PPA 503 – The Public Policy- Making Process Lecture 2a - The Context of Public Policy: Values and...

PPA 503 – The Public Policy-PPA 503 – The Public Policy-Making ProcessMaking Process

Lecture 2a - The Context of Public Lecture 2a - The Context of Public Policy: Values and Environment Policy: Values and Environment

Historical Development of Public Historical Development of Public PolicyPolicy

The history of American politics and policy is The history of American politics and policy is characterized by considerable change.characterized by considerable change.

The policy history of the United States is The policy history of the United States is characterized by “policy restraint”.characterized by “policy restraint”.

The history is divided into four eras:The history is divided into four eras:– A period of divided power,A period of divided power,– An era of state activism,An era of state activism,– An era of national activism, andAn era of national activism, and– An era of national standards.An era of national standards.


Divided power (1787-1870).Divided power (1787-1870).– Weakness of national government under Articles of Weakness of national government under Articles of

Confederation, Shays’ Rebellion.Confederation, Shays’ Rebellion.– The Constitution placed limits on scope of federal The Constitution placed limits on scope of federal

government, but was still much stronger than the government, but was still much stronger than the government under the Articles. Also contained government under the Articles. Also contained structural impediments to radical policy.structural impediments to radical policy. Division of powers and separation of powers.Division of powers and separation of powers. Policy conflicts tend to turn on jurisdictional questions as much Policy conflicts tend to turn on jurisdictional questions as much

as policy questions. (Which level of government as important as policy questions. (Which level of government as important as what to do).as what to do).


Divided Power (contd.)Divided Power (contd.)– Powers granted to Congress fell into two categories: management Powers granted to Congress fell into two categories: management

of national responsibilities (defense) and commercial of national responsibilities (defense) and commercial responsibilities (interstate commerce).responsibilities (interstate commerce).

– Powers broadened by “necessary and proper” clause”.Powers broadened by “necessary and proper” clause”.– In general, however, from the perspective of the average citizen, In general, however, from the perspective of the average citizen,

the federal government was not the most important official the federal government was not the most important official participant in policy making.participant in policy making.

– Reinforced by structure, Founder’s understanding, rural nature of Reinforced by structure, Founder’s understanding, rural nature of the population, sparseness and homogeneity, libertarian political the population, sparseness and homogeneity, libertarian political philosophy, absence of industrialization.philosophy, absence of industrialization.

– Embodied by conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson. History Embodied by conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson. History supported Hamilton.supported Hamilton.


State activism (1870 to 1933).State activism (1870 to 1933).– Industrialization and attendant increases in wealth, Industrialization and attendant increases in wealth,

poverty, crime, disease.poverty, crime, disease.– Increased attempts at state regulation, but difficult for Increased attempts at state regulation, but difficult for

individual states. Interstate commerce suggested individual states. Interstate commerce suggested federal intervention, but federal government reluctant.federal intervention, but federal government reluctant. Did pass Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. Clayton Act 1914, Did pass Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. Clayton Act 1914,

Pure Food and Drug Act. Many trust breakups. (Now re-Pure Food and Drug Act. Many trust breakups. (Now re-merging).merging).

Federal government supported laissez-faire economics in its Federal government supported laissez-faire economics in its court and legislative decisions (Lochner vs. New York 1905).court and legislative decisions (Lochner vs. New York 1905).

– Integration of former slaves into society 1865 to 1880s. Integration of former slaves into society 1865 to 1880s. Declined thereafter (Plessy vs. Ferguson 1896). Turned Declined thereafter (Plessy vs. Ferguson 1896). Turned control of issue over to states.control of issue over to states.


National activism (1933-1961).National activism (1933-1961).– Demands triggered by Great Depression.Demands triggered by Great Depression.– Lochner rule influenced Supreme Court actions Lochner rule influenced Supreme Court actions

on New Deal until 1937.on New Deal until 1937.– New Deal created modern system of national New Deal created modern system of national

activism. Further enhanced by federal activism. Further enhanced by federal government activity during World War II.government activity during World War II.

– National Defense system in 1950s.National Defense system in 1950s.


National standards (1961 to 1981).National standards (1961 to 1981).– Great Society.Great Society.– Scientific study of public policy impelled by Scientific study of public policy impelled by

federal government’s efforts to set standards for federal government’s efforts to set standards for states and localities.states and localities.

– Retrenchment caused by Vietnam and Retrenchment caused by Vietnam and Watergate restrictions on President.Watergate restrictions on President. Budget and Impoundment Control Act.Budget and Impoundment Control Act. War Powers Act.War Powers Act.


