Practices of looking an introduction to visual culture by Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright...

practices of lookingpractices of lookingan introduction to visual culturean introduction to visual culture

by Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwrightby Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright

powerpoint by Donnie Taylor powerpoint by Donnie Taylor

ContentsContents

1.1. Practices of Looking: Images, Power, Practices of Looking: Images, Power, and Politicsand Politics

2.2. Viewers Make MeaningViewers Make Meaning

3.3. Spectatorship, Power and KnowledgeSpectatorship, Power and Knowledge

4.4. Reproduction and Visual TechnologiesReproduction and Visual Technologies

5.5. The Mass Media and the Public SquareThe Mass Media and the Public Square

6.6. Consumer Culture and the Consumer Culture and the Manufacturing of DesireManufacturing of Desire

Practices of Looking: Practices of Looking: Images, Power, and PoliticsImages, Power, and Politics

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Practices of LookingPractices of Looking

Everyday we are in Everyday we are in the practice of looking the practice of looking to make sense of the to make sense of the world around us.world around us.

To see is a process of To see is a process of observing and observing and recognizing.recognizing.

To look is to actively To look is to actively make meaning of that make meaning of that world.world.


To look is an act of choice.To look is an act of choice.Looking is a practice much like speaking Looking is a practice much like speaking

or writing.or writing.Looking involves relationships of power.Looking involves relationships of power.Looking can be easy or difficult, fun or Looking can be easy or difficult, fun or

unpleasant, harmless or dangerous.unpleasant, harmless or dangerous.Looking can be conscious or unconscious.Looking can be conscious or unconscious.Looking is used to communicate, to Looking is used to communicate, to

influence and to be influenced. influence and to be influenced.


A single image can A single image can serve a multitude of serve a multitude of purposes, appear in a purposes, appear in a range of settings, and range of settings, and mean different things mean different things to different people.to different people.

This image, of school This image, of school children in the early children in the early 1940s who see a 1940s who see a murder scene in the murder scene in the street, was taken by street, was taken by Weegee.Weegee.

I. RepresentationI. Representation RepresentationRepresentation refers refers

to the use of to the use of language and images language and images to create meaning to create meaning about the world about the world around us.around us.

These systems have These systems have rules and rules and conventions about conventions about how to express and how to express and interpret meaning.interpret meaning.

I. RepresentationI. Representation

Do systems of representation reflect the world as Do systems of representation reflect the world as it is, as a form of it is, as a form of mimesismimesis or imitation, or do we or imitation, or do we construct the world around us through our use of construct the world around us through our use of the systems of representation?the systems of representation?

Social constructionistsSocial constructionists argue that systems of argue that systems of representation do not reflect an already existing representation do not reflect an already existing reality so much as they organize, construct, and reality so much as they organize, construct, and mediate our understanding of reality, emotion, mediate our understanding of reality, emotion, and imagination.and imagination.

However, the distinction can often be difficult to However, the distinction can often be difficult to make.make.

Is this image simply a reflection of this particular scene Is this image simply a reflection of this particular scene or does it produce meanings about these objects?or does it produce meanings about these objects?

Pieter Claesz, 1642

I. RepresentationI. Representation We learn the rules and We learn the rules and

conventions of the conventions of the systems of representation systems of representation within a given culture.within a given culture.

Many artists have Many artists have attempted to defy those attempted to defy those rules and conventions and rules and conventions and to push at the definitions to push at the definitions of representation.of representation.

Images such as this show Images such as this show the complexity of how the complexity of how words and images words and images produce meaning in our produce meaning in our world.world.

Rene Magritte, The Treachery of Images, 1928-29

II. The Myth of Photographic TruthII. The Myth of Photographic Truth

The creation of an image through a The creation of an image through a camera lens always involves some degree camera lens always involves some degree of of subjective choicesubjective choice through selection, through selection, framing, and personalization.framing, and personalization.

Despite this, photography has historically Despite this, photography has historically been regarded as more been regarded as more objectiveobjective than than painting or drawing.painting or drawing.

The combination of the subjective and The combination of the subjective and objective is a central argument about objective is a central argument about photographic images.photographic images.

This picture was taken by the Mars rover Spirit on January 14, 2004.

What scientific evidence can be derived from this photo?

What other meanings can you infer about this photo?


All images have two levels of meaning.All images have two levels of meaning.The denotative meaning of the image The denotative meaning of the image

refers to its literal descriptive meaning.refers to its literal descriptive meaning.The connotative meanings rely on the The connotative meanings rely on the

cultural and historic context of the image cultural and historic context of the image and its viewers.and its viewers.

Robert Frank, Trolley-New Orleans, 1955-1966


The term The term mythmyth, as used by Roland , as used by Roland Barthes, refers to the cultural values and Barthes, refers to the cultural values and beliefs that are expressed through beliefs that are expressed through connotations parading as denotations.connotations parading as denotations.

MythMyth is the hidden set of rules and is the hidden set of rules and conventions through which meanings, conventions through which meanings, which are in reality specific to certain which are in reality specific to certain groups, are made to seem universal.groups, are made to seem universal.

II. The Myth of Photographic TruthII. The Myth of Photographic Truth Myth allows the connotative meaning of a Myth allows the connotative meaning of a

particular thing or image appear to be particular thing or image appear to be denotative.denotative.


The cultural meanings of and expectations The cultural meanings of and expectations about images are tied to the technology about images are tied to the technology through which it is produced.through which it is produced.

III. Images and IdeologyIII. Images and Ideology

All images are produced within dynamics All images are produced within dynamics of social power and ideology.of social power and ideology.

Ideology is the shared set of values and Ideology is the shared set of values and beliefs through which individuals live out beliefs through which individuals live out their complex relations to a range of social their complex relations to a range of social structures.structures.

Ideologies often appear to be natural or Ideologies often appear to be natural or given aspects of everyday life.given aspects of everyday life.

III. Images and IdeologyIII. Images and Ideology Ideologies are produced and affirmed through Ideologies are produced and affirmed through

the social institutions in a given society, such as the social institutions in a given society, such as the family, education, medicine, the law, the the family, education, medicine, the law, the government, and the entertainment industry, government, and the entertainment industry, among others.among others.

Images are also used for regulation, Images are also used for regulation, categorization, identification, and evidence.categorization, identification, and evidence.

Images often move across social arenas from Images often move across social arenas from documentary images to advertisements to documentary images to advertisements to amateur video to news images to art works.amateur video to news images to art works.

Each change in context produces a change in Each change in context produces a change in meaning.meaning.

III. Images and IdeologyIII. Images and Ideology

What ideological assumptions might be said to underlie What ideological assumptions might be said to underlie the differences in these two magazine covers?the differences in these two magazine covers?

IV. How We Negotiate the Meaning IV. How We Negotiate the Meaning of Imagesof Images

We We decodedecode, or read, complex images almost , or read, complex images almost instantly, giving little thought to our process of instantly, giving little thought to our process of decoding.decoding.

We decode images by interpreting clues to We decode images by interpreting clues to intended, unintended, and even suggested intended, unintended, and even suggested meanings.meanings.

