuhamedagic,‘EvidenceBasedMedicine–NewApproachesandChallenges’.41Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,46.42GordonGuyatt,‘Evidence-BasedMedicine:ANewApproachtoTeachingthePracticeofMedicine’,JAMA268,no.17(4November1992):2420,https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03490170092032.43Guyatt,2424.44Sackettetal.,‘EvidenceBasedMedicine’,71.
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purchasing,andprofessionalregulation.”45
Masicetal.commentthat“thekeydifferencebetweenevidence-basedmedicineand
traditionalmedicineisnotthatEBMconsiderstheevidencewhilethelatterdoesnot.Both
takeevidenceintoaccount;however,EBMdemandsbetterevidencethanhastraditionally
beenused.”46Beingnon-evidence-basedmedicineisnottheequivalenceofhavingno
evidenceorshammedicine.Therearedifferentlevelsofevidenceandwhatcountsas
evidenceiscrucial.47AccordingtotheOxfordCentre,thehighestqualityevidenceisthe
evidencegeneratedbyrandomizedclinicaltrials;inthemiddleleveloftheladderarethe
cohortorcasestudies;andatthebottomareopinions,experienceorintuition,etc.48Hence,
non-evidence-basedclinicaldecisionsmaybebasedoninsufficientevidenceorlow-quality
evidencesuchasanexpertopinion.49Incomparisontoevidence-based,non-evidence-
basedclinicaldecisionsmaynotbeoptimized.Non-evidence-basedmedicinemayimply
higheruncertaintiesandlessconsistency.Thesafetyandefficacyofnon-evidence-based
medicinemaybebiasedbytheclinicalexperienceofapractitionerorsimplyanoutcomeof
chance.50
High-qualitydataistheessenceofevidence-basedmedicine.High-qualitydatafromclinical
researchisessentialtosupportanyclaimforthesafetyorefficacyofmedicine.Among
45Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,45.46Masic,Miokovic,andMuhamedagic,‘EvidenceBasedMedicine–NewApproachesandChallenges’.47Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,44.48‘OxfordCentreforEvidence-BasedMedicine-LevelsofEvidence(March2009)’.49‘OxfordCentreforEvidence-BasedMedicine-LevelsofEvidence(March2009)’.50Kameshwar,‘FundamentalsofEvidenceBasedMedicine-Springer’,39.
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differentclinicalresearchmethods,JulieBuringclaimsthatrandomizedclinicaltrial(RCT)
isthegoldstandardtoobtainthebestqualitydata.51Itisbecausearandomizedclinical
trialcanminimizealternativeexplanations,theroleofchance,theroleofbias,andtherole
ofconfoundinginresearchfindings.Shethinksthattheuniquenicheofrandomizedtrialsis
thattheyareoptimaltodetectstatisticallysmalltomoderatebutclinicallyworthwhile
treatmenteffects.52Thereforerandomizedclinicaltrialisthebedrockofevidence-based
medicine.Evidencefromrandomizedclinicaltrialsisregardedasthehighestlevelof
clinicalevidenceforbiomedicine.53
ThequalitiesofTCMevidenceareoftenconsideredasloworinsufficientincomparisonto
biomedicine.Asearchof“TraditionalChineseMedicine”or“acupuncture”intheCochrane
Librarydatabase(http://www.cochrane.org)wouldyieldovertwothousandreviewson
variousstudiesonTCMtherapies.Forexample,inacupunctureforfibromyalgia,the
reviewer’sconclusionisthat:
...thereislowtomoderate-levelevidencethatcomparedwithnotreatmentand
standardtherapy,acupunctureimprovespainandstiffnessinpeoplewith
fibromyalgia.Thereismoderate-levelevidencethattheeffectofacupuncturedoes
notdifferfromshamacupunctureinreducingpainorfatigue,orimprovingsleepor
51JulieBuring,‘WhyAreClinicalTrialsImportant?Lecture|WhyAreClinicalTrialsImportant?|HSPH-HMS214xCourseware|EdX’,accessed23October2017,https://courses.edx.org/courses/HarvardX/HSPH-HMS214x/2013_SOND/courseware/aa057b54817048a29ecd50c1ae205c79/7c39039dd1e747a69c49f3009927ae6d/?child=first.52LawrenceM.Friedman,CurtD.Furberg,andDavidL.DeMets,FundamentalsofClinicalTrials(NewYork,NY:SpringerNewYork,2010),https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1586-3.53‘OxfordCentreforEvidence-BasedMedicine-LevelsofEvidence(March2009)’.
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globalwell-being.54
Foranotherexampleinstrokerehabilitation,thereviewer’sconclusionisthat:
Fromtheavailableevidence,acupuncturemayhavebeneficialeffectsonimproving
dependency,globalneurologicaldeficiency,andsomespecificneurological
impairmentsforpeoplewithstrokeintheconvalescentstage,withnoobvious
seriousadverseevents.However,mostincludedtrialswereofinadequatequality
andsize.Thereis,therefore,inadequateevidencetodrawanyconclusionsaboutits
routineuse.Rigorouslydesigned,randomised,multi-centre,largesampletrialsof
acupunctureforstrokeareneededtofurtherassessitseffects.55
Moreevaluationspointingtoinsufficientevidenceorlow-qualityevidencecanalsobe
foundinotherexamplessuchastherapiesforinsomnia,dysmenorrhea,hyperthyroidism
andBell’spalsy,etc.Ironically,theyarecommonconditionsforwhichpatientsseekTCM
treatment.
Inareviewofevidence-basedresearchonTCM,Jin-LingTangetal.concludethatthereare
alargeandrapidlyincreasingnumberofrandomizedclinicaltrialsonTCMtherapies.
However,thequalitiesofthetrialsareusuallylowandneedimprovement.Theresearchers
identifymethodologyissuesincludingsamplesize,randomizationmethodandthecontrol
54‘AcupunctureforFibromyalgia|Cochrane’,accessed17March2018,https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007070.pub2.55‘AcupunctureforStrokeRehabilitation|Cochrane’,accessed17March2018,https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004131.pub3.
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groupsexperiments.56InlightofthelackofscientificvigourforclinicaltrialsinTCM,Siu-
waiLeungandHaoHupublishedaTCMclinicaltrialmethodologywhich:
...emphasizedtheimportanceof(a)experimentalcontrols(placebosoractive
controls)todemonstratetheefficacy,(b)randomizationtoavoidbiasesinsampling
andgroupallocation,(c)propersamplesizecalculationtoavoidinvalidstatistical
inference,(d)blindingtoavoidperformancebiasanddetectionbias,and(e)ethical
practicestoavoidresearchmisconduct.57
Butsomescholarsthinkthatthesolutionisnotasstraightforward.YehChingLinn
commentsthatthereareinherentdifficultiesinpursuinganevidence-basedmedicine
approachforTCM.
Theindividualizedapproachandthedegreeofvariationinvolvedmake
standardizationforanEBMtypeanalysisseemdaunting.Formatoftheplacebo
eitherinacupunctureorherbalmedicinetrialposesfurtherchallengetothe
blindingprocessinRCTsforTCM.58
EarlierinthediscussionofTCMcharacteristics,IpointedoutthatTCMsyndrome
differentiationmakesTCMdifficulttostandardize.Unlikebiomedicine,TCMcannotusea
uniformsolutiontotargetaspecificdisease.Inaddition,TCMcustomizeseachtreatment
accordingtofactorssuchasthebodyconstitutionofeachindividual,seasonand
environment.Indeed,TCMisapersonalizedmedicineandattributesitseffectivenessto56Jin-LingTang,Si-YanZhan,andEdzardErnst,‘ReviewofRandomisedControlledTrialsofTraditionalChineseMedicine’,BMJ319,no.7203(17July1999):161,https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.319.7203.160.57Siu-waiLeungandHaoHu,eds.,Evidence-BasedResearchMethodsforChineseMedicine(Singapore:SpringerSingapore,2016),2,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2290-6.58YehChingLinn,‘Evidence-BasedMedicineforTraditionalChineseMedicine:ExploringtheEvidencefromaWesternMedicinePerspective’,ProceedingsofSingaporeHealthcare20,no.1(1March2011):14,https://doi.org/10.1177/201010581102000103.
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adequatecustomizationforeachindividual.InTCM,clinicalprecisionmeansproactiveand
timelyvariationsfromtreatmenttotreatment,inaccordancewiththediseaseprocess.In
adjustingthetreatmentbyvaryingthechoiceordosageofherbs,acupuncturepointsor
lifestylerecommendation,forexample,theTCMpractitioneraimsatalteringthedisease
processaheadofitsprogress.
InordertoenableTCMtobecomecompatiblewithanevidence-basedapproach,there
seemstobeadisproportionateamountofresearchalreadyfocusingonqualitydataor
randomizedclinicaltrials.Randomizedclinicaltrialsareveryexpensiveundertakings.59
Feworganizationsarecapableoffundingrandomizedclinicaltrialsfortheexhaustivelists
ofTCMtherapies.Mostcutting-edgeTCMrandomizedclinicaltrialstargetthedevelopment
ofspecificbiotechnologiesorpharmaceuticalproducts.60, 61, 62, 63Theirresearchmaypave
thewayforthecommercializationofinnovativeTCMproducts,butnotnecessarilyadvance
theoveralldevelopmentofTCM.Thesuccessofafewparticularrandomizedclinicaltrials
isunlikelytoenableTCMtobecomeevidence-basedmedicineinthenearterm.
59DanielPolskyandHenryGlick,‘CostingandCostAnalysisinRandomizedControlledTrials:CaveatEmptor’,PharmacoEconomics27,no.3(2009):179–88.60AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,‘TheArtandScienceofTraditionalMedicinePart2:MultidisciplinaryApproachesforStudyingTraditionalMedicine’,Science347,no.6219(16January2015):337–337,https://doi.org/10.1126/science.347.6219.337-c.61DennisNormile,‘TheNewFaceofTraditionalChineseMedicine’,Science299,no.5604(10January2003):188–90,https://doi.org/10.1126/science.299.5604.188.62RichardStone,‘LiftingtheVeilonTraditionalChineseMedicine’,Science319,no.5864(8February2008):709–10,https://doi.org/10.1126/science.319.5864.709.63WingLam,ScottBussom,andFulanGuan,‘TheFour-HerbChineseMedicinePHY906ReducesChemotherapy-InducedGastrointestinalToxicity|ScienceTranslationalMedicine’,accessed6November2017,http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/2/45/45ra59.
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IamskepticalofthefeasibilityofmakingTCManevidence-basedmedicine.BridieAndrews
commentsthat,“ironically,giventhelonghistoryoftryingtomakeChinesemedicinemore
compatiblewithbiomedicine,thisEast-Westcontrasthassometimesbeenencouragedin
China.”64TheepistemologicalandontologicaldifferencesbetweenTCMandWestern
biomedicinearedifficulttoreconcile.65, 66WilliamSpenceandNaLiputforwardthat“Few
studieshaveaddressed:theapplicabilityofEvidenceBasedMedicine(EBM)toTCM,the
applicationofEBMbyTCMpractitioners,andtheirunderstandingofEBM.”67Having
qualitydataisonething.Askingpractitionerstointegratethedataintoaclinicaldecisionis
somethingelse.Butthisisoutsidethescopeofthisthesis.
Inalargercontext,OleDöringsuggeststhat“itwouldamounttoculturalsuicideifa
societywouldinvestgreatereffortsincreatingatechnicalinfrastructureaccordingtothe
stateoftheartinbiomedicinethantoencourageandnurturehumanity,includingethics.”68
IthinkthatitringstruefortheTCMcommunityaswell.TCMevidenceisimportant,soare
theethicsofthepracticeofTCM.Thisresearchthesisistofocusonthepotentialethical
issuesarisingasaresultofpracticingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.Ishallidentifythe
potentialethicalissuesusingprinciplismasastartingpoint.
64BridieAndrews,TheMakingofModernChineseMedicine,1850-1960,ContemporaryChineseStudies(VancouverBritishColumbia:UBCPress,2013),212,https://login.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/login?url=http://books.scholarsportal.info/viewdoc.html?id=/ebooks/ebooks3/upress/2014-06-27/1/9780774824347.65Lan, Culture, Philosophy, and Chinese Medicine, 274.66Chiang,HistoricalEpistemologyandtheMakingofModernChineseMedicine,ch1.67WilliamSpenceandNaLi,‘AnExplorationofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitioners’PerceptionsofEvidenceBasedMedicine’,ComplementaryTherapiesinClinicalPractice19,no.2(1May2013):64,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2013.02.003.68OleDöring,‘8.4.TeachingMedicalEthicsinChina.Cultural,SocialandEthicalIssues’,4,accessed28June2017,http://www.eubios.info/ABC4/abc4255.htm.
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II.RespectforAutonomy
BeauchampandChildress’sprinciplismisgroundedinwhattheyrefertoas“common
moralitytheory”thateveryoneinasocietysharesasetofuniversalnorms.Normscanbe
principlesandrules,virtues,idealsorrights.BeauchampandChildressselectfour
principles:respectforautonomy,nonmaleficence,beneficence,andjusticetoconstructa
normativeframeworkforbiomedicalethics.69Theprincipleoftherespectforautonomy
containsbothanegativeandapositiveobligation.Thenegativeobligationisnon-
interferenceofpreference.Thepositiveobligationistoenableautonomousdecision-
making.70,71
Withoutsufficientorhigh-qualityevidence,itisdifficultforaTCMpractitionertooptimize
aclinicaldecisionobjectively.Theoutcomesofnon-evidence-basedmedicinecanbe
inconsistentandhavehigheruncertaintiesincomparisontoevidence-basedmedicine.The
safetyandefficacyofaTCMtreatmentcanbeanoutcomeofchance.72Ifpatientsarenot
awareoftheclinicaluncertainties,theymaynothavetherightexpectationaboutTCM
treatment.AnirrationalexpectationofTCMtreatmentiscounter-productiveintermsof
healingandpersonalfinancesforthepatient.IproposethatTCMpractitionersshould
69Beauchamp,‘TheTheory,Method,andPracticeofPrinciplism’,13.70TomL.Beauchamp,‘TheTheory,Method,andPracticeofPrinciplism’,16July2015,6,https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732365.013.31.71Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,102.72Kameshwar,‘FundamentalsofEvidenceBasedMedicine-Springer’,39.
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informthepatientsaboutthissituationinordertofulfillthepositiveobligationofinformed
consentbeforetreatment.
Merrillusesanempiricalstudytocollectdatafrominterviewsandquestionnaireswith
patientsandphysiciansinordertoderivehertheory.73Theapproachcan“providea
methodforshowingwhatmattersmosttopeopleaspeople,especiallyinthecontextof
medicalneeds.”74Iwasinspiredtouseanempiricalstudyintheformofasurveyinorder
toincludequalitativedatainmythesis.