The end of big government? (1981-present).The end of big government? (1981-present).– The election of Ronald Reagan.The election of Ronald Reagan.– The Reagan Revolution changed the tenor of The Reagan Revolution changed the tenor of

American politics and signaled a realignment.American politics and signaled a realignment.– These eras suggest that the American These eras suggest that the American

constitution without substantial change is constitution without substantial change is flexible enough to bend, but not break in the flexible enough to bend, but not break in the face of major policy upheavals.face of major policy upheavals.

Stability in American Politics and Stability in American Politics and Policy MakingPolicy Making

Table 2.1. Elements of American StabilityTable 2.1. Elements of American Stability

TypeType What this meansWhat this means Examples in actionExamples in action

Ideological stabilityIdeological stability Americans tend not to stray from Americans tend not to stray from a set of ideological precepts a set of ideological precepts based largely on our national based largely on our national experience.experience.

No labor party because of some No labor party because of some suspicion of class warfare.suspicion of class warfare.

Political stabilityPolitical stability Politics in the U.S. tends to be Politics in the U.S. tends to be fairly stable for extended periods.fairly stable for extended periods.

Our constitutional structure has Our constitutional structure has changed little. 27 amendments.changed little. 27 amendments.

Policy stabilityPolicy stability Policies tend to change very little Policies tend to change very little over time.over time.

The gradual evolution of Social The gradual evolution of Social Security over sixty years.Security over sixty years.

Stability in powerStability in power Changes in power do not cause Changes in power do not cause major policy, political, or social major policy, political, or social upheavals.upheavals.

The transition from one President The transition from one President or Congress to another is or Congress to another is generally very smoothgenerally very smooth

Source: Derived from James A. Anderson, Public Policymaking, 4Source: Derived from James A. Anderson, Public Policymaking, 4 thth ed. ed.


Ideological stability means that Americans and their representatives Ideological stability means that Americans and their representatives have not been quick to shift their basic political beliefs. Since the have not been quick to shift their basic political beliefs. Since the founding and even before, Americans have believed in personal founding and even before, Americans have believed in personal liberty and equality (except for those outside the mainstream), a liberty and equality (except for those outside the mainstream), a generally limited government, “popular sovereignty”, the rule of law, generally limited government, “popular sovereignty”, the rule of law, and respect for market economics, private property, and free and respect for market economics, private property, and free enterprise.enterprise.– Although attitudes have changed on a multitude of issues including Although attitudes have changed on a multitude of issues including

slavery, racial discrimination, the rights of women and children, and slavery, racial discrimination, the rights of women and children, and voting rights, the core values have remained the same.voting rights, the core values have remained the same.

– The acceptable range for ideology is much narrower in the U.S. than in The acceptable range for ideology is much narrower in the U.S. than in Europe.Europe.

Reinforced by the single member district and the two-party system.Reinforced by the single member district and the two-party system.– Some beliefs can be contradictory. Equality and capitalism, for Some beliefs can be contradictory. Equality and capitalism, for

example.example.


Political stability is a key element of our overall Political stability is a key element of our overall national stability. We have operated under the national stability. We have operated under the same constitutional arrangement since 1789 same constitutional arrangement since 1789 (oldest continuously operating system with a (oldest continuously operating system with a written constitution).written constitution).– Although many more groups have been included, the Although many more groups have been included, the

basic rules have remained the same.basic rules have remained the same. Structure that promotes a two-party system, Presidential Structure that promotes a two-party system, Presidential

election by electoral college, Senate based on state election by electoral college, Senate based on state representation, House apportioned to population.representation, House apportioned to population.

Reinforced by stable beliefs.Reinforced by stable beliefs.


Policy stability – Political stability produces policy Policy stability – Political stability produces policy stability.stability.– American government and constitutional system not American government and constitutional system not

designed to be quickly responsive to national needs or designed to be quickly responsive to national needs or desires. Checks and balances, separation of powersdesires. Checks and balances, separation of powers New Deal conflict, and court packing plan example.New Deal conflict, and court packing plan example. Clinton’s health plan examples.Clinton’s health plan examples.

– The federal system also operates to delay policy The federal system also operates to delay policy change.change. Laboratories of innovation versus status quo orientation.Laboratories of innovation versus status quo orientation.

In many senses, the constitution a In many senses, the constitution a counterrevolutionary document. The Civil War counterrevolutionary document. The Civil War may have been more revolutionary.may have been more revolutionary.