These clues may be formal elements of the These clues may be formal elements of the image, such as color, shade, and contrast, or the image, such as color, shade, and contrast, or the socio-historical context in which it is presented.socio-historical context in which it is presented.

What does this image mean? When and where was it What does this image mean? When and where was it taken? What kind of event does it depict? What is the taken? What kind of event does it depict? What is the advertiser hoping to communicate about its company to advertiser hoping to communicate about its company to consumers?consumers?

IV. How We Negotiate the Meaning IV. How We Negotiate the Meaning of Imagesof Images

The process of interpretation is derived from The process of interpretation is derived from semioticssemiotics, , a theory of signs which is concerned with the ways a theory of signs which is concerned with the ways things (words, images, and objects) are vehicles for things (words, images, and objects) are vehicles for meaning.meaning.

We live in a world of signs, and it is the labor of our We live in a world of signs, and it is the labor of our interpretation that makes meaning of those signs.interpretation that makes meaning of those signs.

The sign is composed of the signifier (a sound, written The sign is composed of the signifier (a sound, written word, or image) and the signified (which is the concept word, or image) and the signified (which is the concept evoked by that word or image).evoked by that word or image).

What is the What is the signifier, signified, signifier, signified, and sign in this and sign in this advertisement?advertisement?

V. The Value of ImagesV. The Value of Images

What gives an image social value?What gives an image social value? Images do not have value in and of Images do not have value in and of

themselves, they are awarded different themselves, they are awarded different kinds of value – monetary, social, and kinds of value – monetary, social, and political – in particular social contexts. political – in particular social contexts.

For example, in the art market, a painting For example, in the art market, a painting gains its economic value through cultural gains its economic value through cultural determination concerning what society determination concerning what society judges to be important in assessing works judges to be important in assessing works of art.of art.

Vincent Van Gogh’s Irises sold for $53.8 million in 1991.

Why is this painting worth so much?


Fine art objects are also Fine art objects are also valued because it can be valued because it can be endlessly reproduced for endlessly reproduced for popular consumption on popular consumption on posters, postcards, coffee posters, postcards, coffee mugs, and t-shirts.mugs, and t-shirts.

Hence, the value of the Hence, the value of the original results not only original results not only from its uniqueness but from its uniqueness but also from its role in popular also from its role in popular culture.culture.

A Bold Bluff, 1903, by C.M. Coolidge sold with another ‘dogs playing poker’

painting in 2005 for over $590,000.


The value of a television news image lies in its The value of a television news image lies in its capacity to be transmitted quickly and widely to capacity to be transmitted quickly and widely to a vast number of geographically dispersed a vast number of geographically dispersed television screens.television screens.

VI. Image IconsVI. Image Icons

An icon is an image that An icon is an image that refers to something refers to something outside of its individual outside of its individual components that has components that has great symbolic meaning great symbolic meaning for many people.for many people.

An image produced in a An image produced in a specific culture, time, and specific culture, time, and place might be place might be interpreted as having interpreted as having universal meaning.universal meaning.

Raphael, Raphael, The Small Cowper MadonnaThe Small Cowper Madonna, c. 1505; Dorothea Lange, , c. 1505; Dorothea Lange, Migrant MotherMigrant Mother, 1936, 1936

How do each of these images represent different icons of motherhood?How do each of these images represent different icons of motherhood?

VI. Image IconsVI. Image Icons

Andy Worhol’s Andy Worhol’s Marilyn DiptychMarilyn Diptych (1962) comments (1962) comments on the star’s iconic on the star’s iconic status as a glamour status as a glamour figure and a media figure and a media commodity.commodity.

He emphasizes that He emphasizes that cultural icons can cultural icons can and must be mass-and must be mass-distributed in order distributed in order for them to have for them to have mass appeal.mass appeal.

VI. Image IconsVI. Image Icons When images acquire When images acquire

status of icons, they also status of icons, they also can become the object of can become the object of humorous or ironic humorous or ironic interpretations.interpretations.

Through cultural Through cultural appropriation, Madonna appropriation, Madonna acquired the power of icons acquired the power of icons and reflected ironically on and reflected ironically on their meaning in the climate their meaning in the climate of the 1980s and 1990s.of the 1980s and 1990s.

Viewers Make MeaningViewers Make Meaning

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Viewers Make MeaningViewers Make Meaning

Meanings are produced through a Meanings are produced through a complex social relationship that involves at complex social relationship that involves at least two elements besides the image least two elements besides the image itself and its producer: (1) how the viewers itself and its producer: (1) how the viewers interpret or experience the image and (2) interpret or experience the image and (2) the context in which an image is seen.the context in which an image is seen.

Works or art and media rarely “speak” to Works or art and media rarely “speak” to everyone universally.everyone universally.

Just as viewers create meaning from Just as viewers create meaning from images, images also construct audiences.images, images also construct audiences.

I. Producers’ Intended MeaningsI. Producers’ Intended Meanings

Artists, graphic designers, filmmakers, and Artists, graphic designers, filmmakers, and other image producers create other image producers create advertisements and many other images advertisements and many other images with the intent that we read them in a with the intent that we read them in a certain way.certain way.

However, people often see an image However, people often see an image differently from how it was intended to be differently from how it was intended to be seen.seen.

The visual clutter of the context alone may affect how viewers interpret these images, in addition to juxtapositions with other images.

I. Producers’ Intended MeaningsI. Producers’ Intended Meanings

This does not mean that viewers wrongly This does not mean that viewers wrongly interpret images, or that images fail to interpret images, or that images fail to persuade viewers.persuade viewers.

Rather meanings are created in part when, Rather meanings are created in part when, where, and by whom images are where, and by whom images are consumed and produced.consumed and produced.

An artist or producer may make an image An artist or producer may make an image or media or media texttext, but he or she is not in full , but he or she is not in full control of the meanings that are control of the meanings that are subsequently seen in their work.subsequently seen in their work.

II. Aesthetics and TasteII. Aesthetics and Taste

The criteria used to interpret and give value to The criteria used to interpret and give value to images depend upon shared concepts of what images depend upon shared concepts of what makes an image pleasing or unpleasant, makes an image pleasing or unpleasant, shocking or banal, interesting or boring.shocking or banal, interesting or boring.

All viewers interpret two fundamental concepts All viewers interpret two fundamental concepts of value – of value – aestheticsaesthetics and and tastetaste..

AestheticsAesthetics refers to philosophical notions about refers to philosophical notions about the perception of beauty and ugliness.the perception of beauty and ugliness.

TasteTaste is something that can be learned through is something that can be learned through contact with cultural institutions that instruct us in contact with cultural institutions that instruct us in what is in good taste and what is not.what is in good taste and what is not.

How do museums and other cultural institutions influence

our interpretations of taste?


The notion of The notion of connoisseurshipconnoisseurship refers to refers to one who is considered to be an authority one who is considered to be an authority on beauty and aesthetics and is more on beauty and aesthetics and is more capable than others to pass judgment on capable than others to pass judgment on the quality of cultural objects.the quality of cultural objects.