SurveyMethodology
Anempiricalstudycanbequalitativeresearch,quantitativeresearchoracombinationof
thetwo.AccordingtoDeFranzo:
QualitativeResearchisprimarilyexploratoryresearch.Itisusedtogainan
understandingofunderlyingreasons,opinions,andmotivations.Itprovidesinsights
intotheproblemorhelpstodevelopideasorhypothesesforpotentialquantitative
research.QualitativeResearchisalsousedtouncovertrendsinthoughtand
opinions,anddivedeeperintotheproblem.Qualitativedatacollectionmethods
varyusingunstructuredorsemi-structuredtechniques.Somecommonmethods
includefocusgroups(groupdiscussions),individualinterviews,and
73Sarah Bishop Merrill, Defining Personhood: Toward the Ethics of Quality in Clinical Care, Value Inquiry Book Series ; v. 70 (Amsterdam ; Atlanta, Ga.: Rodopi, 1998), Forward.74Merrill,68.
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participation/observations.75
Ontheotherhand:
QuantitativeResearchisusedtoquantifytheproblembywayofgenerating
numericaldataordatathatcanbetransformedintousablestatistics...Quantitative
Researchusesmeasurabledatatoformulatefactsanduncoverpatternsinresearch.
QuantitativedatacollectionmethodsaremuchmorestructuredthanQualitative
datacollectionmethods.76
SinceIfocusedontheopinionofTCMpatientsandexpectedthedatasampletobesmall,I
didnotaimatgeneratingpracticalstatisticsforgeneralization.Ichosetoconducta
qualitativeresearchinsteadofaquantitativeresearch.Hence,theresultsofmysurveyhas
nostatisticalpowerforgeneralization.Theconclusionsarelimitedtobeapplicabletothe
participantsofmysurvey.
Inqualitativeanalysis,therearedifferentdatatypessuchastext,images,andsound.
AccordingtoGuestetal.,text“isbyfarthemostcommonformofqualitativedataanalyzed
inthesocialandhealthsciences”77and
...textcanbeanalyzedasaproxyforexperienceinwhichweareinterestedin
individuals'perceptions,feelings,knowledge,andbehaviorasrepresentedinthe
75SusanDeFranzo,‘DifferencebetweenQualitativeandQuantitativeResearch.’,SnapSurveysBlog,16September2011,https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research/.76DeFranzo.77GregGuestetal.,AppliedThematicAnalysis(LosAngeles:SagePublications,2012),8,https://login.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/login?url=http://methods.sagepub.com/book/applied-thematic-analysis.
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text,whichisoftengeneratedbyourinteractionwithresearchparticipants.78
Therefore,theempiricalstudyfocusedoncollectingtextanddescriptivedatafromthe
participants.Inaddition,
...givingvoiceto‘theother’isahallmarkofhumanismandhumanisticanthropology,
andthistraditionhascarriedoverintoqualitativeresearchingeneral.Thenotionof
open-endedquestionsandconversationalinquiry,sotypicalinqualitativeresearch,
isfoundedonthisprincipleasitallowsresearchparticipantstotalkaboutatopicin
theirownwords,freeoftheconstraintsimposedbythekindoffixed-response
questionstypicallyseeninquantitativestudies.Simultaneously,theresearcher
learnsfromtheparticipants'talkanddynamicallyseekstoguidetheinquiryin
responsetowhatisbeinglearned.79
Hence,Ialsousedopen-endedquestionsinthesurveyquestionnaire.
Thesmallsamplesizedidnotjustifytheuseofword-basedtechniquesorsoftwareto
performathematicanalysis.Mydataanalysisprocesswasamanualprocessofgrouping,
sortingandresortingthedataontwo-dimensionalspreadsheets.ThenIlookedforpatterns,
themes,orideasinthesmallsample.BraunandClareclaim,“athemecapturessomething
importantaboutthedatainrelationtotheresearchquestion,andrepresentssomelevelof
patternedresponseormeaningwithinthedataset.”80Guestetal.defineathemeas“aunit
ofmeaningthatisobserved(noticed)inthedatabyareaderofthetext.”81Thefindingsand
78Guestetal.,9.79Guestetal.,16.80VirginiaBraunandVictoriaClarke,‘UsingThematicAnalysisinPsychology’,QualitativeResearchinPsychology3,no.2(2006):82,https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.81Guestetal.,AppliedThematicAnalysis,50.
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interpretationaresummarizedlaterinthissection.Theyarequalitativedataandreflect
thethemesorpatternsonlyamongtheparticipantsofmysurvey.
Thequestionnairesurveyanddatacollectiontookplacefrom15October,2017,to15
January,2018.Duringthisperiod,Irandomlyinvitedanyclientswhovisitanyoneofthe
followinglocationsinOttawa:TEALWellnessat570MontrealRoad,HuntClub
PhysiotherapyClinicat2446BankStreetorInternationalAcademyofTCMat380Forest
Street.TheclientscouldbepatientsbeingtreatedwithTCM,chiropractictherapy,other
naturopathictherapies,physiotherapyormassage,etc.NotallofthemwereTCMpatients.
SomeofthemhadnevermetmenorknewofTCM.Myintentionwastocollectdatafroma
diversepoolofclients.Iwassolelyresponsiblefortherecruitmentofparticipantsatthe
surveylocations.ThequestionnairewasinEnglishonly.Eachoftheinvitationpackages
includesarecruitmentletter,animpliedconsentform,aquestionnaireandastampedself-
addressedenvelope.Iestimatedthateachquestionnairewouldtakeapproximately10
minutestocomplete.Theparticipantswereencouragedtocompletethequestionnaireat
theirconvenienceandinprivate.Therewasnoobservationofthemduringthesurvey.
SurveyResearchEthics(REBFileNumber:1360.6/17)
Theparticipationofthesurveywasanonymousandvoluntary.Theparticipantsdidnot
havetoansweranyquestionsthattheydidnotwanttoanswer.Thesurveyusedanimplied
consentmethod.Thedecisionofaparticipanttocompleteandreturnthesurveywas
interpretedasanimpliedconsenttoparticipate.Noconsentsignatureorpersonal
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informationwascollectedonthesurvey.Therefore,afterIreceivedacompletedsurvey,the
participantcouldnotwithdrawfromthesurvey,astherewouldbenoidentificationonthe
questionnaireforretrieval.
Therewasnoobservationoftheparticipantinthissurvey.Oncetheparticipantcompleted
thesurvey,theparticipantcoulddropitoffattheofficeormaileditinthestampedself-
addressedenvelopeprovided.IfIdidnotreceivethesurveyby15January,2018,I
consideredthattheparticipantrefusedtoparticipate.Therewasnofollow-upwiththe
participantsaboutit.
Someparticipantsweremypatientsandthesurveymightcreateanapparentconflictof
interestorcoerciontoparticipateinmyresearch.Byaskingtheparticipantstocomplete
thesurveyanonymouslyandgivingthemtheoptiontoreturnthequestionnaireina
stampedself-addressedenvelope,Iresolvedthepotentialconflicts.
TheCollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofOntario
(CTCMPAO)independentlygovernsmyprofessionalconductandcompetency.Mydutyto
thepatientswasnotaffectedbytheirparticipationorrefusaltoparticipateinthisresearch.
Theresearchresultintheformofmythesiswillbetentativelyavailablebyrequestafter15
January,2019.Thereturnedquestionnairesaretobescannedintoadigitalfile.The
originalpaperrecordsaretobedestroyedafterthefinalsubmissionofthethesis.The
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digitalfilewillbekeptinasecuredpersonalcomputerforfiveyears.Theonlypersonwho
haveaccesstotheresearchdatawillbeme.
Duringthecourseofthesurvey,theprocesswasincompliancewiththeapprovedresearch
ethicsproposal.Onedeficiencywasinthedesignofthequestionnaireforasmallsample
group.Askingdetaileddemographicinformationfromasmallsamplegroupcouldexposea
participant’sidentitytome.Theanonymityofsomeparticipantscouldbecompromised
becauseofexcessivedetailsinthedemographicssection.Theremedywastoremindthe
participantsthattheydidnothavetoansweranyquestionthattheydidnotwantto
answer.
SurveyParticipants
Theparticipantswererandomlyselectedamongtheclientswhovisitedanyoneofthe
threelocationsinOttawa(TEALWellnessat570MontrealRoad,HuntClubPhysiotherapy
Clinicat2446BankStreet.orInternationalAcademyofTCMat380ForestStreet.)The
clientscouldbepatientsbeingtreatedwithTCM,chiropractictherapy,othernaturopathic
therapy,physiotherapyormassages.Myintentionwastocollectdatafromamorediverse
poolofpatients.Iwassolelyresponsiblefortherecruitmentofparticipantsatthesurvey
locations.Table1belowsummarizesthedemographicdata.
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Table1:DemographicData(n=17)
Characteristics Number (n) Percentage% Sex:
Male 2 11.76%Female 15 88.24%Other 0 0.00%Noanswer 0 0.00%
Age: Under20 1 5.88%20-40 7 41.18%41-60 4 23.53%Over60 5 29.41%Noanswer 0 0.00%
Education: None 0 0.00%Highschoolorequivalent 1 5.88%Postsecondaryorequivalent 16 94.12%Noanswer 0 0.00%
Ethnicity: White 11 64.71%Latino 0 0.00%Black 0 0.00%IndigenousPeople 2 11.76%Chinese 0 0.00%Arab/WestAsian 3 17.65%East/SoutheastAsian 0 0.00%Indian/SouthAsian 0 0.00%Noanswer 1 5.88%
FrequencyofusingTCM: Never 3 17.65%Lessthanonceperyear 2 11.76%Atleastonceperyear 11 64.71%Noanswer 1 5.88%
Thesurveyexcludedanyparticipantsunder17yearsofage(Ontario),parents,andparents
orauthorizedthirdpartiesofadultparticipantswhowouldbelegallyincompetenttogive
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consent.Thesurveyquestionnairebeganbycollectingthedemographicdataofthe
participantsabouttheirsex,agerange,educationlevel,ethnicityandhowoftentheyused
TCM.Eachanswerwasvoluntary.Therewasnocompulsionfortheparticipantstoreveal
informationthatmightidentifythemtome.
Asof15January,2018,Iinvited35peopleintotaltoparticipateinthesurvey.31ofthe
invitationstookplaceatthelocationofTEALWellnessat570MontrealRoad.Fourofthe
invitationstookplaceatthelocationofHuntClubPhysiotherapyClinic.Noneofthe
invitationstookplaceattheInternationalAcademy.Ofthe35invitations,17participants
providedimpliedconsentandreturnedtheirquestionnaireswithanswers.
Themajorityoftheparticipantsarewhitefemaleswithagefrom20to60.Almostallof
themhavepost-secondaryeducation.Manyofthemaremypatientsandhavesome
experienceofTCM.Thereweretwolessonslearnedintheinvitationprocess.First,the
invitationstookplacemostlyatonelocationinsteadofbeingevenlydistributedamong
threelocations.Itwasduetotheconcentrationofmyworkscheduleduringthesurvey
periodatTEALWellness.Second,sometimesIforgotordidnothavethetimetoinvite
everyonethatImetonthesameday.Itwasduetomypre-occupationwiththepatients
duringtreatments.Inordertoincreasethenumberanddiversityofinvitationsamongthe
threesites,Ishouldhavevisitedthethreesitesoutsidemyclinicscheduleandmade
invitationsoutsidemyclinichours.
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SurveyFindingsandInterpretation
Thesmallsamplesizedidnotjustifytheuseofword-basedtechniquesorsoftwareto
performathematicanalysis.Theanalysiswasamanualprocessofanalyzingthedataon
spreadsheets,lookingforapattern,themes,orideasinthesmallsample.Thefindingsand
interpretationweresummarizedbelow.
Table2:AwarenessofTCMasnon-EBMandFrequencyofUsingTCM(n=17)
Participant No.
Aware TCM non
EBM Use TCM Frequency
1 yes Atleastonceperyear2 yes Atleastonceperyear3 yes Atleastonceperyear4 yes Atleastonceperyear5 yes Atleastonceperyear6 yes Atleastonceperyear14 yes Atleastonceperyear15 yes Atleastonceperyear16 yes Atleastonceperyear7 yes Lessthanonceperyear17 yes Never8 no Atleastonceperyear9 no Atleastonceperyear10 no Lessthanonceperyear11 no Never13 no Never12 no Noanswer
Table2aboveillustratestheawarenessoftheparticipantaboutTCMbeingnon-evidence-
based.Theparticipantnumberinthefirstcolumnwasrandomlyassignedtoeachreturned
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questionnaireforthepurposeofdataentry.ColumntwoistheanswertoQuestion1ofthe
questionnaire.ThequestionnaireexplainsthatTCMisnotconsideredasevidence-based
medicinebyWesternmedicalstandardsandaTCMtreatmentmaybeeffectiveonlyby
chance.Itasksiftheparticipantisawareofthesituation.Amajorityoftheparticipants
(n=11,64.7%)answeredthattheywereawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.
ColumnthreeindicateshowoftentheparticipantusesTCM.Theanswerscanbe“Never”,
“Lessthanonceperyear”or“Atleastonceperyear”inthedemographicssection.
Bysortingandgroupingthedataaccordingtotheiranswersaboutthefrequencyoftheir
usingTCM,Iproducedthreegroups(A,B,C)ofdatasamplesforfurtheranalysis.The
frequencyofusingTCMimpliestheirexperienceofTCM:
• GroupAconsistsofparticipantswhocheckedeither‘Lessthanonceperyear’or‘At
leastmorethanonceperyear’inthedemographicssection.Therefore,GroupA
representstheparticipantswhohaverelativelymoreexperienceofusingTCM.
• GroupBconsistsofparticipantswhocheckedeither‘Never’or‘Lessthanonceper
year’inthedemographicssection.Therefore,GroupBrepresentstheparticipants
whohaverelativelylessexperienceofusingTCM.
• GroupCconsistsofparticipantswhogavenoanswer.Theseparticipantsareneither
inGroupAnorinGroupB.
GroupAandBhaveoverlappingparticipants(i.e.participantswhouseTCMlessthanonce
peryear;n=2)TheoverlappingofsampledatacreatesalargersamplesizeforbothGroup
AandGroupBinthemeanalysis.Thistechniquealsoallowsmetointerprettheresults
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overamorecontinuousdegreeofTCMexperienceamongtheparticipants(i.e.relatively
moreorlessexperienceinusingTCM.)