Policy Restraint and Barriers to Policy Restraint and Barriers to ChangeChange

One should not conclude that policy stability is solely the One should not conclude that policy stability is solely the result of the constitutional structure, or that policy change result of the constitutional structure, or that policy change can happen. It is just very difficult.can happen. It is just very difficult.

Barriers to change.Barriers to change.– Ideological and political stability. Shared power, high barriers to Ideological and political stability. Shared power, high barriers to

amendment, separation of powers, checks and balances.amendment, separation of powers, checks and balances.– Basic rules and norms.Basic rules and norms.

The Senate filibusterThe Senate filibuster SenioritySeniority Congressional procedural rulesCongressional procedural rules

– Open government and policy restraint.Open government and policy restraint. Open public meeting laws, Administrative Procedure Act, and the Open public meeting laws, Administrative Procedure Act, and the

Freedom of Information Act open up the process for public scrutiny and Freedom of Information Act open up the process for public scrutiny and by side effect slow down the policy process.by side effect slow down the policy process.


A rationale for stability.A rationale for stability.– Deliberation and public participation are at least as Deliberation and public participation are at least as

important as rapid and efficient policymaking.important as rapid and efficient policymaking.– Rapid policy change can happen with the right Rapid policy change can happen with the right

combination of political factors, but during normal combination of political factors, but during normal periods, minorities can block policy change and the periods, minorities can block policy change and the system preserves their right to do so.system preserves their right to do so.

– Policy does not change rapidly because most of the Policy does not change rapidly because most of the public does not support such change except under rare public does not support such change except under rare circumstances.circumstances.


Fragmentation.Fragmentation.– Fragmentation is a double-edge sword.Fragmentation is a double-edge sword.

On the one hand, it requires multiple serial majorities On the one hand, it requires multiple serial majorities to promote change.to promote change.

On the other hand, it offers multiple points of access On the other hand, it offers multiple points of access to the policy process.to the policy process.

– Dimensions of fragmentation.Dimensions of fragmentation. Separation of powers.Separation of powers. Division of powers (federalism).Division of powers (federalism).


Table 2.2. The Balance of PowerTable 2.2. The Balance of Power

FunctionFunction CongressCongress PresidentPresident CourtsCourts

LegislativeLegislative Make lawsMake laws Recommend laws; veto Recommend laws; veto laws; make regulations laws; make regulations that have the force of that have the force of law.law.

Review laws to Review laws to determine legislative determine legislative intent, new intent, new interpretationsinterpretations

ExecutiveExecutive Override vetoes; Override vetoes; legislative vetoes of legislative vetoes of regulationsregulations

Enforce and implement Enforce and implement laws.laws.

Review executive acts; Review executive acts; restrain executive restrain executive actions.actions.

JudicialJudicial Impeach judges and the Impeach judges and the president, call witnesses president, call witnesses to hearings, set judicial to hearings, set judicial jurisdiction.jurisdiction.

Pardon criminals, Pardon criminals, nominate judgesnominate judges

Interpret laws.Interpret laws.

Note: The primary function of each branch is indicated in the boxes with the diagonal lines.Note: The primary function of each branch is indicated in the boxes with the diagonal lines.

Core Values and Beliefs in American Core Values and Beliefs in American SystemSystem

Fundamental Beliefs Fundamental Beliefs – LifeLife The individual's right to life should be The individual's right to life should be

considered inviolable except in certain highly considered inviolable except in certain highly restricted and extreme circumstances, such as restricted and extreme circumstances, such as the use of deadly force to protect one's own or the use of deadly force to protect one's own or others' lives. others' lives.


Fundamental BeliefsFundamental Beliefs– LibertyLiberty The right to liberty is considered an unalterable aspect of The right to liberty is considered an unalterable aspect of

the human condition. Central to this idea of liberty is the the human condition. Central to this idea of liberty is the understanding that the political or personal obligations of parents or understanding that the political or personal obligations of parents or ancestors cannot be legitimately forced on people. The right to ancestors cannot be legitimately forced on people. The right to liberty includes personal freedom: the private realm in which the liberty includes personal freedom: the private realm in which the individual is free to act, to think and to believe, and which the individual is free to act, to think and to believe, and which the government cannot legitimately invade; political freedom: the right government cannot legitimately invade; political freedom: the right to participate freely in the political process, choose and remove to participate freely in the political process, choose and remove public officials, to be governed under a rule of law; the right to a public officials, to be governed under a rule of law; the right to a free flow of information and ideas, open debate and right of free flow of information and ideas, open debate and right of assembly; and economic freedom: the right to acquire, use, transfer assembly; and economic freedom: the right to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property without unreasonable governmental and dispose of private property without unreasonable governmental interference; the right to seek employment wherever one pleases; interference; the right to seek employment wherever one pleases; to change employment at will; and to engage in any lawful to change employment at will; and to engage in any lawful economic activity.economic activity.


