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© U N E S C O Institute for Education, 2001 ISBN 92-820-1113-5
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Foreword
U N D E R T A K I N G RESEARCH on lifelong learning is one of main areas of
work of the U N E S C O Institute of Education (UIE). Starting in 1972 w h e n
the Governing Board approved this orientation, UIE continues to pursue
the study of lifelong learning in cooperation with policymakers, educa
tors and researchers all over the world. This mandate takes on a more
urgent note as learning throughout life is deemed to be crucial in surviv
ing the rapid societal changes in the 21st century. Individuals need to
learn key life and survival skills; they need to learn h o w to process fast
changing information to relevant knowledge; and w o m e n and m e n need
to learn h o w to live together in a world made smaller by globalization
processes.
The elucidation of a conceptual framework of lifelong learning which
is grounded on concrete practices across the globe is primarily assigned
to our Cluster I: Learning Throughout Life In Different Cultural C o n
texts: From Laying Foundation to Strengthening Creative Participation.
This cluster has the following objectives: 1) to review and assess the state
of the art of lifelong learning policies and practices in as m a n y regions in
the world as possible; 2) to discuss and analyze key issues, themes, initia
tives and n e w horizons of lifelong learning that need to be integrated
into the framework; and 3) to disseminate information about the frame
work and conceptual analysis through appropriate channels.
In line with the first two objectives, a three-day expert meeting was
organized in Chiangmai, Thailand in December 2000. Bringing together
policy-makers, educators , researchers and N G O s from China, Japan,
Malaysia, Philippines, South Korea, and Thailand, the meeting 1) reviewed
m
the existing discourses, policies and practices on lifelong learning in the
above mentioned countries; 2) applied a gender perspective in the re
view; and 3) proposed specific areas of work in the future.
During the meeting, the presentation of papers was complemented
by a rich exchange of ideas and experiences, with a sharp analysis of the
similarities and differences, as its conclusion. Yet, even as similar discourses
and practices were identified, the need to contextualize and situate re
mains a primary task in the elaboration of a lifelong learning framework.
For example, the pursuit of the Education for A U (EFA) goals was always
in the background of the presentation of some participants. It w a s clear
that there is yet no Asian perspective on lifelong learning, instead w e
have specific country perspectives, which still could be unpacked to re
veal multiple perspectives. Clearly, too, a gender perspective on lifelong
learning still needs to be articulated.
This publication is an attempt to capture the diverse discourses and
practices in these countries, with a caution that this is not comprehen
sive. Organized in the form of a primer, this booklet summarizes in a
readily accessible form, the m a n y questions and issues raised vis-à-vis
lifelong learning. While it tries to answer most of the questions, the book
let is also meant to facilitate reflection and to raise more questions. W e
hope that by disseminating the rich experience of the Chiangmai meet
ing, w e are able to stimulate more debates and dialogues on the potentials
of lifelong learning, which could then enlighten existing as well as future
practices of learning throughout life.
O u r heartfelt thanks go to the participants of Chiangmai: Eun Soon
Baik, C h a n Lean H e n g , Preeyanuch Jaruyavidyanont, Gerald Joseph,
M a d y a Molly Lee, Rosario de G u z m a n , Takafumi Miyake , Suvit
Pichayasathit, Dhora Rojas, Zhang Tiedao, whose inputs constitute the
basis for this publication. W e are likewise pleased that w e are co-publish
ing this with the Asia-Pacific Programme for Education for All (APPEAL)
of the U N E S C O Principal Regional Office in Asia and Pacific (PROAP) ,
our main U N E S C O partner in the region.
Clarifying the lifelong learning framework entails examining exist-
IV
ing discourses — their philosophical, policy and cognitive underpinnings
— and reflecting on existing practices..This is not an easy task given the
multiplicity of actors and agencies. But it is a challenge that UIE has
taken to heart and is very m u c h a part of our work. •
A d a m a Ouane
Director, U N E S C O Institute for Education
v
Introduction
T H E M O S T POPULATED REGION in the world, Asia is also the most di
verse. Highly industrialized nations exist side by side predominantly ru
ral countries. There are large income gaps a m o n g the countries as well as
within these nations. There are big cities at the same time that there are
large rural populations. In China for example, 900 million out of the 1.2
billion people live in rural areas. Asians practice different faiths from Is
lam, Buddhism, Christianity to Hinduism. They belong to hundreds of
ethnic communities and speak different languages. The range of colonizers
from the Americans, Dutch, English, French, Portuguese to the Spanish
have likewise left specific imprints on the ways of life of the Asians. In
terms of access to education, millions of Asians are able to finish tertiary
education while there are îillions and millions more, majority of them
w o m e n , w h o are unable to read and write.