Table3:AnswersfromGroupA(participantswhohavemoreexperienceofusingTCMn=13)Aware TCM
non EBM Verbatim Answer to Question 1a or 1b
yes IprefertotryTCMbeforemedication.Ithasworkedinthepastforme.
yes
Asanindigenouswoman(orFirstNations)we'vebeenusingtraditionalmedicine'scedar,tobacco,sage,sweetgrass,sweatlodges,fastformanyyears.Chinesemedicineissimilarinhistoryasto"notobjectivelyverified"bycurrentgovernmentstandards,FDAapprovaletc."Ibelieveinit".
yes BecauseI'vehadsuccesswithitinthepastfortreatmentofmychronicpaincondition.
yes Itworksforme,it'squick&effectivebetterformethanwesternbased.Idon'tlikepillsormedicationtotreatailmentsorpain.
yes VeryeffectiveforcervicaldystoniaincombinationwithBotoxthatIreceiveatCivicHospital.
yes Forreliefoftherelevantpain/discomfort;andforthegeneralfeelingofwellnessIhaveafteranytreatment.
yesIbelieveinanaturalwayofhealingdiseases.IamnotagainstWesternmedicine,butthroughmyexperience,TCMhelpsmealotofregainingmystrengthandgeneralhealth.
yes
AsIamamicabletoholisticapproachestomedicine,IfindthatTCMhelpsmyphysicalailmentstremendously.However,oneofthebiggestissuesismainstreammedicinenotacceptingorbelievinginTCMandinsurancecompaniesnotprovidinganycoverageforsuchtreatments.ThesetwoareasarethemostfrustratingwhichdecreasesmychancestoseekTCMtreatments.Ideally,evenifnotevidence-based,mainstreamdoctorsandinsurersshouldgivetheirpatients/clientsthefreedomtochooseortoseektreatmentsthathelpthemfeelbetterorhealfaster.
yes TCMmaynotfollow"Westernmedicalstandards"butisatriedandtruetreatment-trial&error-itworks.
yes Iwaswillingtotrybecauseacupuncturehasbeenshowntohelppainandfertility,evenifwedon'tknowwhy.
noBecausemymotherdiditinthepast.SoIdecidetotrybecauseIwastakingtoomuchpainkiller.Now,Ireduced3/4ofmypainkiller.Myhandsarenolongerswellinginthemorning,IhavemoreenergyandIfeelbetterinmybody.
no HavinghadtreatmentsbeforeIfoundtheyweregenerallybeneficialtomywell-being.
no Itdoesn'taffectmydecisiontouseTCM
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Table3aboveorganizestheanswerstoQuestion1,1aand1bforGroupA.Table4below
organizestheanswersofQuestion1,1aand1bforGroupB.Thefirstcolumnofbothtables
containstheansweroftheparticipantstowhethertheyareawarethatTCMisnot
evidence-basedinQuestion1.Thesecondcolumnofbothtablescontainstheverbatim
answeroftheparticipantsofhowdoesbeingnon-evidence-basedaffecttheirdecisionto
useTCMineitherquestion1aand1b.Imademinimalcorrectionofsomespellingerrors
andgrammarinthedata.However,noneoftheircontentwasalteredduringtheprocess.
ByanalyzingTable3,twothemesemergefromGroupA.First,themajority(n=10or
76.9%)ofparticipantsinGroupAwereawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.
Second,indecidingtouseTCM,themajorityofthem(n=12,92.3%)explainedthedecision
wasbasedonpositivepastexperienceorexpectationoffuturebenefitssuchas“willingto
try,”“Ibelieveinit,”“Itworked”or“Ifeelbetter”.Therewaslittlementionofconcerns
aboutuncertaintiesorrisksassociatedwithnon-evidence-basedmedicine.
Table4:AnswersfromGroupB(participantswhohavelessexperienceofusingTCMn=5)
Aware TCM non EBM Verbatim Answer to Question 1a or 1b
yes Iwaswillingtotrybecauseacupuncturehasbeenshowntohelppainandfertility,evenifwedon'tknowwhy.
yes Ibelieveinalternativemedicine.no Itdoesn'taffectmydecisiontouseTCM
no
BecauseifitworksonlybychancethenIwouldn'twanttoriskitandpaymoneyifitwon'twork.IfIamgoingtogettreatedIwouldlikethepercentageofittoworkmuchhigherthenifitdidn'twork.Not50%yesand50%no.
no Morehesitantaboutthebenefits.
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AsshowninTable4above,themajority(n=3,60%)oftheparticipantsinGroupBwerenot
awareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.SomeparticipantsinGroupBindicated
concernsovertherisksassociatedwiththeuseofTCM.ThesamplesizeofGroupBissmall.
Nevertheless,thedatashowsthecontrastbetweenGroupAandGroupB.
GroupChasonlyoneparticipantwhodidnotprovideananswertothefrequencyofusing
TCM.TheparticipantwasnotawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.The
verbatimansweris“Itriedphysiotherapy,physiotherapywithtriggerpointdryneedling;
verylittlebenefitandverypainfulneedling.Problempersists.”GroupCwasnotincludedin
anythemeanalysisbecausethegrouphasonlyoneparticipant.
Question2ofthesurveyprovidesabriefexplanationoffourethicalprinciples(autonomy,
beneficence,justiceandnonmaleficence).Thenitfollowstoasktheparticipanttorankthe
priority(1,2,3or4)foreachethicalprincipleinTCM.Therankof“1”indicatesthehighest
priorityandtherankof“4”indicatesthelowestpriorityamongthefourprinciples.The
participantscanchoosemorethanoneprinciplestohavethesamerank.
TherewasaprintingerrorinQuestion2intwelveofthequestionnaires.Insteadof
“Autonomy”,itwasprintedas“Consent”.Therefore,allresponsesrelatedtotherankingof
“Autonomy”or“Consent”weresubsequentlynotusedmyanalysis.
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Table5:AwarenessofTCMasnon-EBMandtheCorrespondingRankingsof“Beneficence”,“Justice”and“Nonmaleficence”(n=17)
Aware TCM non EBM
Priority of Beneficence
Priority of Justice
Priority of Nonmaleficence
no 1 1 1no 1 1 1no 1 1 1no 1 1 3no 1 4 1no 3 4 3yes 1 1 1yes 1 1 1yes 1 1 1yes 1 1 1yes 1 1 1yes 1 1 2yes 1 3 2yes 1 4 3yes 3 3 4yes 4 3 3yes 4 4 4
Sortingthedatafirstbytheparticipants’awarenessofTCMbeingnon-EBM,secondbythe
rankingof“Beneficence”andthirdbytherankingof“Justice”yieldedTable5above.The
topsixrowsofthedatacamefromparticipantswhowerenotawareofTCMbeingnon-
EBM.Thebottomelevenrowsofthedatacamefromparticipantswhowereawarethat
TCMbeingnon-EBM.
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OnethemeemergesfromTable5.AmongtheparticipantswhowereawareofTCMbeing
non-EBM,8outof11(i.e.72.7%)ranked“1”forBeneficence,6outof11(i.e.54.54%)
ranked“1”forJusticeand5outof11(i.e.45.45%)ranked“1”forNonmaleficence.The
participantswhowereawareofTCMbeingnon-EBMconsideredtheprincipleof
beneficencehavingahigherpriorityovernonmaleficenceinTCM.Thisthemeisin
agreementwiththethemederivedfromTable3forGroupA.ThemoreexperiencedTCM
patientswereoftenawareofTCMbeingnon-EBM.Theyfocusedonthepotentialbenefitsof
TCMintheirverbatimresponseswithlittlementionoftherisksassociatedwithTCM.
ByrearrangingthecolumnsofTable5andsortingthedataaccordinglytofirstbythe
rankingof“Beneficence”,secondbytherankingof“Justice”andthirdbytherankingof
“Nonmaleficence”yieldedTable6below.OnethemeemergesfromTable6below.The
numberofparticipantswhoranked“1”forBeneficenceis13outof17(i.e.76.47%),ranked
“1”forJusticeis10outof17(i.e.58.82%)andranked“1”forNonmaleficenceis9outof17
(i.e.52.94%).Themajorityofallparticipantsalsoconsideredtheprincipleofbeneficence
havingahigherpriorityoverjusticeornonmaleficenceinTCM.Thethemeagreeswiththe
previousthemesfoundinTable3andTable5.
Inaddition,regardlessofthedataoftherankingof“Autonomy”or“Consent”(asinthe
misprintedquestionnaires),Table6showsthatlessthanhalf(n=<8,47%)ofthe
participantsconsideralltheethicalprinciplesareequallyimportanttotheminTCM.
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Table6:Rankingsof“Beneficence”,“Justice”and“Nonmaleficence”ofAllParticipants(n=17)
Priority of Beneficence
Priority of
Justice
Priority of Nonmaleficence
Aware TCM non
EBM 1 1 1 yes1 1 1 yes1 1 1 yes1 1 1 yes1 1 1 yes1 1 1 no1 1 1 no1 1 1 no1 1 2 yes1 1 3 no1 3 2 yes1 4 1 no1 4 3 yes3 3 4 yes3 4 3 no4 3 3 yes4 4 4 yes
ConclusionsoftheSurvey
Theparticipants’awarenessofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicineshowed
correlationwiththeirexperienceofusingTCM.ParticipantswhohadmoreTCMexperience
weremoreoftenawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.Participantswhohad
lessexperiencewithTCMwerelessawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.
ForparticipantswhohadmoreTCMexperience,theinformationofTCMasnon-evidence-
basedmedicineshowedlittleimpactontheirdecisiontouseTCM.Theirverbatim
responsesindicatedtheirpastandindividualexperienceofTCMaffectedtheirdecisionto
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useTCM.Theygaveahigherprioritytotheprincipleofbeneficenceovernonmaleficencein
TCM.TheyfocusedonthepotentialbenefitsofTCMinsteadoftheuncertainties.ForTCM
practitionerstofulfillthepositiveobligationoftherespectforautonomy,itisimportant
thattheyconscientiouslyremindTCMpatientstoconsidertheuncertaintiesassociated
withTCMoverbenefits.Forexample,patientsshouldnotdelayhavingabiomedical
diagnosisbecauseofusingTCMorreplaceeffectivebiomedicinewithTCMtherapywithout
high-qualityevidence.
ForparticipantswhohadnoorrelativelylessexperiencewithTCM,thesurveyshowedthat
theirverbatimresponsesexpressedsomeconsiderationsofrisksoverthebenefitsofusing
TCM.ThedisclosureofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicinemighthaveanimpacton
theirdecisiontouseTCM.Therefore,thedisclosurewouldbematerialinformationtohelp
themmakethedecisionofusingTCM.Basedonthepositiveobligationundertheprinciple
ofrespectforautonomy,TCMpractitionersshouldinformnewpatientsthatTCMisnon-
evidence-basedmedicine.Itcanbeincorporatedintothemandatoryprocessofobtaining
informedconsentbeforetreatment.ItwillhelpnewTCMpatientstomakeautonomous
decisionsandsettherightexpectationofTCMaccordingly.
Therewerelessonslearned.Onelessonwasthatexcessivedetailsinthedemographics
sectionforasmallsamplesizecouldcompromisetheanonymityoftheparticipants.
Anotherlessonpertainedtotheschedulingoftheinvitationprocessinordertoincrease
thesizeanddiversityofthedata.
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Althoughthissmall-scalequestionnairesurveyusesqualitativeanalysisandhasno
statisticalpowerforgeneralization,itisstillaworthyexperience.Ithintsthatalarger-scale
studyonTCMpatientscanbeusefulandfeasibleinthefuture.Withsufficient
participationsfrommultipleTCMpractitionersindifferentlocations,alargersurveymay
bedevelopedtostudythespecificneedsandexpectationsofTCMpatientsinalarger
population.ThefindingsmayhelpTCMpractitionerstoidentifythebestpracticesandmost
productivewaystocomplementtheconventionalmedicineinthatpopulation.InsectionII
andIV,IalsodiscusstheneedforTCMresearchinotherareas.
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III.BeneficenceandNonmaleficence
BeauchampandChildressassertthat“moralityrequiresnotonlythatwetreatpersons
autonomouslyandrefrainfromharmingthem,butalsothatwecontributetotheir
welfare.”82Theprincipleofnonmaleficencemeansnottocauseharmsuchaspain,
sufferingordistresstoothers.83Theprincipleofbeneficenceobligatesustoactforthe
benefitofothersandthescopecanincludepreventingharm,removingharm,and
promotinggood.84BeauchampandChildressputforwardthatthefourprinciplesin
principlismshouldhavenohierarchyandtheyaremorallyweightedequallyinthe
framework.85Whentheseprinciplesareinconflictwitheachother,thesituationmustbe
assessedinspecificcontextswithoutassuminganypriorityovertheothers.Sometimes
non-maleficenceismorestringentthanbeneficencebutsometimesthereverseisalso
true.86
Forexample,insertinganacupunctureneedleintoaperson’sbodymaycauseharmsuchas
painorbruisebutitsimultaneouslycanrelieveorpreventtheperson’sheadache.
Beneficencetakespriorityovernon-maleficenceinthiscase.NowconsideraTCM
practitionerwhodoesnothavetherequiredTCMcompetenciesandhewantstopractice
82Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,202.83Beauchamp,‘TheTheory,Method,andPracticeofPrinciplism’,8.84Beauchamp,9.85Beauchamp,2.86Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,151.
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acupunctureonpatients.Althoughhisintentionistohelpothers,hisactioncanpotentially
causeharm.Nonmaleficenceoverridesbeneficenceinthiscase.
Non-evidence-basedmedicinecansometimesbeanexpertopinionwithoutanexplicit
criticalappraisal.87, 88CompoundedbythelackofstandardizationinTCM,itisoften
difficultforthepatientaswellasthepractitionertodistinguishshamsfromeffectiveTCM
treatment.AnexamplecanbefoundintheearlierdayswhenTCMwasnotregulatedin
Canada.Inthosedays,thetypicalemploymentmodelforTCMpractitionerwasworkingfor
aherbalstore.TheusualroleofTCMpractitionerwastodiagnosepatientsandprovidefree
herbalprescriptions.However,purchasingtheherbalprescriptionsisnotfree.Toincrease
profitability,herbalstoreownerscouldmandatetheTCMpractitionertoprescribehigher-
profit-marginoverlower-profit-marginherbs.Boththepractitionerandthepatientwould
havelittlebasistocompareefficacyorsafetyinsuchcase.
Someexamplescanalsobespottedintoday’smarketplace.InthenameofTCM,thereisno
shortageofinnovativetreatmentssuchas“TCMdetox”,“TCMweightloss”,“cosmeticTCM
acupuncture”,etc.Althoughatreatmentmayusethetechniquessuchasacupunctureor
Chineseherbs,itmaynothaveanybasisofTCMtheoryorTCMdiagnosis.Somenew
treatmentsmayalsolackevidenceofsafetyoreffectiveness.TCMpractitionershavethe
obligationstodistinguishshamsfromeffectiveTCMbeforepromotingthem.Notdoingthe
duediligenceorpracticingunproventherapiesonpatientsisunethicaleventhoughTCMis87AlastairMcColletal.,‘GeneralPractitioners’PerceptionsoftheRoutetoEvidenceBasedMedicine:AQuestionnaireSurvey’,BMJ316,no.7128(31January1998):361,https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7128.361.88‘OxfordCentreforEvidence-BasedMedicine-LevelsofEvidence(March2009)’.
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consideredasnon-evidence-basedmedicine.TheguidelinesandmethodsforTCM
practitionerstoperformduediligenceonTCMtherapiesisaworthyresearchsubject.Butit
isoutsidethescopeofthisthesis.
TCMpatientsoftenarenotfamiliarwithTCMandrelyonthepractitionertoexplainsafety
andefficacy.71%ofCanadianshaveusednaturalhealthproductslikevitaminsand
minerals,herbalproductsandhomeopathicmedicines.89IfyouaskHealthCanada“How
canIusenaturalhealthproductssafely?”theirregularresponsewillbe“Talktoahealth
careprofessionallikeadoctor,pharmacistornaturopathbeforechoosingaproduct.”90
SimilarlyinTCM,ensuringthesafetyandefficacyofTCMisoftentheresponsibilityofTCM
practitioners.