Thus, taste is not inherent in particular Thus, taste is not inherent in particular people, but rather is learned through people, but rather is learned through exposure to social and cultural institutions exposure to social and cultural institutions that promote certain class-based that promote certain class-based assumptions about correct taste.assumptions about correct taste.


The distinctions between different kinds of The distinctions between different kinds of culture have traditionally been understood culture have traditionally been understood as the difference between high and low as the difference between high and low culture.culture.

Traditionally, high culture has meant fine Traditionally, high culture has meant fine art, classical music, opera, and ballet.art, classical music, opera, and ballet.

Low culture was a term used for comic Low culture was a term used for comic strips, television, and initially for cinema.strips, television, and initially for cinema.

How have divisions of high and low culture been criticized in recent years?

III. Reading Images as Ideological III. Reading Images as Ideological SubjectsSubjects

When taste is naturalized, it embodies the When taste is naturalized, it embodies the ideologiesideologies of its context and time. of its context and time.

In the 1960s, French Marxist Louis In the 1960s, French Marxist Louis Althusser argued that “ideology represents Althusser argued that “ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence.”their real conditions of existence.”

In other words, ideology is the necessary In other words, ideology is the necessary representational means through which we representational means through which we come to experience and make sense of come to experience and make sense of reality.reality.


The process of The process of interpellationinterpellation refers to refers to how we are constructed how we are constructed by the ideologies that by the ideologies that speak to us everyday speak to us everyday through language and through language and images.images.

According to Althusser, According to Althusser, we are not so much we are not so much individuals but rather we individuals but rather we are “always already” are “always already” subjects.subjects.


Althusser’s Althusser’s concepts of concepts of ideology have been ideology have been influential, but can influential, but can be seen as be seen as disempowering.disempowering.

How much agency How much agency do we have in our do we have in our lives?lives?


In the 1920s and 1930s, Italian Marxist Antonio In the 1920s and 1930s, Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemonyhegemony to to understand the plurality of ideology.understand the plurality of ideology.

HegemonyHegemony emphasizes that power is not wielded by emphasizes that power is not wielded by one class over another; rather, power is constantly one class over another; rather, power is constantly negotiated and changing among all classes of negotiated and changing among all classes of people, who struggle with and against one another in people, who struggle with and against one another in the economic, social, political, and ideological the economic, social, political, and ideological arenas in which they live and work.arenas in which they live and work.

Counter-hegemonicCounter-hegemonic forces are political movements forces are political movements or subversive cultural elements which emerge and or subversive cultural elements which emerge and question the status quo in ways that may not favor question the status quo in ways that may not favor the interests of the marketplace.the interests of the marketplace.

Barbara Kruger’s work functions as a counter-hegemonic statement.

Who is the “you” of this image?

IV. Encoding and DecodingIV. Encoding and Decoding

All images are both All images are both encodedencoded and and decodeddecoded..

An image or object is An image or object is encodedencoded with with meaning with meaning in its creation or meaning with meaning in its creation or production and when it is placed in a given production and when it is placed in a given setting or context.setting or context.

It is then decoded by viewers when it is It is then decoded by viewers when it is consumed by them.consumed by them.

These processes work in tandem.These processes work in tandem.

How does encoding and decoding work in a television show?


Three positions viewers can take as decoders:Three positions viewers can take as decoders: Dominant-hegemonic readingDominant-hegemonic reading – identify with the – identify with the

hegemonic position and receive the dominant hegemonic position and receive the dominant message of an image or text in an unquestioning message of an image or text in an unquestioning manner.manner.

Negotiated readingNegotiated reading – negotiate an interpretation – negotiate an interpretation from the image and its dominant meaning.from the image and its dominant meaning.

Oppositional readingOppositional reading – completely disagree with – completely disagree with the ideological position embodied in an image or the ideological position embodied in an image or reject it altogether.reject it altogether.


The The dominant-dominant-hegemonichegemonic position position can be said to can be said to decode images in a decode images in a relatively passive relatively passive manner.manner.

It can be argued It can be argued that few viewers that few viewers actually consume actually consume images in this images in this manner.manner.


In In negotiated readingnegotiated reading viewers actively viewers actively struggle with dominant meanings, allowing struggle with dominant meanings, allowing culturally and personally significant culturally and personally significant meanings to transform and even override meanings to transform and even override the meanings imposed by producers and the meanings imposed by producers and broader social forces.broader social forces.

Image decoders are active meaning Image decoders are active meaning makers and not merely passive recipients.makers and not merely passive recipients.

How would a dominant hegemonic reading of the show Who Want to Be a Millionaire be different from a negotiated reading?

V. Appropriation and Oppositional V. Appropriation and Oppositional ReadingsReadings

AppropriationAppropriation can be a form of can be a form of oppositional production and reading.oppositional production and reading.

To appropriate is to take something for To appropriate is to take something for oneself without consent, to steal.oneself without consent, to steal.

Cultural appropriation is the process of Cultural appropriation is the process of “borrowing” and changing the meaning of “borrowing” and changing the meaning of cultural products, slogans, images, or cultural products, slogans, images, or elements of fashion.elements of fashion.

Andy Warhol appropriated Da Vinci’s The Last Supper.

How does Warhol change the meaning of the dominant ideology of Da Vinci’s work?


As viewers, we can also As viewers, we can also appropriate images and appropriate images and text by strategically text by strategically altering their meanings to altering their meanings to suit our purposes.suit our purposes.

For example, Great For example, Great Garbo has a cult following Garbo has a cult following among lesbian viewers among lesbian viewers appropriating her appropriating her sometimes gender-sometimes gender-bending performances.bending performances.

This is one method of This is one method of oppositional readingoppositional reading..


BricolageBricolage is a tactic of is a tactic of appropriation appropriation meaning literally to meaning literally to “make do” or piecing “make do” or piecing together one’s culture together one’s culture with whatever is at with whatever is at hand.hand.

How is the owner of How is the owner of this low-rider this low-rider changing the meaning changing the meaning of an automobile?of an automobile?

VI. Re-appropriations and Cultural-VI. Re-appropriations and Cultural-bricolagebricolage

Appropriation, however, is not Appropriation, however, is not always an oppositional practice.always an oppositional practice.

For example, vintage thrift store For example, vintage thrift store clothing fashions originally clothing fashions originally associated with oppositional associated with oppositional youth were re-appropriated by youth were re-appropriated by the mainstream fashion industry.the mainstream fashion industry.

When hegemonic forces re-When hegemonic forces re-appropriate tactics of appropriate tactics of marginalized cultures into the marginalized cultures into the mainstream, it is a form of mainstream, it is a form of counter-bricolagecounter-bricolage..

How is the mainstreaming of rap music an example of counter-bricolage?

How does the mainstream culture constantly mine the margins of culture for meaning?

Spectatorship, Power, and Spectatorship, Power, and KnowledgeKnowledge

Chapter 3Chapter 3

Spectatorship, Power, and Spectatorship, Power, and KnowledgeKnowledge

We invest images with the power to incite We invest images with the power to incite emotions within us, and images are also emotions within us, and images are also elements within the power relations between elements within the power relations between human subjects, and between individuals and human subjects, and between individuals and institutions.institutions.