To appreciate the landscape of lifelong learning in the region, one
then has to contextualize the description and analysis in the diversity of
the region. In the 21ST century where processes of regionalization and
globalization have a tendency to homogenize countries, the specific
economic, political and social characteristics continue to mediate in the
forms and characteristics lifelong learning takes in the region. A s a
preliminary reflection and analysis, this report is not exhaustive. It
attempts to describe some discourses and practices of lifelong learning —
some similar, some different — not to generalize but to allow for a nuanced
understanding of h o w lifelong learning is proceeding in the region. In the
framework of dissemination of good practices, this booklet is aimed at
encouraging policy makers, educators, and researchers to reflect on their
1
o w n realities in the light of these practices, and to consider h o w lifelong
learning could truly be maximized in their respective contexts to
transform societies.
By organizing this report in terms of Frequently Asked Questions
(FAQ), it is expected to respond to the c o m m o n concerns and issues raised
vis-à-vis lifelong learning.
H o w is lifelong learning understood in Asia?
A s a principle of learning throughout all the phases of life, lifelong
learning is not n e w to the region. It is embedded in belief systems of
m a n y indigenous communities as well as recognized philosophies as
Confucianism. While this seemed to be a c o m m o n sensical principle and
therefore easy to implement, in fact, it did not translate to equal access
of learning opportunities to all. S o m e Chinese for example, consider Con
fucianism's principle of lifelong learning to be limited to the elite and
catered to the formation of bureaucrats. Analysis of histories of coun
tries in the region also show that w o m e n did not benefit from the same
learning opportunities the m e n had access to.
Today lifelong learning is used interchangeably with lifelong educa
tion and has a range of connotations. For example, in South Korea, where
lifelong learning is quite well k n o w n to the people, the term is also used
to denote social education, lifelong education or non-formal education
aside from the usual association with school education. In Thailand, life
long education means integration of formal, non-formal, and informal
education. S o m e use lifelong learning to refer to adult education and other
forms of non-formal education. O n the other hand, the principle of life
long learning is integral to the work of m a n y non-government organiza
tions ( N G O s ) but is not labeled as such.
Meanwhile, a study on adult education in Asia and Pacific which
attempted to m a p adult education activities in the region considers life
long learning as the highest stage of the continuum of adult education
program types. [Figure 1]
2
Figure 1
Country Activities Along a Continuum of Adult Education Program Types
Myanmar Uzbekistan Malaysia Japan China Papua N e w Guinea
India Nepal Indonesia Thailand Korea
Afghanistan Philippines Laos Vietnam
Source: Adult Education in Asia and the Pacific: Policies, Issues, and Trends 1997
It is also evident that the use of terminology lifelong learning has
been influenced by the U N E S C O Delors Report of 1996. A cursory re
view of the literature shows that m a n y refer to the four pillars of learn
ing: to know, to be, to do, and to live together. W h a t is clear is that life
long learning as an educational principle in not uniformly understood
and is still highly contested. It seems there is very little discussion on the
distinction of the shift from lifelong education to lifelong learning. So
far, one difference that has been identified is that education is more
teacher-oriented, while learning is learner-oriented.
Given the wide range of understanding and usage of lifelong learn
ing, the challenge ahead remains that of clarifying the concepts and
principles that ate being used in relation to lifelong learning. Should
lifelong learning be used to denote educational activities done in rich
countries while literacy is to be used to describe basic education for adults¿
O r should w e look at literacy as laying the foundation so that people
could continuously learn, and therefore, as a component of lifelong learn-
ing¿ A s one of the more fashionable education terms in the 21ST cen
tury, it is tempting to use lifelong learning indiscriminately. At this point,
3
perhaps it useful to distinguish between lifelong learning as a principle of
learning throughout the life cycle and in different areas (lifelong and
lifewide) and lifelong learning "as a master concept for educational poli
cies" [Faure, 1972] which will treat education holistically and integrate
all stages and forms of education.