InsectionII,theresultsoftheempiricalstudyshowedthatthemajorityofparticipants
considerbeneficenceahigherpriorityovernonmaleficenceinTCM.MoreexperiencedTCM
patientswereoftenawareofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicine.However,theywere
inclinedtofocusonthepotentialbenefitsinsteadoftherisks.Thispatientcharacteristic
makesthemparticularlyvulnerabletoTCMshamsandunethicalpractices.ATCM
practitionerwhorespectstheprinciplesofnonmaleficenceandbeneficencewouldlikely
havetheprofessionalproficiency,performingduediligenceonTCMtherapies,tooffer
89HealthCanadaandHealthCanada,‘AboutNaturalHealthProducts’,organizationaldescriptions,aem,26November2010,https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/natural-non-prescription/regulation/about-products.html.90‘AboutNaturalHealthProducts’,aem,26November2010,https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/natural-non-prescription/regulation/about-products.html.
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honesthealthadviceinthebestinterestsofthepatients.ATCMpractitionerwho
disregardstheprinciplesofnonmaleficenceorbeneficence,ontheotherhand,islesslikely
tomeettherequiredstandardsofpracticeordoduediligenceonTCMtreatments.Worse,
anunethicalpractitionermayprioritizeprofitsoverpatientinterestsandintentionally
promoteTCMshamstothepublic.
WhatcanbethemosteffectivewaytoensureTCMpractitionersadheretoethical
principlesandstandardsofpractice?Iexploresolutionsinthecultivationofmoral
characterandtheTCMpractitioner-patientrelationshipmodelasfollows.
MoralCharacter
Manymedicalprofessionalstandardsandtheircodesofethicspromotecertainmoral
values.Forexample,theethicalguideoftheCanadianMedicalAssociationforCanadian
physiciansstatesthat:
ThisCode...Itisbasedonthefundamentalprinciplesandvaluesofmedicalethics,
especiallycompassion,beneficence,non-maleficence,respectforpersons,justice
andaccountability.TheCode,togetherwithCMApoliciesonspecifictopics,
constitutesacompilationofguidelinesthatcanprovideacommonethical
frameworkforCanadianphysicians.91
AnotherexampleisintheethicalguideoftheCanadianNurseAssociation.Itscodeofethics
listssevenprimaryvaluesas:91CMA,‘CodeofEthics’,https://www.cma.ca/En/Pages/code-of-ethics.aspx,accessed25March2017,https://www.cma.ca/En/Pages/code-of-ethics.aspx.
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1.Providingsafe,compassionate,competentandethicalcare2.Promotinghealth
andwell-being3.Promotingandrespectinginformeddecision-making4.Preserving
dignity5.Maintainingprivacyandconfidentiality6.Promotingjustice7.Being
accountable.92
Healthcareprofessionalsareoftenrequiredtocultivatemoralcharacter.Virtuessuchas
“compassion,discernment,trustworthiness,integrity,andconscientiousness...are
importantinpartforthedevelopmentandexpressionofcaring.”93
Chinesephilosophyalsoemphasizesthecultivationofvirtues.Chinesemoralvaluessuchas
compassion,benevolenceandwisdomarehonourable,praise-worthyvirtuesinany
Chinesesocieties,particularlyinthemedicalprofession.
Aristotle,thefoundingfatherofvirtueethicsintheWest,definesvirtueasastateof
“involvingrationalchoice,consistinginameanrelativetousanddeterminedbyreason–
thereason,thatisbyreferencetowhichthepracticallywisepersonwoulddetermineit.”94
Virtueethicssuggeststhatapersonshouldliveinaccordancewithreasonandexercise
prudenceinconductinghimself.Adheringtovirtueethics,aTCMpractitionerwould
proactivelyapplythenecessaryStandardsofPracticeandCodeofEthicsinorderto
providesafe,ethicalandeffectivetreatment.JustinOakleyassertsthat:
92‘NursingEthics’,accessed1March2017,https://www.cna-aiic.ca/en/on-the-issues/best-nursing/nursing-ethics.93Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,37.94Aristotle,Aristotle:NicomacheanEthics,trans.RogerCrisp,2edition(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2014),31.
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...acommonwayofexpressingadmirationorcondemnationofanother’sbehaviour
isbysaying‘Whatsortofpersonwoulddoathinglikethat?’...Virtueethicsisan
approachthatpicksuponthesecommonwaysofjudgingactions.Itholdsthat
actionscannotbeproperlyjudgedasrightorwrongwithoutreferenceto
considerationsofcharacter.95
Virtueethicsattendstotheimportanceofmoralcharacter,notjustfollowinga
deontologicalcode.Oakleyaddsthat:
...othermainstreamtheoriesevaluateallactsintermsof‘right,’‘wrong,’‘obligatory,’
or‘permissible,’andindoingsoleaveuswithanimpoverishedmoralvocabulary.A
virtueethicsapproach,bycontrast,employssuchevaluativetermsas‘courageous,’
‘callous,’‘honest,’and‘just’–aswellasthemorefamiliar‘right’and‘wrong’–and
therebyprovidesamuchricherandmorefine-grainedrangeofevaluative
possibilities.96
AccordingtoAristotle,moralcharacterisinparttheresultofhabit:
Virtueisoftwokinds:thatoftheintellectandthatofcharacter.Intellectualvirtue
owesitsoriginanddevelopmentmainlytoteaching,forwhichreasonitsattainment
requiresexperienceandtime;virtueofcharacterisaresultofhabituation(ethos),
forwhichreasonithasacquireditsnamethroughasmallvariationon‘ethos’.97
95JustinOakley,‘AVirtueEthicsApproach’,inACompaniontoBioethics,ed.HelgaKuhseandPeterSinger(Wiley-Blackwell,2009),91,https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444307818.ch10.96Oakley,92.97Aristotle,Aristotle,23.
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Todeveloptherelevantmoralcharacter,weneedtopracticeprudenceintherelevant
activities.Forexample,ifwewanttodeveloptherightmoralcharacterforcaringpeople,
weneedtodevelopthatmoralcharacterbypracticingcaringotherpeople.Innursing
education,RegnerBirkelundholdsaviewthat:
...socialcarecannotbetaughtbymeansoftheories,butcanbelearntonlythrough
practice.Themaster–apprenticeprincipleofancientGreeceisstressedin
connectionwiththisasbeingaviablealternativetothetheoreticalmodelof
education.98
BirkelundquotesMatinsenasalsosaying“themoralandpracticalaspectofnursingcannot
belearnedfromtheoriesaboutcareandethics,butfromhands-onexperience.”99
Scholarsalsopointouttheimportanceofrolemodelinginethicseducation.HigginsandJo
claimthat“ForAristotle,webecomemoralbylivingamongethicalexemplarsandby
learningtodesirewhatisgood.”100DerekSellmansuggests“thebestteachersof
professionalphronesismayturnouttobethosepractitioners(includingpractitionersof
teaching)whoexemplifytheprofessionalphronimos(orprofessionallywise
practitioner).”101Insometrainingexperience,Irecallobservingthevaluesofclinical
98RegnerBirkelund,‘EthicsandEducation’,1,accessed13October2017,https://journals-scholarsportal-info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/details/09697330/v07i0006/473_eae.xml.99Birkelund,475.100ChristopherHigginsandKatherineJo,‘EthicsandEducation-Education-OxfordBibliographies-Obo’,accessed13October2017,http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0142.xml;jsessionid=3B8BDC8023E0878C565A114823E6794B.101DerekSellman,‘PracticalWisdominHealthandSocialCare:TeachingforProfessionalPhronesis’,accessed14October2017,https://journals-scholarsportal-info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/details/14736853/v08i0002/84_pwihasctfpp.xml&sub=all.
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sensitivity,humanecommitmentandTCMscholarshipfromtheinteractionsoftheTCM
teacherswithpatients.TheTCMpractitioner-patientrelationshipcanmakeadifferencein
thequalityofTCMcare.Bymanagingthepracticalmattersinaclinicalenvironment,the
teacherscouldconvincemethevaluesofethicswithoutpreachingethics.
Practitioner-PatientRelationshipModel
EmanuelandEmanuelanalyzefourmodelsofphysician-patientrelationship.Theyarethe
paternalistic,informative,interpretiveanddeliberativemodels.Inthepaternalisticmodel,
“thephysicianactsasthepatient’sguardian,articulatingandimplementingwhatisbestfor
thepatient.”102Intheinformativemodel,thephysicianactsasatechnologisttoprovideall
theavailablefactsforthepatienttomaketheinformeddecision.103Intheinterpretive
model,“thephysicianisacounsellor....supplyingrelevantinformation,helpingtoelucidate
valuesandsuggestingwhatmedicalinterventionsrealizethesevalues.”104Inthe
deliberativemodel,“thephysicianactsasateacherorafriend,engagingthepatientin
dialogueonwhatcourseofactionwouldbebest.”105Althoughthereareprosandconsof
eachmodel,EmanuelandEmanuelsupportthedeliberativemodelastheidealphysician-
patientrelationshipmainlybecausethemodelembodiestheidealofautonomy,promotes
evaluativediscussionsofhealthissuesandavoidsimposingthephysician’svalues.106In
102EmanuelandEmanuel,‘FourModelsofthePhysician-PatientRelationship’,2221.103EmanuelandEmanuel,2221.104EmanuelandEmanuel,2222.105EmanuelandEmanuel,2222.106EmanuelandEmanuel,2223–26.
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addition,thedeliberativemodelofphysician-patientrelationshipalsorequiresthepractice
ofcaring:
Theessenceofdoctoringisafabricofknowledge,understanding,teaching,and
action,inwhichthecaringphysicianintegratesthepatient'smedicalconditionand
health-relatedvalues,makesarecommendationontheappropriatecourseofaction,
andtriestopersuadethepatientoftheworthinessofthisapproachandthevaluesit
realizes.Thephysicianwithacaringattitudeistheidealembodiedinthe
deliberativemodel...107
Intuitively,thefourmodelsarealsoapplicabletoTCMpractitioner-patientrelationship.
IuseobesityasanexampletoexplorehowaTCMpractitionermayimplementthefour
models.Imaginethatapatientisalreadydiagnosedwithobesitybyhisphysician.Hewants
toseektreatmentinTCM.Inapaternalisticmodel,aTCMpractitionermaypledge“Ishall
domybesttohelpyou”andthenproceedwiththeappropriateTCMdiagnosesand
treatments.Inaninformativemodel,aTCMpractitionermayaddinformationsuchasa
varietyofoptionsinacupuncture,herbaltreatments,dietsandexercise,etc.Theobjective
istoallowthepatienttocompareeachtreatmentoptionandmakeaninformedselection
forhimself.Inaninterpretativemodel,aTCMpractitionermayalsoimposethat“obesity
addstotherisksofotherdiseasessuchasdiabetes,heartdiseaseandcancer.Beingobese
isunhealthyandyoushouldloseweight.”Usuallyifonecaresaboutaperson,onewould
askquestionsabouttheperson.Inadeliberativemodel,aTCMpractitionerwouldlikely
askthepatientquestionssuchas“howdoyoumanage?”or“whatissuitable?”or“whyisit
107EmanuelandEmanuel,2226.
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difficult?”tounderstandtheneeds,expectationsandvaluesofthepatient.Itmayturnout
thatthepatientdoesnotconsiderthehigherriskofotherdiseasesunhealthy.Theobjective
ofthepatientmaybetoalleviatehisknee-painduetobeingoverweight.Inthiscase,being
pain-freemeansbeinghealthyforthepatient.Withsuchanunderstanding,thepractitioner
maydiligentlyincludethemeasurementofpainintheevaluationofthetreatment’s
progress.Thepractitionermayalsohelpthepatientexploreothertherapiessuchas
physiotherapyormassagetocopewithpain.Atalaterstage,thepractitionercan
encouragethepatienttoconsiderothervaluesofhealth,suchaslowerdiseaseriskfactors,
throughmoreevaluativediscussions.
TCMisaholisticmedicine.ItalsoembodiesChineseculturalvaluessuchasideals,rituals
andbeliefs.SinceTCMpractitionersusuallyincludelifestyleadvicetopatients,suchasdiet
orexercise,aspartofthecompletetreatment.ItiseasyforTCMpractitionerstoimpose
Chineseculturalvaluessubconsciouslyonpatientsduringtheconsultation.The
deliberativemodelofpractitioner-patientrelationshipisthebestmodelforapractitioner
tosafeguardtherespectforpatientautonomy.
ThedeliberativemodelisidealforTCMforanotherreason.Asmentionedearlier,TCM
patientsareoftennotfamiliarwithTCMandrelyontheirpractitionerstoexplainsafety
andefficacyissues.TheempiricalstudyinsectionIIalsofoundthatthemajorityof
participantsfocusonthepotentialbenefitsinsteadoftherisks.Thischaracteristicpointsto
patientvulnerabilitytounethicalpractice.Usingtheaboveexampleofobesity,itappears
thatnoneofthefourpractitioner-patientrelationshipmodelscanpreventanunethical
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practitionerfrompromotingshamweight-lossproducts.However,inimplementingthe
deliberativemodel,thepatientmayhaveabetterchancetoremindhimselfabouthis
treatmentobjectiveandevaluatetheprogressinaccordancewithhisexpectation.
Inordertoimplementthedeliberativemodelofphysician-patientrelationship,Emanuel
andEmanuelassertthat:
...physicianscurrentlylackthetrainingandcapacitytoarticulatethevalues
underlyingtheirrecommendationsandpersuadepatientsthatthesevaluesare
worthy...Therefore,ifthedeliberativemodelseemsmostappropriate,thenweneed
toimplementchangesinmedicalcareandeducationtoencourageamorecaring
approach.Wemuststressunderstandingratherthanmereprovisionsoffactual
informationinkeepingwiththelegalstandardsofinformedconsentandmedical
malpractice;wemusteducatephysiciansnotjusttospendmoretimeinphysician
patientcommunicationbuttoelucidateandarticulatethevaluesunderlyingtheir
medicalcaredecisions,includingroutineones.108
IfTCMistopromotethedeliberativemodelforthepractitioner-patientrelationship,TCM
practitionersmayalsoneedspecialtraining.
Boththecultivationofmoralcharacterandimplementationofidealpractitioner-patient
relationshipdirectustoexamineTCMtrainingandeducation.TCMstudentsaregoingtobe
ourfutureTCMpractitioners.ToensureahighstandardofTCMethicsandcompetencyfor
thelongterm,itmakessensetoinvestinTCMeducationandtraining.
108EmanuelandEmanuel,2226.
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Teacher-ApprenticeLearningModel
InCanada,TCMethicseducationoftenmeansreadingtheStandardsofPracticeandthe
CodeofEthicsdevelopedbytheprovincialregulations.Forexample,theCollegeof
TraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturistsofOntariorequiresallTCM
practitionerstostudythejurisprudencehandbookandpassthejurisprudenceexamination
beforeregistrationforTCMpractice.Thejurisprudencehandbookfocusesontopicssuchas
patientcommunications,safepractice,recordkeepingandadvertising,since,“thepurpose
ofthesepublicationsistoremindpractitionersaboutthefactorsthatarerequiredto
practicesafely,ethicallyandeffectively.”109
However,jurisprudencedoesnotentailthedevelopmentofmoralvaluesinpractitioners.