This chapter focuses away from reception to This chapter focuses away from reception to concepts of address.concepts of address.

Address refers to the way that an image Address refers to the way that an image constructs certain responses form an idealized constructs certain responses form an idealized viewer, whereas reception is about the ways in viewer, whereas reception is about the ways in which actual viewers respond.which actual viewers respond.

I. Psychoanalysis and the Image I. Psychoanalysis and the Image SpectatorSpectator

Psychoanalytic theoryPsychoanalytic theory has addressed most has addressed most directly the pleasure we derive from images, and directly the pleasure we derive from images, and the relationship between our desires and our the relationship between our desires and our visual world.visual world.

Spectatorship theory emphasizes the role of the Spectatorship theory emphasizes the role of the psyche – particularly the unconscious, desire, psyche – particularly the unconscious, desire, and fantasy – in the practice of looking.and fantasy – in the practice of looking.

When psychoanalytic theory talks of the When psychoanalytic theory talks of the spectator, it treats it as an “ideal subject.”spectator, it treats it as an “ideal subject.”

It can be said that particular films, targeted toward specific categories of viewers during particular periods create and offer to their views and ideal subject position.

Who is the ideal spectator for Star Trek films? How can the ideal spectator be constructed

II. The GazeII. The Gaze

The concept of the gaze has been the focus of The concept of the gaze has been the focus of inquiry in both art history and film studies.inquiry in both art history and film studies.

In common parlance, to gaze is to look or stare, In common parlance, to gaze is to look or stare, often with eagerness or desire.often with eagerness or desire.

In psychoanalytic film criticism, the gaze is not In psychoanalytic film criticism, the gaze is not the act of looking itself, but the viewing the act of looking itself, but the viewing relationship characteristic of a particular set of relationship characteristic of a particular set of social circumstances.social circumstances.

The concept of the gaze is fundamentally about The concept of the gaze is fundamentally about the relationship of pleasure and images.the relationship of pleasure and images.

II. The GazeII. The Gaze In 1975, filmmaker and writer In 1975, filmmaker and writer

Laura Mulvey published an Laura Mulvey published an essay about women in essay about women in classical Hollywood cinema.classical Hollywood cinema.

She argued that conventions She argued that conventions of popular cinema are of popular cinema are structured by a patriarchal structured by a patriarchal unconscious, positioning unconscious, positioning women represented in film women represented in film as objects of a “male gaze”as objects of a “male gaze”

Her theory stated that the Her theory stated that the camera is used as a tool of camera is used as a tool of voyeurism and sadism, voyeurism and sadism, disempowering those before disempowering those before its gaze.its gaze.

II. The GazeII. The Gaze

In the history of art, most of In the history of art, most of the collectors and primary the collectors and primary viewers were men.viewers were men.

In a typical female nude, a In a typical female nude, a woman is posed so that her woman is posed so that her body is on display for the body is on display for the viewer, who is implied to be viewer, who is implied to be male.male.

John Berger wrote that in his John Berger wrote that in his history of images, “men act, history of images, “men act, women appear.”women appear.”

This way of viewing women This way of viewing women thus defined them by their thus defined them by their appearance, in essence appearance, in essence their ability to be pleasing to their ability to be pleasing to look at.look at.

Jean-Desire-Gustave Courbet, Woman with a Parrot, 1866

III. Changing Concepts of the GazeIII. Changing Concepts of the Gaze

Today, we are surrounded Today, we are surrounded on a daily basis by images on a daily basis by images of fashion models whose of fashion models whose looks conform to a rigid set looks conform to a rigid set of normative codes about of normative codes about beauty.beauty.

The traditional roles of men The traditional roles of men and women are in upheaval and women are in upheaval and the theoretical concept and the theoretical concept of the male gaze has been of the male gaze has been rethought.rethought.

III. Changing Concepts of the GazeIII. Changing Concepts of the Gaze

The concept of regressive cinematic The concept of regressive cinematic viewers, who are encouraged to repress viewers, who are encouraged to repress their identities and to identify with the their identities and to identify with the screen has been replaced by a broader screen has been replaced by a broader set of models about the multiplicity of set of models about the multiplicity of gazes and looks that mediate power gazes and looks that mediate power between viewers and objects of the gaze.between viewers and objects of the gaze.

IV. Discourse, the Gaze, and the IV. Discourse, the Gaze, and the OtherOther

Images can both exert Images can both exert power and act as power and act as instruments of power.instruments of power.

French philosopher Michel French philosopher Michel Foucault uses the term Foucault uses the term discourse discourse to describe a to describe a group of statements which group of statements which provides a means for provides a means for talking about a particular talking about a particular topic at a particular topic at a particular historical moment.historical moment.

For Foucault, discourse is a For Foucault, discourse is a body of knowledge that body of knowledge that both defines and limits both defines and limits what can be said about what can be said about something.something.

IV. Discourse, the Gaze, and the IV. Discourse, the Gaze, and the OtherOther

Photography has been Photography has been central in the functioning of central in the functioning of discourses since the 19discourses since the 19thth century.century.

Photographs have been Photographs have been deployed as a means of deployed as a means of categorization in order to categorization in order to distinguish the normal and distinguish the normal and the abnormal according to the abnormal according to the discourses of a the discourses of a particular time.particular time.

V. Power/Knowledge and V. Power/Knowledge and PanopticismPanopticism

Foucault believed modern societies are Foucault believed modern societies are structured on a basic relationship of structured on a basic relationship of power/knowledge.power/knowledge.

Modern societies power relations are structured Modern societies power relations are structured to produce citizens who will actively participate to produce citizens who will actively participate in self-regulating behavior, such as obeying in self-regulating behavior, such as obeying laws, participating in social norms, and adhering laws, participating in social norms, and adhering to dominant social values.to dominant social values.

Certain kinds of “knowledges” are validated in Certain kinds of “knowledges” are validated in our society through social institutions such as our society through social institutions such as the press, the medical profession, and education the press, the medical profession, and education while other knowledges are discredited.while other knowledges are discredited.

Who in these images are you most likely to believe?


For Faucault, modern For Faucault, modern power is not something that power is not something that negates and represses so negates and represses so much as it is a force that much as it is a force that produces knowledge and produces knowledge and particular kinds of citizens particular kinds of citizens and subjects.and subjects.

In order to function, the In order to function, the modern state needs modern state needs citizens who are willing to citizens who are willing to work, to fight in wars, and work, to fight in wars, and to reproduce, and to have to reproduce, and to have healthy and capable bodies healthy and capable bodies to do so.to do so.


Photographic images Photographic images are instrumental in are instrumental in the production of what the production of what Foucault called the Foucault called the docile bodydocile body of the of the modern state – modern state – citizens who citizens who participate in the participate in the ideologies of the ideologies of the society through a society through a desire to fit in and desire to fit in and conformconform


According to Foucault, we According to Foucault, we internalize a managerial internalize a managerial gaze that watches over gaze that watches over us, and this imagined us, and this imagined gaze makes us behave gaze makes us behave and conform. This is and conform. This is called panopticon.called panopticon.