Table 1
Types of Institutions
1
2 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12 13
14
Educational and Training Institute for Government Vocational Training Center In-Service Center for Industrial Educational Private Tutoring Institution and General Lifelong Education Institute Lifelong Education Institute Affiliated with Schools at Local Level
Lifelong Education Institute as Supplementary School System Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for Youths Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for W o m e n
Lifelong Education Institute and Agency for Senior Citizens Institutions and Facilities for Individuals on Social Welfare Lifelong Education Institute as a Culture Center Counseling Institution Academic Association and Research Institution Public Agency and Civic Association
Total
N u m b e r of Institutions
195
510 769
99,442
10,464
2,794
5,298
202
42,068
18,075
13,866
1,053 5,843
6,975
207,554
N u m b e r of
Trainees per Year 1,031,982
481,595 3,754,100
9,076,055
3,590,955
1,008,598
555,733
320,590
-
-
-
--
-
-
Representative type
In service Training
--
Private learning institute (Hak Won) University extension program, School-based non-formal education Supplementary schooling
Lifelong education by N G O
- Education for women and elderly - Lifelong education by N G O Lifelong education by N G O
Lifelong education by N G O
Culture center (museum, library, art gallery) --
- Social organization - Civic organization
Source: White Paper on Lifelong Education, 1999, pp. 542-545, as cited in Eun Soon Baik.
4
To appreciate the South Korean thinking on lifelong learning, Types
of Educational Institutions of Lifelong Education, is presented in Table 1
to show the range of activities considered as lifelong education.
W h y is lifelong learning so popular now?
T w o of the most often cited reasons for the importance of lifelong
learning is for people to keep pace with the speed of development of
information and knowledge and for people to learn n e w skills in rapidly
changing societies. These reasons also hold true for Asia. Given the social
and economic context, there are even additional objectives lifelong learn
ing is expected to achieve.
For example, the National Technical Education and Skill Develop
ment Plan of the Philippines considers global competitiveness, rural de
velopment, and social integration as major factors to bear in mind in
their technical education and skills development programs which are con
sidered part of lifelong learning. In Japan, a government policy paper on
lifelong learning (Future Social Education Policy in Response to Chang
ing Society) recommends concrete measures to ensure the adult's right
to learning in the face of rapid social changes.
In China's context, the government is committed to empower rural
villagers with n e w technologies and to promote the entrepreneurial ca
pacities of the rural communities and such capacity building is lifelong
learning. The theme of empowerment , this time for w o m e n is also an
important reason for the Department of Non-Formal Education (DNFE)
of Thailand for pursuing lifelong education strategies. This means that
w o m e n should not only be learning to earn a living but also learning to
be good citizens and to attain a high quality of life.
Meanwhile from the N G O s point of view, lifelong learning could be
maximized to address global issues like environmental degradation, pov
erty, h u m a n rights violations, conflict, and war. Furthermore they argue
that the primary objectives of lifelong learning should be to empower
people, promote citizen's participation, and to enhance their capacity to
solve problems.
5
In m a n y countries, lifelong learning takes on an urgent tone w h e n it
is considered a means of poverty alleviation. The argument is that large
sections of the region's population need to learn n e w knowledge and
skills which will allow them to have access to more economic opportuni
ties. The importance of being able to utilize n e w information and c o m
munication technologies (ICTs) is also a key factor cited in need to learn
n e w skills. It is clear that in Asia lifelong learning is expected to address
survival and development issues through n e w knowledge and acquisi
tion of n e w skills.
While the economic reasons for lifelong learning continue to domi
nate, there are also other perspectives in valuing lifelong learning . Aside
from the empowerment discourse and the citizenship and democracy
imperative, there is also the view of lifelong learning as a means to recon
struct a n e w set of values that are more humane or to reinterpret values
to address gender inequality.
Given the severe economic conditions Asian families, communities
and societies are facing, it is only logical to gear lifelong learning to help
solve these problems. The challenge is to go beyond the economistic
discourse and to enlarge the scope of the contribution of lifelong
learning to address identity and values formation, promote citizenship
education, facilitate democratic participation and help in conflict
resolution. A s our region is confronting political strife, low political
participation, various forms of gender marginalization and oppression
and host of other non-economic problems, it is urgent to address the
non-economic dimensions of lifelong learning so that it could genuinely
contribute to the transformation of individuals, relationships,
communities and societies.
Is policy advocacy for lifelong learning still necessary?
In a region where m a n y countries put a premium on learning and
education, is it still necessary to advocate for policies of lifelong learning
in Asia¿ The legal framework is critical in providing impetus and resources
for any societal endeavor, education included. A cursory review of some
6
of these shows that in fact there are four kinds of laws/policies in sup
port of lifelong learning. First is the one that promotes wider access to
education which usually refers to provision through schools. T h e 1997
Constitution of Thailand for example affirms educational equality for
both sexes and provides for the right of citizens to basic education for 12
years for free. In Malaysia, lengthening basic education from 9 to 11 years
and democratization of secondary education were already in place in the
1980s. A clear difference here is that the Thai provision specifies gender
equality for educational access.