Unschuldcommentsthat:
Themereaffirmationofacodeofethicswillnotsufficetoestablishpublictrust.For
onething‘formulatedethics’utilizetherelevantvaluesofthecomprehensive
paradigmsfoundinthepublic,butatthesametimecontainveryconcrete
regulationsofbehaviourfortheindividualphysician.Theseregulationsof
behaviour,asforexampletheforbiddingofadvertising,hardlyseemtorelateto
ethics.110
Döringsuggeststhatmedicalethicseducationshouldbe:109‘JurisprudenceCourse·CTCMPAOWebsite’,handbookp.8.110Paul U. Unschuld, Medical Ethics in Imperial China: A Study in Historical Anthropology, Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care ; (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 14.
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...morefundamentally,asawaytoimprovethecapacitiesofmedicalprofessionals
to‘dotherightthing’,accordingtothetraditionalconceptofmedicineasan‘artof
humaneness’...Inthissense,medicinehasanintrinsicmoraldrive,makingitdistinct
fromventuresthatprovidemeretechnicalbiomedicalservicesorproceduralskills
inhandlinglegalorpoliticalcontroversies.111
TCMeducationsysteminCanadacanbenefitfrommoretoolsoralternativesolutionsto
supplementethicseducationinthecurrentcurriculums.TheTCMteacher-apprentice
learningmodelencompassestheelementsofpracticingcaring,habituationandmentorship.
Thelearningmodelcanbeeffectiveforcultivatingmoralcharacterandpromotingthe
deliberativemodelofpractitioner-patientrelationshipamongTCMstudents.Itisworthyof
investigation.
Theteacher-apprenticelearningmodelisnotnewinChinesemedicine.Unschuldexplains
that:
...perhapsthemostcommonroutetobecomingaphysicianofChinesemedicine
untiltheendofthenineteenthcenturywasbywayofapprenticeship.The
modernizationofChinesemedicineattemptedfromwithintheChinesemedicine
circlesduringthelateQingandRepublicanerasledtotheopeningofschoolsand
collegesinmanycitiesandprovincesthatmodeledthemselvesonuniversitiesand
technicalcollegesandsoughttoemulateWesternmedicaltraining.112
TodayinChina,theteacher-apprenticeeducationisalreadyrevivedintheTCMeducation
programandintegratedintoinstitutionaleducation.Xueetal.writethat:111OleDöring,‘8.4.TeachingMedicalEthicsinChina.Cultural,SocialandEthicalIssues’,1.112Unschuld, Medical Ethics in Imperial China, 168–69.
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...theBeijingUniversityofChineseMedicine...in2007...adopteda‘TCMeducation
reformexperimentalprogram.’Studentswereadmittedtothisprogrambyan
independentstudentrecruitmentprocessthatselectedapplicantsfromfamiliesof
TCMpractitionersinsteadofthroughacollegeentranceexamination.Onceenrolled,
studentswereassignedtodifferentsupervisors.Thisprogramisacombinationof
institutionaleducation,master-apprenticeeducation,andfather-soneducation
models.113
ImplementingtheTCMteacher-apprenticelearningmodelisatestedsolutioninChina.Itis
feasibletointegrateitintotheexistinginstitutionalsysteminCanada.Besidesenhancing
TCMethicseducation,thelearningmodelmayalsoenhancethestandardsofTCMpractice
intwootherways.Firstbyeffectivestudentselectionandsecond,byincreasingtheir
clinicalexperience.Inaddition,itcanfacilitatecontinuingeducationamongTCM
practitioners.
StudentSelection
SelectingtherightstudentstolearnTCMistoselecttherightpeopletopracticeTCMinthe
future.InhisexperienceofteachingbiomedicalethicsinChinain2002,Döringquotesfrom
theYixueyuzhexuejournal(‘MedicineandPhilosophy’)that:
...onlyasmallsegmentofmedicalstudentsexpressaninterestinethicalissues.Only
about19%ofthestudents,whohadbeeninterviewedareactuallyinterestedin
113PeiXueetal.,‘ComparisonofChineseMedicineHigherEducationProgramsinChinaandFiveWesternCountries’,JournalofTraditionalChineseMedicalSciences2,no.4(1October2015):228,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcms.2016.01.010.
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helpingpeople.Atstakeisnotonlyanethicallywellreflected,reasonablemedical
practice,butalso,howtogainmoresupportfromphysiciansandsociety?19%is
lessthanoneinfiveofmedicalstudents.114
Ifapersondoesnotbelieveinhelpingpeopleorrespectingsocietynormsthenwhydowe
wantthispersontoperformhealthcare?Itisinefficienttodevelopvirtuessuchas
compassion,benevolenceorjusticeinthisperson.Worse,thispersonmayexertanegative
influenceonotherstudents.Döringsuggeststhatamongmedicalstudents:
...agenuineinterestin‘doingtherightthing’servesasaconstantreminderofeach
one'smoralinspiration.Itstimulatesandencouragesstudentstodevelopthe
relevantcapacitiestobecome‘good’indoingtheirjobright,formingamoral
character,whichcorrespondswiththemoralintuitionsandtheprofessionalcalling
thatmakeadoctorchoosehisprofessioninthefirstplace.115
TCMeducationinstitutionsshouldselectstudentswhodemonstrateadesiretohelpand
careaboutotherstopracticeTCM.
InCanada,almostallTCMeducationandtrainingareoperatedasprivatecareertraining
institutions.Forexample,mostTCMcollegesinBCareDesignatedPrivateTraining
Institutions116and“Humber’sTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitioner(TCMP)advanced
diplomaprogramisthefirstandonlypubliclyfundedprogramofitskindofferedata
114OleDöring,‘8.4.TeachingMedicalEthicsinChina.Cultural,SocialandEthicalIssues’,3.115OleDöring,1.116‘PrivateTrainingInstitutionDirectory|PrivateTrainingInstitutionsBranch’,accessed6February2018,https://www.privatetraininginstitutions.gov.bc.ca/students/pti-directory.
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postsecondaryinstitutioninCanada”117.CurrentlyinOntario,startingupaTCMcareer
trainingschooldoesnotevenrequireapprovalunderthePrivateCareerCollegesAct.118
Foraprivatecareertraininginstitution,studentsareprimarilythecustomers.Likeany
othertypeofbusiness,itisreasonabletoexpectaprivatecareertraininginstitutionto
welcomeasmanycustomersaspossible.Beingselectiveintheadmissionofstudent
applicantscanbecounter-productivetoprofitability.Itisnotrealistictoexpectaprivate
TCMeducationinstitutiontobeselectiveofTCMstudents.
Currently,thecostisprobablythebiggestbarrierofentrytobecomingaTCMstudent.The
costofattendinganhouroftraininginaTCMschoolisabout$15perhour.Forexample,in
BritishColumbia,theminimalhoursoftraininginaTCMAcupunctureProgramis1,900
hours.Thus,thetotalcostofcompletingaTCMAcupuncturistprograminBritishColumbia
isapproximately$15x1,900hours=$28,500.TheacademicprerequisitestoenterTCM
schoolsarestipulatedbytheprovincialregulatorsandvaryfromprovincetoprovince.For
example,BritishColumbiaTCMstudentapplicantsrequiretwoyearsofcollegeor
universityeducationandOntarioTCMstudentapplicantsrequireGrade12education.In
comparisontootherhealthprofessionssuchasdental,nursingorphysiotherapydegree
programsataCanadianuniversity,itisrelativelyeasytobeadmittedintoaTCMeducation
program.
117‘TraditionalChineseMedicinePractitioner’,accessed6February2018,http://healthsciences.humber.ca/programs/traditional-chinese-medicine-practitioner.html.118GovernmentofOntario,‘PrivateCareerColleges(PCC)’,accessed6February2018,http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/audiences/pcc/private.html.
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Incontrasttoaprivateinstitutionalsetting,ateacher-apprenticetrainingmodelismore
effectiveinstudentselection.ThemainreasonistheinfluenceofConfucianism.According
toConfucianteaching,apersoncannotexistinisolationbutalwaysinasocialcontext.The
natureofapersonisdefinedbyhissocialrelationshipsandresponsibilities.119Volker
Scheidpointsoutthat“discipleshipinChinesemedicine(asinotherChineseartsand
crafts)isfoundedonthepatternofthefamilyandcanbedocumentedasfarbackasthe
secondcenturyB.C.”120and“socialrelationsbetweenmasteranddisciplethenasnoware
modeledonthefilialrelationshipbetweenfatherandson,oneofthefivecardinal
relationships(wulun五倫)ofConfucianideology.”121
ToaTCMteacher,anapprenticeislikeachild.Givenachoicebetweenbeingvirtuousor
wicked,anyparentwouldprefertheirchildrentobevirtuous.Givenachoicebetween
havingtheintellectorlackofintellect,anyparentwouldprefertheirchildrentohavethe
intellect.Therefore,inateacher-apprenticemodel,ateacherhasanincentivetoselecta
TCMstudentwithagoodintellectandmoralcharacter.
ThehourlywageofpresentingaTCMlessoninaprivatecareertraininginstitutionin
Canadaisabout$35perhour.Incontrast,aTCMpractitionercanearnanaverageof$40to
$120pertreatmentinCanada.ItisdifficulttoattractthebestTCMpractitionerstoleave
theirpracticeandteachataTCMschool.Inaninstitution,astudentcannotchoosehisown
119Hansen, ‘Humanity and Nature in Chinese Thought | 中国哲学思想中的人类与自然观 | EdX’.120Scheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,169.121Scheid,169.
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teachers.Thestudentshavetolearnfromthedesignatedteachersregardlessofthequality
oftheteachers.However,inateacher-apprenticemodel,astudentcanchoosehisown
teacher.AstudentshouldbefreetoapplyandlearnfromthebestqualifyingTCM
practitioner.ItfollowsthatbetterTCMteachersdevelopbetterTCMstudents.
IntensiveClinicalPractice
Thereisanadditionalbenefitinimplementingtheteacher-apprenticeapproach.Itcan
directlyenhancetheclinicalcompetencylevelofTCMgraduatesinCanada.Inthecontext
ofWesternbiomedicine,J.Boudreauwritesthat“medicalpracticerequiresablendof
intellectualpursuits:theoretical,practical,productiveandperformative...Notwithstanding
themultifacetednatureofmedicine,thephysicianisprimarilyengagedinapractical
activity.”122Manyscholarssupportlearningthroughpracticeasabetterapproachtothe
educationofstudentsinhealthcare.Boudreauclaimsthat:
...medicineaimstopromotehealthandtorelievesuffering,anditsultimateaimis
thewell-beingofthepatient.Athreattowell-beingisperceivedwhenpersons
sufferimpairmentsoffunctionthatinterferewiththeattainmentoftheirpurposes
andgoalsinlife.Thus,well-being,aslivedandunderstoodbythepatient,isthe
touchstoneofmedicineandmustalsoserveasthefulcrumuponwhichamedical
educationprogramisconstructed.”123
122J.Boudreau,‘TheHumanitiesinMedicalEducation:WaysofKnowing,DoingandBeing’,JournalofMedicalHumanities36,no.4(1December2015):329.123Boudreau,329.
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Similarly,TCMclinicaltrainingandpracticalexperiencearecrucialinpreparingaTCM
studenttobecomeacompetentpractitionerandpracticeindependentlyinthefuture.
Chinahashadstate-runTCMpostsecondaryeducationsince1956andtheirnationalTCM
curriculumhasbeenevolving.124Noticeably,theirTCMclinicaltraininghasbeenmuch
moreintensivethanthatinCanada.TodayinChina,majorTCMuniversitiesuseanintegral
trainingmodelwhichcombinesaBachelorandMasterdegreefortheirTCMstudents.For
example,BeijingUniversityofChineseMedicineoffersan“integrated‘fiveplusthree’
programwhichcomprises5yearsofundergraduatetrainingwithpreclinicalcoursesand3
yearsofinternshiptraining.”125BasedonChina’sNationalTCMcoursecurriculumfor
1997126,thetotalclinicaltraininginthefirstfiveyearsofundergraduatetrainingis
approximately687hours.Inaddition,thesubsequentinternshiptrainingispracticallyfull-
timepracticeinTCMhospitals.Iestimatethenumberofpatientcase-studiesduringthe
TCMinternshiptraining,excludingthe687clinicalhoursinthefirstfiveyearsof
undergraduatetraining.Basedonatwo-yearinternship,50workweeksandsixworkdays
perweekschedule,aTCMinternspendsabout600days(i.e.2*50*6=600)practicingTCM
inaTCMhospital.InthreedifferentTCMuniversityhospitalsinChina,IfoundthataTCM
internusuallypracticedanaveragenumberof40patientcasesinaday.Thatmeansthe
TCMinternwouldpracticeabout24,000(i.e.600*40=24,000)patientcasesinthetwo
yearsofinternship.
124Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63, Ch.3-4.125Xueetal.,‘ComparisonofChineseMedicineHigherEducationProgramsinChinaandFiveWesternCountries’,228.126Taylor,ChineseMedicineinEarlyCommunistChina,1945-63,163.
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UsingtheTCMregulationsinBritishColumbiaforcomparison,theminimumtotalclinical
trainingrequirementforaTCMacupunctureprogramgraduateis500hours.127Abouthalf
ofthetotalclinicaltrainingisobservationandtheotherhalfissupervisedpracticeon
patients.Afull-timeTCMacupuncturestudentusuallyspendseighthoursperweekin
clinicaltraining.Thattranslateintoabout62.5weeks(i.e.500/8=62.5)ofclinicalpractice.
Someschoolclinicsarebusierthantheothers.Basedonmypersonalexperience,Iestimate
aTCMacupuncturestudentstudiesanaverageofsevenpatientcasesinaschoolclinicper
week.ThatmeansaTCMacupuncturestudentstudiesanaveragenumberof437.5(i.e.
62.5*7=437.5)patientcasesinhis500clinicaltraininghours.
Incomparison,theclinicaltrainingforTCMstudentsinChinaismoreintensivetothatof
TCMstudentsinCanada.AlthoughTCMstudentsinCanadalearnfromthesameTCM
textbooksandpasssimilarTCMexaminations,thegraduatesmaylackclinicalexperience,
intuitionandjudgmentincomparisontothegraduatesinChina.TheCanadianpublic
deservesthesamequalityofTCMgraduates.Theeducationofateacher-apprentice
learningmodeloftentakesplaceinaclinicalenvironmentsimilartoaninternship.Notonly
isitaneffectiveapproachtoteachTCMethicsandselectTCMstudents,itdirectlyincreases
thequantityandqualityofclinicalexperienceforfutureTCMpractitionersinCanada.
SunSimiao’sideaofa“goodphysicianischaracterizedbyfourattributes:heismorally
honorableinhisaction(xingfang行方),hasacomprehensiveknowledge(yuanzhi圓智),
127‘EducationProgramReview|CTCMA-CollegeofTraditionalChineseMedicinePractitionersandAcupuncturists’.