It idea is that the structure It idea is that the structure of surveillance, whether of surveillance, whether active or not, produces active or not, produces conforming behavior.conforming behavior.

How prevalent is the idea of photographic identification? To what extent is the photograph integrated into institutional life? How are these

photographs tied to questions of power?

VI. The Gaze and the ExoticVI. The Gaze and the Exotic The photographic gaze helps to establish The photographic gaze helps to establish

relationships of power, to represent codes of relationships of power, to represent codes of dominance and subjugation, difference and dominance and subjugation, difference and other.other.

Images operate within binary oppositions such Images operate within binary oppositions such as civilization/nature, white/other, and as civilization/nature, white/other, and male/female.male/female.

Binary oppositions designate the first category Binary oppositions designate the first category as unmarked (the norm) and the second as as unmarked (the norm) and the second as marked (the other.marked (the other.

How is meaning established through difference?

VI. The Gaze and the ExoticVI. The Gaze and the Exotic

Images are central in the Images are central in the production of production of OrientalismOrientalism, the , the ways in which Western ways in which Western cultures attribute to Eastern cultures attribute to Eastern and Middle-Eastern cultures and Middle-Eastern cultures qualities of exoticism and qualities of exoticism and barbarism.barbarism.

The consumer is The consumer is interpellated interpellated in this ad as a white person in this ad as a white person who can buy an “authentic” who can buy an “authentic” exotic experience.exotic experience.

Reproduction and Visual Reproduction and Visual TechnologiesTechnologies

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Reproduction and Visual Reproduction and Visual TechnologiesTechnologies

Both the conventions of imaging and the Both the conventions of imaging and the concepts of the visual have changed concepts of the visual have changed throughout history, through the evolution throughout history, through the evolution of art, photography, and electronic of art, photography, and electronic imaging.imaging.

A viewer may make assumptions about A viewer may make assumptions about the historical status of an image from its the historical status of an image from its style, medium, and formal qualities.style, medium, and formal qualities.

I. Realism and the History of I. Realism and the History of PerspectivePerspective

Examining the role of realism in art Examining the role of realism in art throughout history helps us to see how throughout history helps us to see how images indicate changing ways of seeing images indicate changing ways of seeing the world.the world.

The concept of what makes an image The concept of what makes an image realistic has changed throughout history realistic has changed throughout history and varies between cultures.and varies between cultures.


The development of The development of perspectiveperspective as a as a convention of European convention of European art during the 15art during the 15thth century century Renaissance marks a Renaissance marks a fundamental shift in the fundamental shift in the depiction of reality.depiction of reality.

Linear perspective Linear perspective requires objects to recede requires objects to recede in size toward at least one in size toward at least one vanishing point.vanishing point.


The European Renaissance has been defined The European Renaissance has been defined as a time of intellectual and artistic resurgence as a time of intellectual and artistic resurgence that was fueled by a renewed interest in that was fueled by a renewed interest in Classical art and literature.Classical art and literature.

Perspective emphasizes a scientific and Perspective emphasizes a scientific and mechanical view toward ordering and depicting mechanical view toward ordering and depicting nature, and focuses a work of art toward a nature, and focuses a work of art toward a perceived viewer.perceived viewer.

Thus, through the development of perspective, Thus, through the development of perspective, the relationship of science/technology and vision the relationship of science/technology and vision is firmly established in Western philosophy.is firmly established in Western philosophy.

Raphael, School of Athens, 1510-1511

II. Realism and Visual II. Realism and Visual TechnologiesTechnologies

The history of image production in Western culture The history of image production in Western culture can be viewed in four periods:can be viewed in four periods:

(1) ancient art produced prior to the (1) ancient art produced prior to the development of perspective in 1425development of perspective in 1425

(2) the age of perspective until the era of the (2) the age of perspective until the era of the mechanical, including the Renaissance, mechanical, including the Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and Romantic periodsBaroque, Rococo, and Romantic periods

(3) the modern era of technical developments (3) the modern era of technical developments with the rise of mechanization and the Industrial with the rise of mechanization and the Industrial RevolutionRevolution

(4)the postmodern era of electronic technology(4)the postmodern era of electronic technology


It can be said that It can be said that photography emerged as a photography emerged as a visual technology because visual technology because it fit certain emerging social it fit certain emerging social concepts and needs of the concepts and needs of the time.time.

In combining scientific In combining scientific technique with art, like the technique with art, like the technique of perspective, technique of perspective, yet also employing a yet also employing a mechanical device, mechanical device, photography is in many photography is in many ways the visual technology ways the visual technology that helped to usher in the that helped to usher in the age of modernity.age of modernity.


Many styles of modern Many styles of modern art that followed the art that followed the invention of invention of photography defied the photography defied the tradition of tradition of perspective.perspective.

For instance, the style For instance, the style of of impressionismimpressionism shifted its focus to light shifted its focus to light and color and aimed and color and aimed for visual spontaneity.for visual spontaneity.

Claude Monet, Section of the Seine Near Giverny


Cubism was a style in Cubism was a style in which painted objects as which painted objects as if they were being viewed if they were being viewed from several different from several different angles simultaneously, angles simultaneously, and focused on the visual and focused on the visual relationship between relationship between objects.objects.

According to Cubists, it is According to Cubists, it is a means of depicting the a means of depicting the restlessness and restlessness and complicated process of complicated process of human vision and a new human vision and a new way of looking at the real.way of looking at the real.

Georges Braque, The Portuguese, 1911


Modernist styles declared vision to be Modernist styles declared vision to be infinitely more subjective and complex.infinitely more subjective and complex.

The idea that a perspective-based realistic The idea that a perspective-based realistic view is actually no more than one of the view is actually no more than one of the many ways of representing human vision many ways of representing human vision has been taken further by many has been taken further by many contemporary artists.contemporary artists.

What is the “real” image here? At what “moment” was this

image taken? Where is the spectator of this image positioned?

III. The Reproduction of ImagesIII. The Reproduction of Images

Mechanical reproduction changes the meaning Mechanical reproduction changes the meaning and value of an image and, ultimately, the role and value of an image and, ultimately, the role images play in society.images play in society.

For instance, the invention of photography For instance, the invention of photography coincided with a cult of originality.coincided with a cult of originality.

Thus the value of the one-of-a-kind art work is Thus the value of the one-of-a-kind art work is derived from its uniqueness and its role in ritual.derived from its uniqueness and its role in ritual.

This aura of the image is a quality that makes it This aura of the image is a quality that makes it seem authentic because of its unique presence seem authentic because of its unique presence in time and space.in time and space.


The concept of The concept of authenticity refers to authenticity refers to something that is thought something that is thought to be genuine or original.to be genuine or original.

Paradoxically, we live in Paradoxically, we live in a world in which the a world in which the concept of authenticity is concept of authenticity is routinely reproduced, routinely reproduced, packaged, bought, and packaged, bought, and sold.sold.


Many copies can exist of a photographic image, Many copies can exist of a photographic image, of which their value lies not in their uniqueness of which their value lies not in their uniqueness but in their aesthetic, cultural, and social worth.but in their aesthetic, cultural, and social worth.