There is also that law/policy which provides for the recognition and
promotion of other forms of education other than that of formal educa
tion. Article Xiy Section 2 (4) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, for
instance, declares "The State shall encourage non-formal, informal and
indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning independent and out
of school study programmes particularly those that respond to c o m m u
nity needs". This is further operationalized in the Education for All Phil
ippine Plan of Action 2000 which emphasizes the need to develop non-
formal literacy and continuing education programs especially to meet
the educational needs of the poor and under-served communities. The
Lifelong Education Act of South Korea promulgated in 1999 likewise pro
motes out of school education, non-regular school education and adult
and continuing education. In China, the 1995 Education L a w encourages
all kinds of adult learning to allow citizens to have access training to
programmes in the areas of political studies, economics, culture, tech
nologies, specialized education and lifelong education. The Ministry of
Education of China has also listed the promotion of national lifelong
learning system as top priority for educational development, with inten
sive investment in distance learning throughout the country.
T h e third kind goes beyond recognition of other forms of education
by promoting the integration of all types of education. For example, Thai
land's Education Act of 1999 commits to providing literacy services and
institutionalization of credit transferring for formal, non-formal, and in
formal education where lifelong education is seen as the promoter of the
integration of such types of education.
7
The final type is one that provides the framework for setting up
specific structures in support of lifelong learning. In Japan, as lifelong
learning has become a key priority, the Bureau of Social Education which
had a low profile in the Ministry of Education was changed to the B u
reau of Lifelong Learning, which assumed greater importance. South Korea
meanwhile has the Lifelong Learning Policy Division under Ministry of
Education, which works closely with the National Center for Lifelong
Education under the Korean Education Development Institute (KEDI).
The legal and institutional framework for lifelong learning varies from
country to country and is heavily influenced by a range of factors a m o n g
which are the leadership's perspective and vision of lifelong learning, the
existing educational needs and the educational infrastructure, the re
sources available and even, access to existing good practices lifelong learn
ing in the region or in other parts of the world.
A s the legal and institutional framework is key in providing a
facultative environment for the implementation of lifelong learning, it is
imperative that laws and policies are put in place. Ensuring broad access
to education, recognizing other forms of education other than the for
mal type, promoting the integration of all forms of learning and setting
up structures are critical elements of a ''lifelong learning friendly" policy.
The challenge in the realm of policy advocacy is to hold policy
dialogues with the broadest possible number of stakeholders to ensure
that different concerns are taken into consideration. To broaden
indicates reaching out to the previously unreached like w o m e n , poor
sectors of society, indigenous communities, and students with special
needs. Broadening here also implies having discussions with government,
N G O s , private sectors, and multilateral agencies. It also means going
beyond those in the education sector as lifelong learning also takes place
in ministries of labor, social development, environment, agriculture, and
so on. The articulation of current educational systems should be matched
by the incorporation of a lifelong learning perspective in the non-education
sectors.
The Japanese N G O s work is illustrative of the last point. The Japan
8
N G O Forum on the Asian Development Bank (ADB) initiated a policy
dialogue with A D B in relation to adult education and lifelong learning.
A m o n g its recommendations are the following: 1) educational needs
should be addressed in all ADB-funded projects and programs where guide
lines for adult education and training and a mechanism to allocate ap
propriate budgets are in place; 2) A D B should not only give priorities to
adult education as practiced both in the formal and non-formal sectors
as part of its policies to facilitate h u m a n development, but also encour
age recipient countries to emphasize projects in the education sector; 3)
A D B should extend its support for capacity building activities from the
government level to the local government; and 4) as adult and/or lifelong
education projects do not immediately produce economic returns for in
vestments, special grants rather than loans should be approved to sup
port educational aspects of development.
H o w do w e bridge the gap between formal and non-formal education?
In all Asian societies, formal education is still considered the primary
and most important means of education. In m a n y cases, non-formal edu
cation is not considered as education at all. The marginalization of the
non-formal system goes against the grain of the educational principle of
lifelong learning, where schools are considered to be only one of the pos
sible sites of learning and education. If societies are to shift to a truly
lifelong learning perspective in education, there must be a recognition
that other sectors equally matter and therefore should be allocated ap
propriate resources. To bridge the gap between the formal and non-for
mal system, the first step is to recognize the key role of the non-formal,
whether it be in providing for literacy classes or in continuing education.
The second phase is to strengthen non-formal education so it does not
continue to be a weak partner of formal education but instead functions
as its equal.