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andiscareful(xinxiao心小)yetalsocourageous(danda胆大).”128Itisdifficultforanyone
tobecomeanexcellentTCMpractitionerafterjust500hoursofclinicalobservationand
practice.Hence,continuingeducationisimportantforanyTCMpractitioner.Allregistered
TCMpractitionersarerequiredtoobtainacertaincontinuingeducationinCanada.
Currently,mostcontinuingeducationisconductedintheformatofinstitutionalcoursesor
seminars.
InsomeTCMuniversity-hospitalsinChina,TCMpractitionersregularlyconferwiththeir
TCMpeersaswellasexternalbiomedicalprofessionalsinresolvingpatientcases.Indeed,
inCanada,IhavemetotherhealthcareprofessionalswhoareopenandinterestedinTCM.
Somehealthcareprofessionalssuchasmedicalphysicians,nursesandphysiotherapistare
opentoworkingwithTCMpractitionersinresolvinghealthissues.Consideringpeersand
otherhealthcareprofessionalsasteachersinstudyingpatientcases,asinateacher-
apprenticelearningmodel,canbeaproductivewayofTCMcontinuingeducation.Forsome
TCMpractitionersinsmallercitiesorruralcommunities,theirlocationsofpracticecanbe
farfromanyTCMschoolsoreducationinstitution.Thisalternativemodelofcontinuing
educationcanreducetheburdenofsuspendingtheirpracticesorlong-distancetravelto
attendcontinuingeducationcourses.Theteacher-apprenticelearningmodelcanfacilitate
continuingeducationintheirlocalcommunities.
128Scheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChinaPluralityandSynthesis,150.
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IV.Justice
TCMtherapyisnotpubliclyfundedinsuredhealthserviceinCanada.Itispaidasanout-of-
pocketexpensebyaTCMpatient.Somepatientsmayhaveprivatehealthinsurance
throughtheiremploymenttocoversomeacupuncture.Ingeneral,wealthierpatientshave
moreaccesstoTCMtreatmentthanthosewhohavefewermeans.TheaccesstoTCMcareis
notequalandisbasedonthepatient’sabilitytopay.Isthisjust?
Justiceisoneofthefourprinciplesofprinciplism.BeauchampandChildressexplainthat:
...thetermfairness,desert(whatisdeserved),andentitlementhavebeenusedby
philosophersasabasisonwhichtoexplicatethetermjustice.Theseaccounts
interpretjusticeasfair,equitable,andappropriatetreatmentinlightofwhatisdue
orowedtopersons.129
Subsequently,thetermdistributivejusticereferstofair,equitable,andappropriate
distributionofbenefitsandresponsibilitiesasdeterminedbyoursocietalnorms.130
Intheprevioussectionspertainingtotheprinciplesofrespectforautonomy,beneficence
andnonmaleficence,Ihavepointedoutthepotentialethicalissuesofpracticingnon-
evidence-basedmedicineandalsosuggestedsolutionstoaddressthem.Inthissection,my
discussionfocusesonthefair,equitable,andappropriateaccesstoTCMcareinCanada.
Danielsisoneofthefirstscholarstoarguefortherighttohealthcareandresearchthe
129Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,250.130Beauchamp,250.
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distributivejusticeinhealthcare.Heexplainsthatthenotionofaccessiscomplicatedand
itsconsiderationcannotbedetermineduntilweclarifyacompositeoffactorssuchas
“whattheaccessisto,”“by“whom”andmoralprinciples.131Inordertoputthissectionin
thepropercontext,IsituatetheentirediscussioninthecontextofCanada’spubliclyfunded
healthcaresystem(medicare)andtheCanadaHealthAct.
MedicareandInsuredHealthService
TheCanadaHealthActisCanada'sfederallegislationformedicare132and“fromthetop,
CanadaHealthActdrivesdecision-makingaboutwhatisinandwhatisoutofCanadian
Medicare.”133Itsetsouttheprimaryobjectiveofourhealthcarepolicyas"toprotect,
promoteandrestorethephysicalandmentalwell-beingofresidentsofCanadaandto
facilitatereasonableaccesstohealthserviceswithoutfinancialorotherbarriers."134
Canada’smedicareisasingle-payeruniversalhealthcaresystem.Thesystemisfinancedby
ourmultiplelevelsofgovernmentsandcoversthecostsofessentialhealthcareforall
residents.Itisasingle-payerinsurancesysteminwhichourgovernmentscollecttaxesand
paysforallhealthcarecosts.“Historically,thefederalgovernmentencouragedthe
adoptionofpubliclyadministeredsingle-payerinsurancesystemsintheprovincesthrough
131NormanDaniels,JustHealthCare,c1985,Ch.4,59-85.132HealthCanadaandHealthCanada,‘CanadaHealthAct’,navigationpage,aem,26July2004,https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/health-care-system/canada-health-care-system-medicare/canada-health-act.html.133Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,17.134CanadaandCanada,‘CanadaHealthAct’.
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theuseofthefederalspendingpower.”135Althoughtheprovincesareresponsibleforthe
directdeliveryofmostmedicalservices,thefederalgovernmentusesitsspendingpowerto
influenceCanadianhealthcarethroughfinancialcontributionknownasCanadaHealth
Transfer.
Thereareprosandconsofasingle-payersystem:
Proponentsofasingle-payersystemarguethatbecausetherearefewerentities
involvedinthehealthcaresystem,thesystemcanavoidanenormousamountof
administrativewaste.Instead,allhealthcareprovidersinasingle-payersystem
wouldbilloneentityfortheirservices.Withinasingle-payersystem,allcitizens
wouldreceivehigh-quality,comprehensivemedicalcarePLUSthefreedomto
chooseproviderstoagreaterextentthanmostnetwork-basedhealthplansallow.
Paperworkwouldalsobedramaticallyreduced.136
Ontheotherhand,“asinglepayersystemalonedoesnotaddress‘fee-for-service’
reimbursementforproviders,whichmayencourageoveruseanddoesnotrecognize
qualityandvalue.”137Thebottomlineisthatthefundingforanyhealthcaresystemisnot
unlimited.Asingle-payersystemdoesnotautomaticallyresolvethelimitationofresources.
ThroughCanadaHealthTransfer,thefederalgovernmentprovides“long-termpredictable
135Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,46.136‘Single-PayerSystemDefinition’,healthinsurance.org,23September2017,https://www.healthinsurance.org/glossary/single-payer-system/.137DarshakSanghaviandSarahBleiberg,‘CanCanadian-StyleHealthcareWorkinAmerica?VermontThinksSo.’,Brookings(blog),30November2001,https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/01/22/can-canadian-style-healthcare-work-in-america-vermont-thinks-so/.
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fundingforhealthcare,andsupportstheprinciplesoftheCanadaHealthActwhichare:
universality;comprehensiveness;portability;accessibility;and,publicadministration.”138
Forexample,OntariohospitalsareprimarilyfundedbytheMinistryofHealthandLong
TermCarethroughprovincialpaymentsallocatedfromCanadaHealthTransfer.139The
fundingallocationisprimarilybasedonhistoricalfundingpatternswithmarginalyear-
over-yearincreasesordecreases.140TheCanadaHealthTransferforOntarioisabout
$14.36billionin2017-2018andabout$14.96billionin2018-2019withanincreaseinline
withathree-yearmovingaverageofnominalGrossDomesticProduct.141
TheCanadaHealthActestablishescriteriaandconditionsrelatedtothehealthcare
servicesthattheprovincesandterritoriesmustfulfillinordertoreceivethefederal
transferpayments.142TheaimoftheCanadaHealthActis“toensurethatalleligible
residentsofCanadahavereasonableaccesstoinsuredhealthservicesonaprepaidbasis,
withoutdirectchargesatthepointofserviceforsuchservices.”143Asaresearcherwhohas
workedextensivelyonthecomparisonofvariouspubliclyfundedhealthcareprograms,
FloodsummarizesthefoundingprinciplesofCanada’smedicareas:
138DepartmentofFinanceGovernmentofCanada,‘CanadaHealthTransfer’,federaltransfers,1January2000,https://www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/cht-eng.asp.139DonDrummond,‘ChartingaPathtoSustainableHealthCareinOntario:10ProposalstoRestrainCostGrowthwithoutCompromisingQualityofCare-ScholarsPortalBooks’,27,accessed4December2017,http://books2.scholarsportal.info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/viewdoc.html?id=/ebooks/ebooks1/gibson_chrc/2010-08-20/1/10397929#tabview=tab1.140Drummond,28.141DepartmentofFinanceGovernmentofCanada,‘FederalSupporttoProvincesandTerritories’,federaltransfers,15December2014,https://www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/mtp-eng.asp#Ontario.142CanadaandCanada,‘CanadaHealthAct’.143CanadaandCanada.
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1)thataccessto‘medicallynecessary’hospitalandphysicianservicesarebasedon
medicalneed,notabilitytopay;and2)thatservicescoveredbymedicareare
fundedalmostexclusivelythroughgeneraltaxationrevenues.144
Ouruniversalhealthcarecoveragebeganwithhospitalsinthe1950sandphysician
servicesinthe1960s.145Today,itcoversawiderangeofmedicallynecessaryservicessuch
as:
o hospitalservicesthataremedicallynecessaryforthepurposeofmaintaining
health,preventingdiseaseordiagnosingortreatinganinjury,illnessor
disability,including accommodationandmeals,physicianandnursing
services,drugsandallmedicalandsurgicalequipmentandsupplies;
o anymedicallyrequiredservicesrenderedbymedicalpractitioners;and
o anymedicallyordentallyrequiredsurgical-dentalprocedureswhichcan
onlybeproperlycarriedoutinahospital.146
TheCanadaHealthActalsostipulatesthat:
...extendedhealthcareservicesincludeintermediatecareinnursinghomes,adult
residentialcareservice,homecareserviceandambulatoryhealthcare
services...whichdonothavetobepubliclyadministered,universal,comprehensive,
accessibleorportable.Inaddition,provincialhealthcareinsuranceplansmaycover
otherhealthservices,suchasoptometricservices,dentalcare,assistivedevicesand
144ColleenM.Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,1,accessed4February2018,http://www.deslibris.ca.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/ID/250981.145Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,73.146OdetteMadore,‘TheCanadaHealthAct:OverviewandOptions’,accessed30November2017,https://lop.parl.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/944-e.htm#4insuredtxt.
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prescriptiondrugs,whicharenotsubjecttotheAct,andforwhichprovincesmay
demandpaymentfrompatients.Therangeofsuchadditionalhealthbenefitsthat
areprovidedunderprovincialgovernmentplans,therateofcoverage,andthe
categoriesofbeneficiariesvarygreatlyfromoneprovincetoanother.147
Currently,mostextendedhealthcareservicessuchasdentalcare,physiotherapy,TCMor
othercomplementarymedicineareout-of-pocketexpensesforthepatients.
Althoughthenotionofmedicallynecessaryplaysanimportantroleindecidingwhat
shouldbeinsuredhealthservice,theconceptofmedicalnecessityisnotdefinedinthe
CanadaHealthAct:
...theActdoesnotsetoutaprocessfordeterminingthosemedicallynecessary
healthservices.Therefore,eachprovince(incollaborationwiththeprovincial
medicalassociation)isresponsiblefordeterminingwhatspecificservicesaretobe
insuredunderthepublichealth-careinsuranceplan.Becauseprovincesdonotusea
systematicmethodfordeterminingtheprovisionofcomprehensivehealth-care
services,publiccoverageforcertainhealthservicesacrossthecountryisuneven.148
Romanowagreesthat“thedefinitionofwhatisconsideredmedicallynecessaryand
coveredundertheActneedstobeupdatedtoreflecttherealitiesofourcontemporary
healthcaresystem.”149Thenarrowfocusmighthaveledtotheneglectofotherhealth
147Madore.148‘TheCanadaHealthAct’,accessed31January2018,https://lop.parl.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/tips/tip74-e.htm.149Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,47.
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producingmeasures.150Thedefinitionofmedicallynecessaryisunclearandmaynotmeet
thecurrentneedsofCanadians.
Inexplainingthedecision-makingframeworkinfundingmedicare,Floodclaimsthatthere
are“significantlydifferentapproachestofundingdependingonwhatsectorwearedealing
with,whetherphysicianservices,hospitalservices,newtechnologies,pharmaceuticals,or
homecare”151ForexampleinOntario,determiningwhatphysicianservicesareinsured
healthservicesinvolvesatleastthefollowingbodies:
(1)ThePhysicianServicesCommittee,whichisajointcommitteecomprising
officialsfromtheMinistryofHealthandLongTermCare(theMinistry)andthe
OntarioMedicalAssociation(OMA);(2)MedicalDirectorswhoaresalaried
physicianswithintheMinistryandmaydetermineclaimsforpublicfunding;(3)the
HealthServicesAppealandReviewBoard;and(4)thecourts.152
Floodpointsoutthat“decision-makingregardingwhichphysicianservicesaretobefunded
isdrivenbytheprocessoffeenegotiationsbetweentheMinistryandtheOMA...Bydefault
theseservicesaredeemedmedicallynecessary.”153Thereisalackoftransparencyabout
theguidingprinciplesinthedecision-makingprocess.154“Furthermore,thereisenormous
resistancetochangingtherangeandtypesofservicesthatwepubliclyfund,primarilyby
individualswithvestedinterestsinmaintainingpublicfundingforcertainprocedures.”155
150‘Cost–BenefitAnalysisandHealthCareEvaluations,SecondEdition’,28November2014,16–17,https://www-elgaronline-com.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/view/9781781004586.xml.151Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,17.152Floodetal.,18.153Floodetal.,18.154Floodetal.,19.155Floodetal.,30.
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Asaresult,thereislimitedflexibilityforthesystemtoreplaceoraddnewservices.156
Floodconcludesthatcurrently,thedecisionsaboutthecontentsofmedicarebasketis
largelyshapedbythefollowing:
1. accidentsofhistoryandlong-heldaccommodationsbetweengovernments
andthemedicalprofession;and
2. inflexibleandinadequateregulationsandlaw,andturfprotectionand
lobbyingbydifferentstakeholdersandinterestgroups.157
Thereisminimalpublicparticipationorproceduralfairnessinthedecision-makingprocess
andFloodrecommendsthat:
...iftheprocessofdeterminingwhatisinandwhatisoutofMedicarecouldbe
unbuckledfromdeterminationsofwhichphysicianservicestofund,thenitmay
becomepossibletoestablishamorerigorousandprinciplesprocess,infusedwith
publicparticipation,thatwouldallowrelativelyhighbenefitservicesand
technologiestobefundedinplaceoflowerbenefitservicesandtechnologies.158
Basedonthecurrentdecision-makingprocessoffundinginsuredhealthservice,our
currentmedicarebasketmaynotbejust.Thereisroomforchange.
ShouldTCMbeanInsuredHealthService?
Thepurposeofthisthesisistoreflectonpotentialethicalissues.Resolvingthepotential
ethicalissuespertainingtotheprinciplesofautonomy,beneficenceandnonmaleficence
156Floodetal.,30.157Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,6.158Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,20.