The original, however, is more valuable, in both The original, however, is more valuable, in both financial and social terms, than the copies.financial and social terms, than the copies.

Some argue that the higher value comes not Some argue that the higher value comes not from the uniqueness of the image as one of a from the uniqueness of the image as one of a kind, but rather from it being the original of many kind, but rather from it being the original of many copies.copies.

Through reproduction, an image can now be Through reproduction, an image can now be seen in many different contexts.seen in many different contexts.

How is the meaning of Edvard Munch’s, The Scream (1893), changed in each new context? How does the reproductions change the meaning of the original?

IV. Reproduced Images as PoliticsIV. Reproduced Images as Politics

PropagandaPropaganda can refer to can refer to any attempt to use any attempt to use words and images to words and images to promote particular ideas promote particular ideas and persuade people to and persuade people to believe certain concepts.believe certain concepts.

This definition could also This definition could also fit advertising images.fit advertising images.

This is what is meant by This is what is meant by the use of images as the use of images as politics.politics. John Heartfield, Adolf as Superman: “He

Swallows Gold and Spits out Tin-Plate,” 1932

IV. Reproduced Images as PoliticsIV. Reproduced Images as Politics

Text can dramatically Text can dramatically change to change to signification of the signification of the image and can ask us image and can ask us to look at an image to look at an image differently.differently.

This appropriation, This appropriation, however, depends on however, depends on the viewer being the viewer being familiar with the familiar with the original meaning.original meaning.

V. Visual Technologies and V. Visual Technologies and PhenomenologyPhenomenology

PhenomenologyPhenomenology is the belief that all knowledge is the belief that all knowledge and truth derives from subjective human and truth derives from subjective human experience and not solely from things experience and not solely from things themselves.themselves.

This is a criticism of the rational age of scientific This is a criticism of the rational age of scientific inquiry.inquiry.

Perception, memory, and imagination are key Perception, memory, and imagination are key concerns of phenomenology.concerns of phenomenology.

Phenomenology offers a means to examine the Phenomenology offers a means to examine the distinct materialities of how various media – distinct materialities of how various media – such as photography, film, and television – affect such as photography, film, and television – affect the viewer’s experience of it, and its impact on the viewer’s experience of it, and its impact on the lived body of the viewer.the lived body of the viewer.

VI. The Digital ImageVI. The Digital Image Since the 1980s, the development of digital images Since the 1980s, the development of digital images

began to radically transform the meaning of images.began to radically transform the meaning of images. AnalogAnalog images bear a physical correspondence with images bear a physical correspondence with

their material referents and are defined by properties their material referents and are defined by properties that express value along a continuous scale, such as that express value along a continuous scale, such as gradation of tone.gradation of tone.

DigitalDigital images are encoded with bits of information and images are encoded with bits of information and can be easily stored, manipulated, and reproduced.can be easily stored, manipulated, and reproduced.

A “copy” of a digital image is exactly like the “original.”A “copy” of a digital image is exactly like the “original.” The digital image gains its value from its accessibility, The digital image gains its value from its accessibility,

malleability, and information status.malleability, and information status.

VI. The Digital ImageVI. The Digital Image

Most digital images Most digital images and simulations and simulations cannot be said to cannot be said to have been in the have been in the presence of the real presence of the real world that they depict.world that they depict.

How does this effect How does this effect the idea of the idea of photographic truth?photographic truth?

What impact does this What impact does this have on news and have on news and historical images?historical images?

VI. The Digital ImageVI. The Digital Image

The discovery that a The discovery that a news organization has news organization has altered an image often altered an image often sparks controversy and sparks controversy and debate.debate.

These organizations’ These organizations’ reputations were based reputations were based on modern notions of on modern notions of photographic truth that photographic truth that clashed with the digital clashed with the digital possibilities for image possibilities for image manipulation.manipulation.

VII. Virtual Space and Interactive VII. Virtual Space and Interactive ImagesImages

VirtualVirtual images are simulations that represent images are simulations that represent ideal or constructed rather than actual ideal or constructed rather than actual conditions, and can be both analog and digital.conditions, and can be both analog and digital.


Virtual reality (VR) describe Virtual reality (VR) describe the way that users the way that users experience the computer experience the computer worlds in science and worlds in science and computer games.computer games.

Virtual reality systems Virtual reality systems attempt to create an attempt to create an experience in which the user experience in which the user feels as if he or she is feels as if he or she is physically incorporated into physically incorporated into the world represented on all the world represented on all sensory levels.sensory levels.

These include pacemakers, These include pacemakers, hearing aids, flight hearing aids, flight simulators, and game simulators, and game systems.systems.


Virtual space exits in Virtual space exits in opposition to the rules of opposition to the rules of traditional physical space.traditional physical space.

Users can navigate the Users can navigate the space to create their own space to create their own individual pathway.individual pathway.

How can traditional cultural How can traditional cultural notions of authorship notions of authorship remain in place with the remain in place with the introduction of digital introduction of digital images and virtual space?images and virtual space?

The Mass Media and the The Mass Media and the Public SpherePublic Sphere

Chapter 5Chapter 5

The Mass Media and the Public The Mass Media and the Public SphereSphere

Those of us in Western industrialized cultures Those of us in Western industrialized cultures live in a multimedia environment in which live in a multimedia environment in which mechanical and electronic images, text, and mechanical and electronic images, text, and sound are an almost constant presence.sound are an almost constant presence.

The term The term mass mediamass media has been used to define has been used to define those media designed to reach large audiences those media designed to reach large audiences perceived to have shared interests.perceived to have shared interests.

The mass media refers to forms and texts that The mass media refers to forms and texts that work in unison to generate specific dominant or work in unison to generate specific dominant or popular representations of events, people, and popular representations of events, people, and places.places.


Some critics of the Some critics of the media have argued media have argued that radio and that radio and television largely television largely control the exchange control the exchange of information by of information by restricting authorship restricting authorship of information to those of information to those with access to the with access to the means of media means of media production.production.


There are There are phenomenological phenomenological differences in the way differences in the way that we experience that we experience media that are media that are particular to their particular to their material qualities.material qualities.


It can be argued that the It can be argued that the term “mass media” is no term “mass media” is no longer entirely applicable.longer entirely applicable.

As more diverse media As more diverse media forms emerge, such as forms emerge, such as cable television and cable television and internet, more fragmented internet, more fragmented audiences form to replace audiences form to replace the undifferentiated mass, the undifferentiated mass, and the mass media are and the mass media are less pervasive.less pervasive.

I. Critiques of the Mass MediaI. Critiques of the Mass Media The historical critique The historical critique

states that TV and radio states that TV and radio provided a centralized provided a centralized means for mobilizing the means for mobilizing the new mass culture or mass new mass culture or mass society around a unified set society around a unified set of issues and ideas.of issues and ideas.

Current critics of the mass Current critics of the mass media argue that the new media argue that the new electronic technologies are electronic technologies are powerful new tools for powerful new tools for propaganda or mass propaganda or mass persuasion.persuasion.

These critiques see These critiques see viewers as passive if not viewers as passive if not gullible recipients of media gullible recipients of media messages.messages.