In South Korea, the Credit Bank System (CBS) was established in
1998 as a means of providing all citizens with greater access to various
9
educational opportunities and to foster a lifetime of learning. In the C B S ,
the students acquire credits by accomplishing programs at educational
and vocational training institutions, enrolling as part-time students in
colleges or universities, acquiring various national certificates, and pass
ing the bachelor degree examination program for the self-educated. The
long-term goal of the C B S is to raise the overall standards and status of
the non-formal education sector as a vital means for promoting educa
tional self-achievement and guaranteeing the global competitiveness of
the South Korean population. It is important to point out that South
Korea has one of the highest attendance rates for tertiary education in
the region, yet the government has decided to embark on this program as
a concrete w a y of realizing its vision of open and lifelong learning.
In contrast to the C B S which caters to the tertiary level of educa
tion, the Philippine example is addressed to the elementary and second
ary levels. The Non-Formal Education (NFE) Accreditation and Equiva
lency (A&E) system was launched in 1999 as an alternative means of
certification of learning to those w h o are unable to avail of formal school
system or those w h o have dropped out of elementary and secondary
school. Developed by the Bureau of Non-Formal Education (BNFE) as an
alternative learning system (ALS), one of its challenges is to overcome
the social bias so deeply rooted in Filipino culture that any learning expe
rience, opportunity and pathway outside of the formal school system is
considered second class, inferior or inadequate.
The N F E A & E system has four core components — the curriculum
framework, learning materials, learning support delivery system, and ac
creditation and equivalency testing. The curriculum framework contains
a learning continuum of essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values
desired for non-formal basic education, which are designed to be compa
rable to the formal school system. The learning materials are based on
the curriculum framework, designed to provide learning support to the
learners. There are presently 152 learning modules, facilitators guides, 10
audio tapes and print and non-print supplementary materials for elemen
tary and secondary levels. The learning support delivery system includes
utilization of N F E materials and a range of learning support strategies,
10
structures and delivery modes, such as instructional managers, learning
group sessions, peer learning, learning centers, among others, in prepara
tion of taking the N F E A & E tests. Finally, the accreditation and equiva
lency testing, based on the curriculum framework, is designed to provide
two levels of certification of learning achievements comparable to el
ementary and secondary system. Once a learner successfully passes the
test, he/she will receive an elementary or secondary certificate.
Another system of accreditation is that of the Philippine Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) equivalency pro
gram. It provides a system for assessing competencies gained from life
experiences, work experiences, self-study, and other means related to cor
responding equivalents in formal technical education and skills develop
ment programs. By doing so, it provides an alternative for out-of-school
youth and adults to earn an educational qualification comparable to post
secondary level system, and enables its graduates to gain access to higher
education program equivalents. Under a M e m o r a n d u m of Understand
ing ( M O U ) , T E S D A and B N F E allow holders of secondary certificates
obtained through the N F E and A & E to enroll in T E S D programs and
acquire technical qualifications for career development.
Meanwhile in Thailand, the Education Act of 1999 paved the w a y
for the establishment of an equivalency system which addresses primary
compulsory education up to the university level. It stipulated that "cred
its accumulated by learners shall be transferable within the same type or
between different types of education, regardless of whether the credits
have been accumulated from the same or different educational institu
tion, including learning from non-formal or informal education, voca
tional training and from work experience".
The recognition and accreditation of prior learning (RPL, APL) , as a
strategy for bridging the gap between the formal and non-formal sector,
needs to be monitored and evaluated. Even as it is a recent development
in the countries mentioned, there are already concerns raised in its im
plementation — e.g. that it is simply the formalization of non-formal
education, that quality of education is difficult to guarantee, that it is
trying to promote mass education without the infrastructure of the school
11
system, and so on. A s the notions of R P L and A P L are gaining ground in
the region, it is important that lessons from their implementation are
collected, analyzed, and disseminated.
Another w a y of bridging the gap between the formal and non-for
mal system is exemplified by the work of the Department of Non-For
mal Education (DNFE) of Thailand. O n e of its tasks is to cooperate and
render support to the formal schooling system by providing learning and
teaching activities for those attending the formal schools in terms of
educational technologies, such as educational radio and television pro
grammes, satellite distance education programmes, as well as exhibitions
of science and technology.
The Chinese government, as early as the 1980s was implementing
the "integrated development of agriculture, science/technology and edu
cation", which, in simplest terms, meant disseminating relevant scien
tific knowledge and productive technologies among rural community
members, especially to those educated youths, by all means of educa
tion, either formally, non-formally or informally.