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shouldprecederesolvingdistributivejusticeofTCM.Whatisthepointofhavingequal
accesstoTCMifthesafetyorefficacyofTCMisuncertain?Coincidentally,thesurveyin
sectionIIshowedthatthemajorityofparticipantsalsoprioritizedtheprinciplesof
beneficenceoverjustice.
TCMhasitshistoryofstruggleinCanada.159,160Before2012,fewerthanfiveprovinces
regulatedTCMpractitionersinCanada.TCMacupuncturewasnotrecognizedasan
importanthealthserviceandhadnoGST/HSTexemptionbythefederalgovernmentuntil
Feb2014.161Today,TCMisstillnotregulatedinallprovincesandterritories.TCMpractice
isdifficulttostandardize.ThequalityofTCMcareisnotuniform.Itvariesamong
practitioners,communitiesandacrossCanada.ItisnotjustifiabletoincludeTCMas
insuredhealthserviceinmedicaretoday.Nevertheless,TCMisgainingglobalpopularity.162,
163,164TCMisexpectedtoprogressandgrowinCanada.Soonenough,wemayneedtoask
ifTCMshouldbeaninsuredhealthservice,andonwhatmoralgrounds?
159‘HistoryofCMAAC|C.M.A.A.C.–PromotionTCMandAcupuncture’,accessed22October2017,http://www.cmaac.ca/history-of-cmaac.160WeiYuan,‘AcupunctureComestoCanada:TheStruggleforProfessionalRecognition,1970-1996.’(UniversityofOttawa(Canada),2001),http://dx.doi.org/10.20381/ruor-14751.161DepartmentofFinanceGovernmentofCanada,‘Archived-GovernmentofCanadaExemptsAcupuncturists’andNaturopathicDoctors’ProfessionalServicesfromGST/HST’,mediarelease,28March2014,https://www.fin.gc.ca/n14/14-047-eng.asp.162‘ARCHIVED-NaturalHealthProductsinCanada-AHistory’,aem,30December2002,https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/natural-non-prescription/regulation/history.html.163AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,‘TheArtandScienceofTraditionalMedicinePart1:TCMToday—ACaseforIntegration’,Science346,no.6216(19December2014):1569–1569,https://doi.org/10.1126/science.346.6216.1569-d.164‘WHO|WHOTraditionalMedicineStrategy:2014-2023’,WHO,accessed3May2018,http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/traditional/trm_strategy14_23/en/.
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Nosinglemoraltheoryiscapableofresolvingallproblemsofjustice.Beauchampand
Childresssummarizethat:
...severaltypesoftheoryhavebeeninfluential:Utilitariantheoriesemphasizea
mixtureofcriteriaforthepurposeofmaximizingpublicutility;libertariantheories
layemphasisonindividualrightstosocialandeconomicliberty,whileinvokingfair
proceduresasthebasisofjustice,ratherthansubstantiveoutcomessuchas
increasesofwelfare;communitariantheoriesunderscoreprinciplesofjustice
derivedfromconceptionsofthegooddevelopedinmoralcommunities;and
egalitariantheoriesemphasizeequalaccesstothegoodsinlifethateveryrational
personvalues,ofteninvokingmaterialcriteriaofneedandequality.165
ConsideringthefactthatCanada’smedicareisasingle-payersystemandourfederal
governmentusesCanadaHealthTransfertosupportprinciplessuchasuniversality,
accessibilityandpublicadministration,medicarereflectsthenotionofegalitarianism.
Nevertheless,Floodpointsoutthat“HealthpolicyinCanadahaslongbeendominatedby
economistswhoseworkassumestheuniversalityofautilitarianapproachanddoesnot
allowforotherimportantCanadianvaluessuchasequality.”166Inthefaceoflimited
resources,utilitarianismisanothercompetingmoralperspectiveinourhealthcarepolicy.
Inherpolicyrecommendationforajustmedicare,Floodrecommendstheconsiderationof
multipleperspectives.Forthecontentsofamedicarebasket,shesuggeststhatthedecision
shouldbeafunctionof:165Beauchamp,PrinciplesofBiomedicalEthics,252.166Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,451.
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1. values;
2. availableresources;and
3. relativecostsandhealthbenefits.167
Eachethicaltheorycontributes“partialandoverlappingresources,notdefinitive,
exhaustivetruths.”168Competingtheoriescanilluminatedifferentquestionsand
sometimessupplementeachotherinacomplexmoraldeliberation.169Sincecosts,benefits
andvaluesareprominentfactorsinmedicarepolicy,Ishouldreflectonthequestionof
TCMcoveragewithtwodifferentsetsoflenses:utilitarianismandthefoundingvaluesof
medicare.
UtilitarianismandCost-BenefitAnalysis
BoetzkesandWaluchowpointoutthat“Mill’sutilitarianismisanancestorofmodern
theoriesofcost-benefitanalysis,whichareassuminganever-increasingrolein
controversiessurroundingtheallocationofmoneytovariousformsofhealthcare.”170Cost-
benefitanalysisinhealthcareistheanalysisofhealthcareresourceexpendituresrelativeto
possiblemedicalbenefits.Theanalysishelpspolicymakerstosetprioritieswhenchoices
mustbemadeinthefaceoflimitedresources.
167Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,6.168SusanSherwin,‘Foundations,Frameworks,Lenses:TheRoleofTheoriesinBioethics’,Bioethics13,no.3–4(1July1999):203,https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8519.00147.169Sherwin,‘Foundations,Frameworks,Lenses’.170ElisabethAiriniBoetzkesandWilfridJ.Waluchow,ReadingsinHealthCareEthics(Peterborough,Ont.:BroadviewPress,2002),11.
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UtilitarianismbeginswiththeideaofJeremyBenthamthat“thefoundationofmorals,
Utility,ortheGreatestHappinessPrinciple,holdsthatactionsarerightinproportionas
theytendtopromotehappiness,wrongastheytendtoproducethereverseof
happiness.”171Milladdsthat:
...thehappinesswhichformstheutilitarianstandardofwhatisrightinconduct,is
nottheagent’sownhappiness,butthatofallconcerned.Asbetweenhisown
happinessandthatofothers,utilitarianismrequireshimtobestrictlyimpartialasa
disinterestedandbenevolentspectator.172
Socialutilityoutweighsthehappinessofanindividualinutilitarianism.Therightactionis
theactionthatcanachievethe“greatesthappinessforthegreatestnumbersofpeople.“173
Haresummarizesthethreeconstituentsofutilitarianismasconsequentialism,welfarism
andaggregationism:
...asconstituentsofutilitarianism,consequentialism–thatis,theviewthatitistheir
consequencesthatdeterminethemoralityofactions–andwelfarism–thatis,the
viewthattheconsequencesthatwehavetoattendtoarethosethatconducestothe
welfareofthoseaffectedortheopposite.Theremainingconstituentisaviewabout
thedistributionofthiswelfare.Itistheviewthatwhen,asusually,wehaveachoice
betweenthewelfareofonelotofpeopleandthewelfareofanotherlot,weshould
choosetheactionwhichmaximizesthewelfare(i.e.,maximallypromotesthe
171John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Oxford Philosophical Texts (Oxford [England] ; New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 55.172Mill,64.173JosephPersky,‘PoliticalEconomyofProgress:JohnStuartMillandModernRadicalism-OxfordScholarship’,1July2016,http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190460631.001.0001/acprof-9780190460631.
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interests)ofallinsum,orinaggregate.Wemaycallthisconstituent
aggregationism.174
Throughthelensofutilitarianism,Ifindexamplesofhowamedicarepolicycanmaximize
theaggregateutilityfortheCanadiansociety.Forexample,itbecomesjustifiableforthe
governmenttoprioritizebuildinghospitalsincitycentreswithhighpopulationdensities
insteadofremotelocationswithlittletransportationaccess.Likewise,itisreasonableto
expectuniversalmedicaretofundvaccinationsforcommondiseasessuchasinfluenzafor
allresidentsbutnotatallforvaccinesoftraveldiseasessuchasyellowfeverorHepatitisB.
ThesustainabilityofCanada’smedicareisanaggregatesocialutilityandtheaccessibilityof
TCMtreatmentforonepersonisanindividualutility.Accordingtoutilitarianism,the
sustainabilityofCanada’smedicareshouldhavepriorityovertheaccessofTCMtreatment
foroneperson.Romanowclaimsthatthesustainabilityofmedicare:
...reliesonachievingtherightbalanceamongtheservicesthatareprovided,the
healthneedsofCanadians,andtheresourceswearepreparedtocommittothe
system.Findingthatbalanceisuptothosewhogovernthehealthcaresystem–
individualCanadians,communities,healthcareproviders,healthauthoritiesand
hospitaladministrators,andgovernments.Thedecisionstheymaketogetherwill
determinewhetherornotthesystemissustainableinthefuture.175
174R.M.Hare,‘AUtilitarianApproach’,inACompaniontoBioethics,ed.HelgaKuhseandPeterSinger(Wiley-Blackwell,2009),87,https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444307818.ch9.175Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,44.
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In2010,DrummondpresentedaproposalforsustainablehealthcareinOntario.He
explainsadeeperproblemfortheincreasingcostsofhealthcare:
...undercontinuationofthe‘statusquo’,Ontario’spublichealthcarespendingwill
increaseatleast6.5%annuallywellintothefuture.Incontrast,weprojectlonger-
termgrowthinOntario’snominalGDPandrevenues,intheabsenceoftaxrate
increases,tobearound4%.Oncefiscalbalanceisrestored,Ontariomustcontainthe
growthinoverallprogramspendingtothepaceofrevenuecollections.Ifhealthcare
spendingroarsaheadat6.5%perannumwhiletotalspendingiscontainedto4%
growth,thenhealthcarewouldcomprise80%oftotalprogramspendingby2030,
upfrom46%today.Everythingelsethegovernmentdoes,includingproviding
educationforitsresidents,wouldhavetobesqueezedintotheremainingone-fifth.
Clearlyitisnotfeasibletofulfilltheobligationsoftheprovinceandtheaspirations
ofitspeoplewithsuchabudget.Somethingmustgive.176
Iagreethatsomethinghastogive.ButasFloodsuggests,thedecisionprocessshouldbea
moretransparentandinclusiveprocedureforstakeholders.Thedecisionsshouldbebased
onmedicalneed,evidenceofefficacy,andcosts.177, 178Inaddition,Floodalsosuggeststhat:
...medicalopportunitycostbeasecondnecessarycriterionfordefiningthecontents
ofthebasket,inadditiontomedicalnecessity.Wedefinemedicalopportunitycost
tobethecomparativecontributiontohealthforgonebyexcludingagiven
servicefromthebasket.179
176Drummond,‘ChartingaPathtoSustainableHealthCareinOntario:10ProposalstoRestrainCostGrowthwithoutCompromisingQualityofCare-ScholarsPortalBooks’,6.177ColleenM.Floodetal.,‘Read-DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,ii,accessed4February2018,http://www.deslibris.ca.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/ID/250981.178Floodetal.,JustMedicareWhat’sin,What’sout,HowWeDecide,449–54.
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TojustifyaTCMtreatmentbeinganinsuredhealthservice,autilitarianapproachwould
requireTCMtopresentmoreevidenceofefficacy,favourablecost-benefitanalysis,and
positivemedicalopportunitycost.Thesubsequentquestionsaboutevidenceforwhich
TCMtreatment,howtoevaluatethebenefitandhowtoassessthecostareoutsidethe
scopeofmythesisandexpertise.However,IsuggesttwoTCMclinicalcharacteristicsthat
areworthyofinvestigationinthefuture.
First,aTCMclinicgenerallyhaslessdemandformedicalequipment,technology,spaceand
labourincomparisontoaprimarycareoracutecareclinic.Thischaracteristicimplies
savingsonoperatingcosts.ItalsomakessettingupaTCMclinicrelativelyfast.Sincerural
areasoftenhaveashortageofconventionalmedicalclinics,thecost-benefitanalysisof
supplementingaruralcommunityclinicwithaTCMclinicisworthyofinvestigation.
Second,TCMisstrongindiseaseprevention.Forexample,intreatingheadaches,TCM
practitionersaimatpreventingaheadachefromre-occurring.Similarly,TCMusesthe
preventativeapproachtotreatdiseasessuchasheartdiseases,digestivediseasesand
cancerthatarecommondiseasesinCanada.Intuitively,apreventativeapproachismore
cost-effectiveinmedicine.Sometargetedcost-benefitanalysesofTCMtreatmentshave
alreadyshownpositiveresults.180181However,thequantityofresearchisstillrelatively
179Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,13.180YiLietal.,‘Cost-EffectivenessAnalysisofCombinedChineseMedicineandWesternMedicineforIschemicStrokePatients’,ChineseJournalofIntegrativeMedicine20,no.8(1August2014):570–84,https://doi.org/10.1007/s11655-014-1759-9.181L.Sunetal.,‘PCV34-TheCost-EffectivenessofFourChinesePatentMedicineintheTreatmentofAnginaPectorisinChina’,ValueinHealth17,no.7(1November2014):A761,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2014.08.261.
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smallincomparisontobiomedicine.MostoftheresearchalsotookplaceoutsideofCanada
andmaynotbeapplicableinCanada.ThisimpliesthatmoreTCMresearchdataisneeded
fromlocalpractitionersandpatients.Themedicalopportunitycostofexcludingany
preventativemedicinesuchasTCMisalsoworthyofinvestigation.
ValuesofEquity,FairnessandSolidarity
Costsareimportant.Soarevalues.Valuesdeterminenotonlythestructureorserviceof
medicarebut,alsothekindofsocietythatwewanttolivein.
Inhisreport,Romanowstatesthat:
...intheirdiscussionswithme,Canadianshavebeenclearthattheystillstrongly
supportthecorevaluesonwhichourhealthcaresystemispremised–equity,
fairnessandsolidarity.Thesevaluesaretiedtotheirunderstandingofcitizenship.
Canadiansconsiderequalandtimelyaccesstomedicallynecessaryhealthcare
servicesonthebasisofneedasarightofcitizenship,notaprivilegeofstatusor
wealth...Theywantandexpecttheirgovernmentstoworktogethertoensurethat
thepoliciesandprogramsthatdefinemedicareremaintruetothesevalues.182
Equity,fairnessandsolidarityarethefoundingvaluesofCanada’smedicare.Canadians
supportuniversalaccesstoprimaryhealthcareservicesbasedonmedicalneed,notthe
abilitytopay.AlthoughCanadiansarenotindifferentaboutthemedicarebenefitsandcosts,
wewanttoliveinasocietythateveryonefeelsobligatedtocareforthesickandtheinjured.
182Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada,xvi.
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AsRawls,oneofthemostimportantpoliticalphilosophersofthe20thcentury,suggests,
“Injusticeasfairnessmenagreetoshareoneanother’sfate.Indesigninginstitutionsthey
undertaketoavailthemselvesoftheaccidentsofnatureandsocialcircumstancesonly
whendoingsoisforthecommonbenefit.”183Canadianvaluesfosterahighlevelofsecurity,
stabilityandsocialcooperationinthesociety.Everymemberofthesocietycanexpectafair
opportunitytoleadadecentlife.Canadiancitizenshipistheenvyofmanypeopleinthe
world.