Leni Reifenstahl, Triumph of the Will, 1935

I. Critiques of the Mass MediaI. Critiques of the Mass Media The concept of a narcotic The concept of a narcotic

effect refers to the way effect refers to the way that time spent with the that time spent with the media replaces actual media replaces actual participation in organized participation in organized action.action.

The mass media, in this The mass media, in this concept, is understood as concept, is understood as convincing people that convincing people that being informed about a being informed about a social issue by seeing it social issue by seeing it covered in the media is covered in the media is the same as doing the same as doing something about it.something about it.

I. Critiques of the Mass MediaI. Critiques of the Mass Media A group of cultural critics known as the A group of cultural critics known as the Frankfurt Frankfurt

SchoolSchool describes the culture industry as an describes the culture industry as an entity that both creates and caters to a mass entity that both creates and caters to a mass public that, tragically, can no longer see the public that, tragically, can no longer see the difference between the real world and the difference between the real world and the illusory world that these popular media forms illusory world that these popular media forms collectively generate.collectively generate.

In their view, the culture industry generates In their view, the culture industry generates false false consciousnessconsciousness among its consumers, among its consumers, encouraging the masses to buy mindlessly into encouraging the masses to buy mindlessly into the ideologies that allow industrial capitalism to the ideologies that allow industrial capitalism to thrive.thrive.

They hold a traditional Marxist view of ideology.They hold a traditional Marxist view of ideology.

II. The Mass Media and Democratic II. The Mass Media and Democratic PotentialPotential

Another view of the mass media is Another view of the mass media is that it is a promising tool for that it is a promising tool for democratic ideals which will democratic ideals which will promote an open flow of promote an open flow of information and exchange of information and exchange of ideas.ideas.

This view challenges the very idea This view challenges the very idea of a mass media or mass society.of a mass media or mass society.

It stresses the potential of It stresses the potential of individual media forms for the individual media forms for the development of community and development of community and identity on a much smaller scale.identity on a much smaller scale.

Goddess of Democracy,

Tiananmen Square, 1989

II. The Mass Media and Democratic II. The Mass Media and Democratic PotentialPotential

A A technologically deterministtechnologically determinist way way of viewing media implies that of viewing media implies that content is not as important as the content is not as important as the medium through which you receive medium through which you receive it. it.

Canadian communication theorist Canadian communication theorist Marshall McLuhan argued in the Marshall McLuhan argued in the 1950s-1970s that media 1950s-1970s that media technologies give greater potential technologies give greater potential for power to our individual bodies for power to our individual bodies by extending our senses and by extending our senses and thereby extending our power in the thereby extending our power in the world.world.

To put the means of media To put the means of media production in the hands of ordinary production in the hands of ordinary citizens they would be empowered citizens they would be empowered rather than being molded.rather than being molded.

III. Television and the Question of III. Television and the Question of SponsorshipSponsorship

Consumers watch television Consumers watch television programs primarily to see programs primarily to see programs, but what keeps programs, but what keeps television afloat is the television afloat is the viewers not-so-incidental viewers not-so-incidental exposure to advertisements exposure to advertisements for products.for products.

In U.S. television’s early In U.S. television’s early years, product years, product endorsements were endorsements were enmeshed with enmeshed with programming itself, making programming itself, making it difficult to separate the it difficult to separate the product from the program.product from the program.

III. Television and the Question of III. Television and the Question of SponsorshipSponsorship

Some Western countries, such as Some Western countries, such as Canada, England, France, and Germany, Canada, England, France, and Germany, have opted for state-controlled television, have opted for state-controlled television, in which the government plays a more in which the government plays a more active role in the industry and active role in the industry and programming.programming.

Meanwhile, U.S. television is shaped by Meanwhile, U.S. television is shaped by free market forces which relies on free market forces which relies on corporate sponsorship and advertising.corporate sponsorship and advertising.

IV. Media and the Public SphereIV. Media and the Public Sphere A public sphere is ideally a A public sphere is ideally a

space where citizen come space where citizen come together to debate and together to debate and discuss the pressing discuss the pressing issues of their society.issues of their society.

In events such as the In events such as the assassination of John F. assassination of John F. Kennedy, the funeral of Kennedy, the funeral of Princess Diana, and the Princess Diana, and the attacks of Sept. 11attacks of Sept. 11thth, 2001, , 2001, the media serve to create the media serve to create a sense of community at a sense of community at local, national, and global local, national, and global levels.levels. Princess Diana’s Funeral

IV. Media and the Public SphereIV. Media and the Public Sphere

The television talk The television talk shows creates a shows creates a forum for forum for contemporary issues contemporary issues and thus promotes and thus promotes the formation of public the formation of public spheres.spheres.

Who is the audience Who is the audience of this genre?of this genre?

IV. Media and the Public SphereIV. Media and the Public Sphere

Some critics have faulted the media for Some critics have faulted the media for sensationalizing events involving stars and sensationalizing events involving stars and notorious individuals over important global notorious individuals over important global news, such as wars, famine, and international news, such as wars, famine, and international politics.politics.

Scott Peterson on trial for killing his wife Laci and their unborn son.

V. New Media CulturesV. New Media Cultures

The status of media in The status of media in contemporary culture is contemporary culture is contradictory and contradictory and mixed.mixed.

It is diverse at both the It is diverse at both the level of the media level of the media themselves and at the themselves and at the level of national and level of national and cultural boundaries.cultural boundaries.

What constitutes a What constitutes a medium?medium?

Consumer Culture and the Consumer Culture and the Manufacturing of DesireManufacturing of Desire

Chapter 6Chapter 6


Visual images play a primary role in the Visual images play a primary role in the commerce of contemporary societies.commerce of contemporary societies.

CommodityCommodity culture and consumer culture and consumer societies are dependent upon the constant societies are dependent upon the constant production and consumption of goods in production and consumption of goods in order to function.order to function.

Advertising images are central to the Advertising images are central to the construction of cultural ideas about construction of cultural ideas about lifestyle, self-image, self-improvement, and lifestyle, self-image, self-improvement, and glamourglamour


The advertising world The advertising world works by works by abstraction, abstraction, a a potential place or state of potential place or state of being situated not in the being situated not in the present but in an present but in an imagined future with the imagined future with the promise to the consumer promise to the consumer of things “you” will have, of things “you” will have, a lifestyle you can take a lifestyle you can take part in.part in.

Images can be presented Images can be presented as art, science, as art, science, documentary evidence, documentary evidence, or personal memories.or personal memories.

I. Consumer SocietyI. Consumer Society Fundamental changes in the experience of Fundamental changes in the experience of

community in the rise of the consumer society community in the rise of the consumer society came through an increased complexity and came through an increased complexity and diversity of the urban population, increased diversity of the urban population, increased immigration, and a loosening of the hold of small immigration, and a loosening of the hold of small and stable communities and families on social and stable communities and families on social values.values.

It has been argued that people derive their It has been argued that people derive their sense of their place in the world and their self-sense of their place in the world and their self-image at least in part through their purchase and image at least in part through their purchase and use of commodities which seem to give meaning use of commodities which seem to give meaning to their lives in the absence of the meaning to their lives in the absence of the meaning derived from closer-knit community.derived from closer-knit community.