In the end, most countries in the region place heavy emphasis on
formal education since learning and education are widely believed to be
taking place mostly in schools. Consequently the value of non-formal
education remains underestimated and the learning of the people in dif
ferent fields, unrecognized. The challenge in bridging the gap between
the formal and non-formal system is to encourage more dialogues be
tween the sectors where marginalization of the non-format has to be
addressed. In our present times of competing resources, this is not ex
actly an easy task but it is a necessary step for the process of integration
to slowly begin.
H o w about informal learning?
The Thai government has one of the most explicit pronouncements
about the importance of informal learning in the perspective of lifelong
learning. Informal education opportunities for self learning are available
12
in institutional learning centers (e.g. libraries, museums , science and tech
nology centers, community learning centers, agricultural offices, health
offices), cultural learning resources (temples, local wisdoms, local and
folk media, parks), mass media (radio, television, newspapers, books) and
social activity (learning from families, friends and societies).
The Department of Non-Formal Education is specifically assigned to
promote the above informal education activities. Under this task, the
D N F E encourages the people to learn by themselves continuously by
visiting these different sites of education. A m o n g the operational units
of the D N F E is the Informal Education Promotion Center which ensures
that informal learning is easily accessible to the people and their
communities.
Meanwhile Japanese N G O s assert that they provide unique infor
mal learning opportunities. There are possibilities to learn about social
issues (which are not taught in the schools or community centers) where
the methodologies are more participatory. In fact, the Education Minis
try has included N G O s in the "fourth space" in reference to its role in
providing learning opportunities (the first space is the family, the second
is the community, and the third is schools).
While informal learning is the least subsidized by governments, it
might be in fact the most dominant space for learning. In this age of easy
access to information and communication technology, the young people
of today are spending more and more hours watching television and us
ing computers. The same can be said for adults especially in urban areas.
As the government of Thailand recognizes that in the 21ST century
, self-learning through informal education is going to be more important
than the other types of learning, they are providing basic education skills,
training and up to date information for both in and out of school people
to provide the foundation for the people to learn continuously on their
own.
The challenge ahead is to firmly establish the interconnections of
informal education with formal and non-formal education by consid
ering how the former could complément and strengthen existing learn-
13
ing opportunities. Given its accessibility, informal learning should be
utilized to bridge the learning divide by providing opportunities to the
broadest population.
W h y are learners receiving so m u c h attention?
It is said that one of the implications of the change of the term from
lifelong education to lifelong learning is the shift of focus on the learner
and the learning process. Students have been replaced with learners; and
teachers with facilitators of learning. Instead of learning to follow the
teacher, there is n o w more focus on learning to learn. The L E A R N E R
occupies center stage as the rest are seen to be supportive of the process
the learner chooses to undertake. T h e learner is an autonomous subject
w h o can choose what he/she wants to learn and h o w he/she will learn.
W h a t has to be learned^ To be able to function in society, a learner
needs a range of skills and competencies. These necessary skills vary from
one society to another, from one community to another. It is also time
bound. In the Philippines, the B N F E for example, promotes the idea that
that the Filipinos need the following skills in the 21ST century: 1) c o m
munication skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing from print and
electronic media); 2) problem solving and critical thinking (including
numeracy in scientific thinking); 3) sustainable use of resources/produc
tivity (including ability to earn a living as an employed or self-employed
person, sustainable resources and productivity); 4) development of self
and a sense of community (including self-development, a sense of per
sonal and national history and identity, cultural pride, and recognition
and understanding of civil and political rights); and 5) expanding one's
world vision (including knowledge, respect and appreciation for diver
sity, peace and non-violent resolution of conflicts and global awareness
and solidarity).
Different learners have different learning processes and require a range
of timely and appropriate support systems. A n underlying goal of the
N F E A & E system, for example is to assist learners to m o v e along a learning
continuum where they are empowered to take more control of their o w n
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learning. A s they master n e w skills and competencies and develop
confidence in learning to learn, they become less dependent on facilitators
and more responsible for learning independently. In this system, learners
are given as m u c h control as possible over what, w h e n , where and h o w
they learn within the constraints of limited resources. Through multiple
entry and exit points, multiple delivery modes and flexible curriculum
options, the learner's goals and needs could be addressed.
The feminist thinking on the learning process (i.e. it should take into
account different ways of learning like situated and contextualized learn
ing) has also shaped the discussion on the learning processes. T h e articu
lation of a feminist pedagogy — commonly seen in w o m e n ' s groups —
has resulted to an appreciation of the individual learner with specific
realities and special needs. The slogan — personal is political — has helped
focused on the need to look at individual lives of w o m e n . Feminist peda
gogy also advocates for learning with cognitive and emotional capacities
where the learning experience is a process which helps the learner under
stand himself/herself and could lead to self-actualization.