IaskiftheexclusionofTCMfrominsuredhealthservicecontradictsthecorevaluesof
medicare?Thereisnoconsensusonthedefinitionsofequity,fairnessorsolidarityin
medicare.184, 185, 186Lanoixexplainsthatequityistiedtonon-discrimination,fairness
relatestotheadequacyofmedicalservicesandtheprincipleofsolidaritypointstoashared
goal.187Itakethelibertytoapplyherinterpretationsinthefollowingdiscussion.My
argumentisthatiftheexclusionofTCMfrominsuredhealthservicecontradictsanyoneof
theaboveinterpretations,theexclusionisnotjustified.
Ifoundanexampleofinequityintheacupuncturetreatmentforphysicalrehabilitation.
Acupuncturetreatmentisacommontherapyinphysicalrehabilitation.Ifapatientreceives
acupuncturetreatmentfromaphysicianornurseinahospital,thetreatmentisdeemed183JohnRawls,ATheoryofJustice,2ndprinting..(Cambridge,Mass.:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1972),102.184Romanow,BuildingonValuestheFutureofHealthCareinCanada.185Daniels,JustHealthCare.186Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’.187MoniqueLanoix,‘NoLongerHomeAlone?HomeCareandtheCanadaHealthAct’,HealthCareAnalysis25,no.2(1June2017):177–82,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10728-016-0336-0.
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medicallynecessaryandiscoveredundermedicare.However,ifapatientreceivesthe
sameacupuncturetreatmentfromaphysiotherapistorTCMpractitionerinaprivateclinic,
thetreatmentisexcludedfrominsuredhealthserviceofmedicare.Thepatientwillhaveto
payout-of-pocketexpenses.Ifequityistiedtonon-discrimination,thenthediscrimination
ofproviderintheacupuncturetreatmentcontradictstheprincipleofequity.Thereis
similardiscriminationintheprivatehealthinsurancesector.Withsomeprivatehealth
insuranceplans,apatientwhopaysforacupuncturetreatmentsperformedbyaphysician
ornursewillbereimbursed.However,underthesameprivatehealthinsuranceplans,
anotherpatientwhopaysforthesameacupuncturetreatmentperformedbyaTCM
practitionerwillnotbereimbursed.Butprivatehealthplansareoutsidethescopeofmy
discussionhere.
Conventionalmedicinedoesnotalwaysworkforeverypatient.Somepatientsmay
experienceseveresideeffectsandsomemaynotrespondsufficientlytothemedicine.
ThereareexamplesfromtheverbatimresponsesinthesurveyinsectionII.The
participantswrote:
• “veryeffectiveforcervicaldystoniaincombinationwithBotoxthatIreceiveatCivic
Hospital”
• “Becausemymotherdiditinthepast.SoIdecidetotrybecauseIwastakingtoo
muchpainkiller.Now,Ireduced3/4ofmypainkiller.Myhandsarenolonger
swellinginthemorning,IhavemoreenergyandIfeelbetterinmybody.”
• “BecauseI'vehadsuccesswithitinthepastfortreatmentofmychronicpain
condition.”
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• “Ibelieveinanaturalwayofhealingdiseases.IamnotagainstWesternmedicine,
butthroughmyexperience,TCMhelpsmealotofregainingmystrengthand
generalhealth.”
Forthesepatients,TCMisaneffectivecomplementarymedicinetotheconventional
medicine.Iffairnessrelatestotheadequacyofmedicalservices,medicareshouldrecognize
theirhealthneedsofusingTCMasacomplementarymedicine.Theconceptsofhealth
needsarenotmerelymedicalnecessityasintheCanadaHealthAct.188, 189,190TheRoyal
CollegeofPhysiciansandSurgeonsofCanadaconsidersahealthneedtobethegap
betweenacurrentstateofhealthandadesirablestateofhealth.191Apatient-perceived
healthneedcanhintanunfilledgapbyourconventionalhealthcare.Itpromptsquestions
suchas“whatcausesthegap”and“howdoweclosethegap?”
Inherpolicyreport,Floodrecommendsthat“anadditionalcategoryofcoverageshouldbe
considered,onalimitedandexperimentalbasis,forenhancedalternativestoservices
withinthepubliccore,offeredonaprivatebasiswithinacloselyregulatedframework.”192
EveniftheTCMtreatmentsforthesepatientsinthisnewcategorymayincursomeout-of-
pocketexpenses,itisanimportantsteptorecognizetheirhealthneeds.Inaddition,
patientswithspecialhealthneedsmaybemoredesperateandthereforeespecially188John R Wilkinson and Scott A Murray, ‘Assessment in Primary Care: Practical Issues and Possible Approaches’, BMJ : British Medical Journal 316, no. 7143 (16 May 1998): 1524–28.189John Wright, Rhys Williams, and John R Wilkinson, ‘Development and Importance of Health Needs Assessment’, BMJ : British Medical Journal 316, no. 7140 (25 April 1998): 1310–13.190QualityImprovementandInnovationPartnership,‘NeedsAssessmentResourceGuideforFamilyHealthTeams’,January2009,www.qiip.ca.191TheRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansandSurgeonsofCanadaandLisaLittleConsulting,‘DefiningSocietalHealthNeedsRoyalCollegeDefinitionandGuide’,April2012,royalcollege.ca.192Floodetal.,‘DefiningtheMedicare“Basket”’,4.
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vulnerabletounethicalpractice.HavingtheirTCMtreatmentscoveredundera“closely
regulatedframework”isbeneficialtovulnerablepatients.Forexample,theframeworkcan
mandatetheimplementationofthedeliberativemodelforTCMpractitioner-patient
relationshipasdiscussedinsectionIII.
Theaccessto“medicallynecessary”hospitalandphysicianservicesshouldbebasedon
medicalneed,nottheabilitytopay.193Ifsolidaritypointstoasharedgoal,thecommongoal
isthatanyonewhoneedsamedicaltreatmentwillgetthemedicaltreatment,andall
membersofoursocietysharethecosts.ForthosewhosupportTCM,imaginereplacing
“medicaltreatment”by“TCMtreatment”inthepreviousstatement.Itistheidealsolution
forequalaccesstoTCMinCanada.However,forthetimebeing,accesstoTCMcarecanbe
difficultforsomeTCMpatients.AparticipantinthesurveyofsectionIIwrotethe
following:
AsIamamicabletoholisticapproachestomedicine,IfindthatTCMhelpsmy
physicalailmentstremendously.However,oneofthebiggestissuesis
mainstreammedicinenotacceptingorbelievinginTCMandinsurance
companiesnotprovidinganycoverageforsuchtreatments.Thesetwoareasare
themostfrustratingwhichdecreasesmychancestoseekTCMtreatments.
Ideally,evenifnotevidence-based,mainstreamdoctorsandinsurersshouldgive
theirpatients/clientsthefreedomtochooseortoseektreatmentsthathelp
themfeelbetterorhealfaster.
193Floodetal.,i.
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PerhapsthisshouldpromptustoaskwhatkindofTCMcommunitiesdowewantto
developintheinterim?IfsolidarityexistsinaTCMcommunity,thenitshouldimplythat
themembersgetunitedandorganizeaTCMcommunityclinictoassistthosewhoneed
TCMtreatmentbutcannotaffordit.
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Conclusion
Non-evidence-basedmedicineisnottheequivalentofnoevidenceorshammedicine.
Nevertheless,non-evidence-basedmedicineimpliescertainclinicalrealitiesand
constraints.Inthisthesis,IfocusedontheTCMethicalissuesthatareparticularlyrelated
tothenatureofnon-evidence-basedmedicine.Inapplyingtheethicalframeworkof
principlism,IidentifiedthreepotentialethicalissuesinthepracticeofTCMinCanada.I
alsomadesuggestionstoresolvethem.
InresearchinghowtoenableTCMpatientstomakeamoreinformeddecisiontouseTCM,I
conductedanempiricalstudy.ThestudyexaminedtheimpactofTCMbeingnon-evidence-
basedmedicineonparticipants’decision-making.Itusesqualitativeanalysisandthe
resultshasnostatisticalpowertomakegeneralizationbeyondthesmallsample.Among
theparticipants,theawarenessofTCMbeingnon-evidence-basedmedicineiscorrelated
withtheexperienceofusingTCM:
• ParticipantswhohadmoreTCMexperiencewereoftenawareofTCMbeingnon-
evidence-based.Butthisknowledgehadlittleimpactonthedecisionofthisgroupto
useTCM.Itisimportanttoconscientiouslyremindthisgroupofpatientstobalance
thepotentialbenefitsofTCMwiththeuncertainties.
• ParticipantswithlessexperiencewithTCMshowedlessawarenessofTCMbeing
non-evidence-based.Theyalsoexpressedmoreconsiderationsofrisksinadditionto
thebenefitsofusingTCM.TheexplicitdisclosureofTCMbeingnon-evidence-based
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medicinewouldbematerialtotheirdecisiontouseTCM.Therefore,thenon-
evidence-baseddisclosureshouldbepartoftheinformedconsentprocessforthis
groupbeforetreatment.ItcanhelpthenewTCMpatientstomakeamoreinformed
decisionandsettherightexpectationofTCMaccordingly.
• Themajorityofparticipantsprioritizedtheprinciplesofbeneficenceover
nonmaleficenceinTCM.TheTCMpatientsamongtheparticipantstendedto
prioritizethepotentialbenefitsovertherisksofusingTCM.Thispatient
characteristicpointstothevulnerabilitytounethicalpractice.
• SomeparticipantsofthesurveyindicatedtheirneedstouseTCMtocomplement
conventionalmedicine.Mysmallsurveysuggeststhatalargerscaleresearchto
studyabiggerpopulationisfeasibleandnecessary.ItisimperativeformoreTCM
practitionerstoconductempiricalstudiesintheircommunitiestounderstandthe
needsandexpectationsofTCMpatients.ThepotentialfindingscanhelptheTCM
practitionerstoimprovethequalityofTCMcare.
ThesafetyandefficacyofTCMinCanadarelyontheethicalstandardsandcompetencyof
TCMpractitioners.Emphasisonmoralcultivationandtheidealpractitioner-patient
relationshipmodelinTCMeducationcaneffectivelypromotehighTCMstandardsof
practiceforthelong-term.TheTCMeducationsystemshouldconsidertheintegrationof
theteacher-apprenticelearningmodelintotheinstitutionalmodel.Besidesbeingeffective
inethicseducation,theteacher-apprenticelearningmodelalsopromotesstudentselection,
intensiveclinicalpracticeandcanfacilitateTCMcontinuingeducationamongpractitioners.
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Thecurrentdecision-makingframeworkformedicare’sinsuredhealthserviceisnot
adequate.Thecoverageofmedicareserviceisnotnecessarilyfairtoday.Withrespectto
whetherTCMshouldbeaninsuredhealthservice,utilitarianismpointstotheneedfor
cost-benefitanalysisandmedicalopportunitycostforthejustificationofTCMcoverage.
EquityandfairnessjustifytheconsiderationofsomecoverageofTCMcareasa
complementarymedicinetotheconventionalhealthcare.SolidaritypromptsTCM
communitiestoorganizecommunityclinicsinordertoofferaffordableTCMcareinthe
interim.
NotwithstandingthatTCMisnon-evidence-basedmedicineandhasqualitycontrolissues,
TCMpractitionerswitnessevidencethatsupportsthebenefitsofTCMinhealthcare.The
surveyofsectionIIshowedsomeexamples.Althoughthesamplesizeissmall,thedata
indicatethatsomehealthneedscanbemetbyTCMasacomplementarymedicine.Itis
imperativeforresearchersandclinicianstofurtherinvestigatethebestTCMpracticesand
mostproductivewayforTCMtocomplementtheconventionalhealthcare.Ihavesuggested
severalresearchareasthatareworthyoffurtherinvestigationsbutoutsidethescopeof
thisthesis:
• TheneedsandexpectationofTCMpatientsacrossCanada
• GuidelinesandmethodsforTCMpractitionerstoperformduediligenceonTCM
therapies
• Cost-benefitanalysisandmedicalopportunitycostanalysisforthecommonTCM
therapiesinCanada
TheresearchfindingsmayhelpimprovethequalityofTCMcareinCanada.
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Inthecontextofmoraltheory,MacIntyreassertsthat:
...atraditionissustainedandadvancedbyitsowninternalargumentsandconflicts.
Andevenifsomelargepartsofmyinterpretationcouldnotwithstandcriticism,the
demonstrationofthiswoulditselfstrengthenthetraditionwhichIamattemptingto
sustainandtoextend.194
Byputtingforwardmythoughtsandsuggestionsinthisthesis,Iintendtocontinuethe
researchanddevelopmentofTCMinCanada.
194AlasdairC.MacIntyre,AfterVirtue:AStudyinMoralTheory,3rded..(NotreDame,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDamePress,2007),260.
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AppendixASurveyPackage
AppendixAcontainsfouritems:
• TheSaintPaulUniversityResearchEthicsBoardapproval(REBFileNumber:
1360.6/17)certificate
• Theinvitationlettertosurveyparticipants
• Theimpliedconsentformtosurveyparticipants
• Thequestionnairetosurveyparticipants
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Bureau de la recherche et de la déontologie Office of Research and Ethics
Université Saint Paul University | 223, Main Ottawa (Ontario) Canada K1S 1C4 613 236-1393 Télécopie / Fax 613 782-3005
1/1
03-10-2017 dd-mm-yyyy
Ethics Certificate Research Ethics Board (REB)
REB File Number 1360.6/17 Principal Investigator / Thesis supervisor / Co-investigators / Student
Last name Name Affiliation Role
Fok Winnie Faculty of Philosophy Student-Principal Investigator
Lanoix Monique Faculty of Philosophy Thesis Supervisor Type of project MA Thesis Title An Insider View of Ethical Issues in Traditional Chinese Medicine in Canada
Approval date Expiry Date Decision
03-10-2017 02-10-2018 1 (approved) (dd-mm-yyyy) (dd-mm-yyyy)
Committee comments:
The Research Ethics Board (REB) approved the project. The researcher is invited to use the reference number 1360.6/17 when recruiting participants.
In accordance with the Tri-Council Policy Statement, the Saint Paul University Research Ethics Board has examined and approved the application for an ethics certificate for this project for the period indicated and subject to the conditions listed above. The research protocol may not be modified without prior written approval from the REB. This includes, among others, the extension of the research, additional recruitment for the inclusion of new participants, changes in location of the fieldwork, any stage where a research permit is required, such as work in schools. Minor administrative changes are allowed.
The REB must be notified of all changes or unanticipated circumstances that have a serious impact on the conduct of the research, that relate to the risk to participants and their safety. Modifications to the project, information, consent and recruitment documentation must be submitted to the Office of Research and Ethics for approval by the REB.
The investigator must submit a report four weeks prior to the expiry date of the certificate stated above requesting an extension or that the file be closed.
Documents relating to publicity, recruitment and consent of participants should bear the file number of the certificate. They must also indicate the coordinates of the investigator should participants have questions related to the research project. In which case, the documents will refer to the Chair of the REB and provide the coordinates of the Office of Research and Ethics.
Signature
Louis Perron Chair Research Ethics Board (REB)
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