I. Consumer SocietyI. Consumer Society The late 19The late 19thth century rise of century rise of

the department stores the department stores represented the merge of represented the merge of commerce and leisure.commerce and leisure.

Window shopping is thus Window shopping is thus related to a more mobile related to a more mobile vision of modernity.vision of modernity.

French poet Charles French poet Charles Baudelaire wrote about the Baudelaire wrote about the flaneurflaneur, a man who strolled , a man who strolled the streets as an observer, the streets as an observer, never engaging with never engaging with surroundings but taking an surroundings but taking an interest in them.interest in them.

I. Consumer SocietyI. Consumer Society

Today, consumption is thought of as a Today, consumption is thought of as a form of leisure, pleasure, and as a form of form of leisure, pleasure, and as a form of therapy.therapy.

Commodities can fulfill emotional needs Commodities can fulfill emotional needs but those needs are never truly fulfilled as but those needs are never truly fulfilled as the forces of the market lure us into the forces of the market lure us into wanting more or different commodities.wanting more or different commodities.

II. Commodity Culture and II. Commodity Culture and Commodity FetishismCommodity Fetishism

The term The term commodity selfcommodity self is the is the idea that our selves are idea that our selves are constructed in part through our constructed in part through our consumption and use of consumption and use of commodities.commodities.

Advertising encourages Advertising encourages consumers to think of consumers to think of commodities as central means commodities as central means through which to convey their through which to convey their personalities.personalities.

What precisely is it that ads sell?What precisely is it that ads sell?


Marxist theory critiques Marxist theory critiques the emphasis in the emphasis in capitalism on exchange capitalism on exchange over use value, in which over use value, in which things are valued not for things are valued not for what they really do but what they really do but for what they’re worth in for what they’re worth in abstract, monetary terms.abstract, monetary terms.

Why are diamonds more Why are diamonds more expensive than a expensive than a necessity such as water?necessity such as water?


Commodity fetishism refers Commodity fetishism refers to the process by which to the process by which mass-produced goods are mass-produced goods are emptied of the meaning of emptied of the meaning of their production and then their production and then filled with new meanings in filled with new meanings in ways that both mystify the ways that both mystify the product and turn it into a product and turn it into a fetish product.fetish product.

The experience of the labor The experience of the labor process is devalued and process is devalued and makes it harder for workers makes it harder for workers to take pride in what they to take pride in what they have produced.have produced.


Pop ArtPop Art in the late 1950s and 1960s engaged in the late 1950s and 1960s engaged with mass culture in a way that did not condemn with mass culture in a way that did not condemn it but demonstrated their love of and pleasure in it but demonstrated their love of and pleasure in popular culture.popular culture.

Andy Warhol, Two Hundred Campbell’s Soup Cans, 1962

III. Addressing the ConsumerIII. Addressing the Consumer Like other images, advertising images Like other images, advertising images

interpellate their viewers in particular ways, interpellate their viewers in particular ways, hailing them as ideological subjects.hailing them as ideological subjects.

The “you” that advertising addresses is always The “you” that advertising addresses is always implied to be an individual.implied to be an individual.

Ads perform the very contradictory work of Ads perform the very contradictory work of convincing many different consumers that a convincing many different consumers that a mass-produced product will make them unique mass-produced product will make them unique and different from others.and different from others.

This concept is known as This concept is known as psuedoindividualitypsuedoindividuality, a , a false idea of identity.false idea of identity.

Thus, it can be said that advertising asks us not Thus, it can be said that advertising asks us not to consume commodities but to consume signs.to consume commodities but to consume signs.

III. Addressing the ConsumerIII. Addressing the Consumer

The advertising The advertising strategy of repeating strategy of repeating a motif can be used to a motif can be used to establish familiarity establish familiarity with a product and to with a product and to keep viewers’ keep viewers’ attention.attention.

III. Addressing the ConsumerIII. Addressing the Consumer Ads operate with a Ads operate with a

presumption of relevancepresumption of relevance that allows them to make that allows them to make inflated statements about inflated statements about the necessity of their the necessity of their products.products.

Ads also create a Ads also create a relationship of relationship of equivalenceequivalence between between elements within the frame elements within the frame and between the product and between the product and its signifier.and its signifier.

Companies also Companies also differentiatedifferentiate products products from their competition.from their competition.

IV. Images and TextIV. Images and Text

It is through complex It is through complex compositions of compositions of photographs, text, and photographs, text, and graphics that ads graphics that ads speak to consumers.speak to consumers.

Text can often have a Text can often have a powerful effect in powerful effect in establishing or establishing or changing the meaning changing the meaning of the photograph or of the photograph or image presented.image presented.

V. Envy, Desire, and GlamourV. Envy, Desire, and Glamour All advertisements tell All advertisements tell

consumers that their consumers that their products will change their products will change their lives for the better.lives for the better.

They often do this by They often do this by presenting figures of presenting figures of glamour that consumers glamour that consumers can envy and wish to can envy and wish to emulate.emulate.

Advertisements make Advertisements make references to art to give references to art to give their products a their products a connotation of prestige, connotation of prestige, tradition, and authenticity.tradition, and authenticity.

V. Envy, Desire, and GlamourV. Envy, Desire, and Glamour The world of advertising The world of advertising

speaks the language of self-speaks the language of self-management, self-control, management, self-control, and conformity.and conformity.

Ads use anxiety by Ads use anxiety by suggesting to consumers the suggesting to consumers the ways in which they may be ways in which they may be not only inadequate but not only inadequate but potentially endangered or potentially endangered or weakened without a weakened without a particular product.particular product.

VI. Belonging and DifferenceVI. Belonging and Difference

Sometimes when advertisements ask us to Sometimes when advertisements ask us to consume commodity signs, they attach to their consume commodity signs, they attach to their products concepts of the nation, family, products concepts of the nation, family, community, and democracy.community, and democracy.

VII. Bricolage and Counter-VII. Bricolage and Counter-bricolagebricolage

Bricolage is a mode of Bricolage is a mode of adaptation where things are adaptation where things are put to uses for which they put to uses for which they were not intended and in were not intended and in ways that dislocate them from ways that dislocate them from their normal or expected their normal or expected context.context.

Counter-bricolage refers to Counter-bricolage refers to the repackaging of bircolage the repackaging of bircolage commodities to be resold to commodities to be resold to mainstream consumers.mainstream consumers.

Counter-bricolage: Pablo Picasso and Apple Computers

VIII. The BrandVIII. The Brand

The circulation of brand The circulation of brand names, trademarks, and names, trademarks, and logos are a means logos are a means through which identities through which identities are constructed not only are constructed not only for goods and for goods and corporations, but for corporations, but for people who appropriate people who appropriate signifiers of products for signifiers of products for a style of themselves or a style of themselves or their culture.their culture.

IX. Anti-ad PracticesIX. Anti-ad Practices

Advertisements can be the subject of artistic Advertisements can be the subject of artistic parody and the site of on-site political parody and the site of on-site political messages.messages.

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