The shift on the learner, while important — as it recognizes the
potential of the individual — could also be carried to the extreme where
the heavy burden of functioning and of adapting in society is placed on
the individual. By over emphasizing the learner's capabilities, the
government is liberated from its responsibilities to provide. The challenge
is to recognize the learners' potentials and capacities at the same that
one considers the societal factors under which the individuals learn.
The focus on the learner should not unduly lead to a narrow view of
individuals needing to learn so that they could survive. This should be
matched by a discussion on social, political and economic structural
changes that have to be addressed so that the individual learner could
truly be unencumbered in the learning process. The dynamic interaction
of the learners and the environments under which they live has to be
carefully examined to provide a realistic picture of a truly empowering
learning process.
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Are communities then, still important? Given the pivotal role of the individual learner, does this m e a n that
communities are becoming less important for lifelong learning«?- O n the
contrary, in Asia community-based lifelong learning practices provide the
most innovative strategies. T h e community learning center (CLC) in
Thailand, for instance is recognized as a key mechanism for lifelong edu
cation, organized by the community and for the community. The com
munity itself is the school, providing education for its members where
all have access (education for all), all participate in organizing education
(all for education), and all develop lifelong education processes. Given
the diversity of its constituency, the C L C organizes a range of educa
tional activities from basic education to vocational education to educa
tion for up-to-date knowledge and information. With the principle of
the community as a learning base, the C L C integrates education with
the community w a y of life (e.g. learning from actual situations in the
community or learning from local wisdom)-.
A s a space designated for all kinds of learning activities in the com
munity, the C L C in Thailand has the following functions: to collect all
types of learning materials within the community; to organize all kinds
of non-formal education; to coordinate all community development ac
tivities; and to network with government, N G O s , and local entrepre
neur in organizing learning activities. Usually there is a C L C teacher w h o
organizes and/or coordinates learning activities. C L C s are administra
tively under the Department of Non-Formal Education.
Meanwhile in Malaysia, there are four types of CLCs : 1) government
funded (by Ministry of Rural Development); 2) N G O initiated
(e.g.Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia, A I M ) ; 3) Private sector sponsored (e.g.
Philips); and 4) community institution driven e.g village development
and security committees, mosques.
Another example of a community-based approach is that of the
Beijing Agricultural School (BAS) work with the rural villages of Fangshan.
In designing their programmes for the village, five broad objectives were
identified: 1) to help the village to develop an implementation plan in
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close response to the local resources; 2) to upgrade the technological c o m
petencies of farmers through formal and non-formal training programmes;
3) to disseminate a series of n e w agro-technologies among the villagers;
4) to promote village-based collective production of at least one product
as effective income source; and 5) to strengthen the village leadership for
effective involvement of villagers in the proposed project.
To obtain the above objectives, B A S developed three education
scnemes. First, the villagers could enroll as students of the school for spare
time learning with the combination of distance learning and lecturing.
The graduates w h o achieved qualifications could then be granted a di
ploma after 3-year study. Then, there are also leadership courses, lasting
from 3 days to 2 weeks which are meant to create a supportive leader
ship at village level. Every year a total number of 1,200 village leaders are
enrolled in these intensive courses. Finally, technician training has been
operated mainly through B A S regular formal programmes. Each year about
1000 graduates return to their o w n villages to practice their newly ob
tained skills.
As part of local capacity-building, the B A S also established a net
work of 37 practice bases in rural communities for plantation and live
stock. These bases were normally started as pilot project sites and, with
B A S interventions, n o w serve as experiment demonstration and training
places both for the students and community members.
In the process of their work in the villages, B A S has broadened the
school curriculum and has become more responsive to the current needs
of rural population. Meanwhile the B A S staff development has been en
hanced with their involvement in village programmes. In this partner
ship, the communities have obtained n e w expertise for more production
while the B A S has acquired an additional role, to act as a community
resource center.
The above examples demonstrate h o w the communities have been
active in shaping their o w n learning agenda and h o w these could be fa
cilitated either by government or by an educational institution. The c o m
munity as a school, the community as a site of learning, the community
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as learning base are powerful metaphors that have been realized in m a n y
Asian villages. The challenge is to expand these learning communities
by tapping the potential of other "learning agencies" within the com
munity such as local village councils, local health centers, and so on.
C o m m u n i t y initiatives need to s h o w the range of learning benefits
(whether it be for health, environmental protection, and even security)
so that more and more members could be encouraged to participate.
W h a t steps have to be taken to ensure that lifelong learning remains relevant to Asia?
Establishing learning interconnections of formal, non-formal and
informal learning is an important task given that most of the educational
systems in the region, remain largely compartmentalized, with the formal
schools, getting the bulk of the resources. The heavy emphasis placed on
schools has unfortunately meant the marginalization of non-formal
learning. Meanwhile, the increasing importance of informal learning has
posed a challenge to the formal sector, w h o feel that their students are
spending more time viewing T V , watching movies and interacting with
the computer. The idea of learning throughout life should be matched by
the idea of learning in different sites (at home, at school, in the community,
in the workplace, mass media, religious gatherings, and so on). The main
advantage of formal education is that it is able to put value and credit to
what people are learning. This is slowly being matched by the non-formal
sector with their accreditation and equivalency programs. Perhaps there
should also be a shift in the mindset that not all learning could be measured
and quantified. That not all learning could be reflected in certificates or
diplomas. That learning could also be observed in a peasant w o m a n , w h o
after taking literacy classes, is beaming with self-confidence.
The building of a culture of lifelong learning, in fact also means
unlearning. There is a need to unlearn prioritization for those w h o can
pay; and learn that those w h o cannot pay are in fact the ones w h o need
the most support. Building a culture of lifelong learning means providing
the necessary opportunities and infrastructures for those w h o are often
18
marginalized. Providing education for all entails equipping the people
with a strong foundation in basic skills. In Asia, the promotion of life
long learning should be tied to the achievement of the E F A goals. Basic
education is part of lifelong learning, as it provides the basis for lifelong
learning.
The shifting of mindsets should also be accompanied by appropriate
allocation of h u m a n , technical and financial resources. Even as the idea
of the autonomous learner is promoted, teachers and other people w h o
could facilitate this process need to be identified. Support for the training
of such educators has to be assured. Infrastructure has likewise to be
provided whether it be in the form of buildings, equipment or technology.
Given the scope of lifelong learning, corresponding financial resources
should be allocated to the priority population, those previously
marginalized, a m o n g them, the poor, the w o m e n and indigenous
communities.
The role of research cannot be underestimated. There is no data avail
able to track d o w n the learning possibilities both in the education and
non-education sectors of the society. Because of our preoccupation with
formal schooling, w e do not have figures on the non-formal sector, which
contributes to their further marginalization. The nature and the scope of
lifelong learning have m a d e it difficult to obtain a lifelong learning m a p
even at the community level. Research frameworks need to be adjusted
to take into consideration the lifelong and lifewide dimensions of life
long learning. This also entails unlearning our bias towards quantitative
methods and learning that triangulation — combining quantitative and
qualitative — can provide us a more nuanced lifelong learning landscape.
Indeed more types of research should be undertaken — whether it be in
the form of collection of good practices or monitoring and evaluation of
existing practices.
To be able to rise to the enormous challenges posed by lifelong learn
ing, establishing linkages and forging partnerships are critical. Bringing
together government, N G O s , the private sector, communities, and other
stakeholders is a daunting but necessary task. T h e convergence of ac
tions and strategic partnerships could pave the w a y for more effective
19
lifelong learning responses. For example, T E S D A has brought together
various partners — local government units, N G O s , corporate/business,
academe, labor sector and other government organizations — in the crea
tion of a framework where the concepts and principles of lifelong learn
ing and multiple intelligences could be integrated to serve as foundation
in building a total quality technical-vocational education and training.
Another example is that of the Changyang Township Government and
Beijing Agricultural School w h o have jointly agreed to cooperate on the
promotion of the application of n e w technologies for higher productiv
ity and income generation, where B A S instructors are required to offer
technical consultancy services for farmers.
In the 21ST century, one cannot avoid but talk about the role of ICTs
in lifelong learning. Information and communication technologies con
stitute both an arena and a means for learning. As a means for learning, it
is able to facilitate the transfer of information and skills. The horizontal
learning possible with ICTs should however be complemented by critical
thinking. People should be able to discern which information will be most
useful, instead of simply consuming and accepting all information given
to them.
The transformatory potential of lifelong learning cannot be denied.
The w o m e n ' s empowerment programmes initiated by the Thai govern
ment needs to be examined to unpack the complex process of learning
and empowermen t . Changing power relations is part and parcel of
transformatory lifelong learning. Millions and millions of Asians, major
ity of them w o m e n , remain powerless — without access to land, to jobs
and to learning opportunities. To be truly relevant to these marginalized
and powerless sectors, m a n y have to learn and unlearn modes of think
ing, feeling and acting that permit such marginalization to continue. •
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