Fundamental BeliefsFundamental Beliefs– The Pursuit of HappinessThe Pursuit of Happiness It is the right of It is the right of

citizens in the American constitutional citizens in the American constitutional democracy to attempt to attain--to "pursue"--democracy to attempt to attain--to "pursue"--happiness in their own way, so long as they do happiness in their own way, so long as they do not infringe upon rights of others.not infringe upon rights of others.

– Common GoodCommon Good The public or common good The public or common good requires that individual citizens have the requires that individual citizens have the commitment and motivation--that they accept commitment and motivation--that they accept their obligation--to promote the welfare of the their obligation--to promote the welfare of the community and to work together with other community and to work together with other members for the greater benefit of all.members for the greater benefit of all.


Fundamental BeliefsFundamental Beliefs

– JusticeJustice People should be treated fairly in the People should be treated fairly in the distribution of the benefits and burdens of distribution of the benefits and burdens of society, the correction of wrongs and injuries, society, the correction of wrongs and injuries, and in the gathering of information and making and in the gathering of information and making of decisions.of decisions.

– DiversityDiversity Variety in culture and ethnic Variety in culture and ethnic background, race, lifestyle, and belief is not only background, race, lifestyle, and belief is not only permissible but desirable and beneficial in a permissible but desirable and beneficial in a pluralist society.pluralist society.


Fundamental BeliefsFundamental Beliefs– TruthTruth Citizens can legitimately demand that truth-telling Citizens can legitimately demand that truth-telling

as refraining from Iying and full disclosure by as refraining from Iying and full disclosure by government be the rule, since trust in the veracity of government be the rule, since trust in the veracity of government constitutes an essential element of the government constitutes an essential element of the bond between governors and governed.bond between governors and governed.

– Popular SovereigntyPopular Sovereignty The citizenry is collectively the The citizenry is collectively the sovereign of the state and holds ultimate authority over sovereign of the state and holds ultimate authority over public officials and their policies.public officials and their policies.

– PatriotismPatriotism Virtuous citizens display a devotion to their Virtuous citizens display a devotion to their country, including devotion to the fundamental values country, including devotion to the fundamental values and principles upon which it depends.and principles upon which it depends.


Constitutional principles.Constitutional principles.– Rule of Law and Judicial Review Rule of Law and Judicial Review Both government Both government

and the governed should be and the governed should be subject to the subject to the law.law.– Separation of Powers Separation of Powers Legislative, executive, and Legislative, executive, and

judicial powers should be exercised by different judicial powers should be exercised by different institutions in order to maintain the limitations placed institutions in order to maintain the limitations placed upon them.upon them.

– Representative Government Representative Government The republican form of The republican form of government established under the Constitution is one in government established under the Constitution is one in which citizens elect others to represent their interests.which citizens elect others to represent their interests.


Constitutional principles.Constitutional principles.– Checks and Balances Checks and Balances The powers given to the different branches The powers given to the different branches

of government should be balanced, that is roughly equal, so that no of government should be balanced, that is roughly equal, so that no branch can completely dominate the others. Branches of branch can completely dominate the others. Branches of government are also given powers to check the power of other government are also given powers to check the power of other branches.branches.

– Individual Rights Individual Rights Fundamental to American constitutional Fundamental to American constitutional democracy is democracy is the belief that the belief that individuals have certain basic rights individuals have certain basic rights that are not created by government but which government should that are not created by government but which government should protect. These are the right to life, liberty, economic freedom, and protect. These are the right to life, liberty, economic freedom, and the "pursuit of happiness." It is the purpose of government to the "pursuit of happiness." It is the purpose of government to protect these rights, and it may not place unfair or unreasonable protect these rights, and it may not place unfair or unreasonable restraints on their exercise. Many of these rights are enumerated in restraints on their exercise. Many of these rights are enumerated in the Bill of Rights.the Bill of Rights.


Constitutional PrinciplesConstitutional Principles– Limited GovernmentLimited Government The powers of government may The powers of government may

not be used to restrict fundamental freedoms including not be used to restrict fundamental freedoms including life, liberty, and property.life, liberty, and property.

– Freedom of Religion Freedom of Religion There shall be full freedom of There shall be full freedom of conscience for people of all faiths or none. Religious conscience for people of all faiths or none. Religious liberty is considered to be a natural inalienable right that liberty is considered to be a natural inalienable right that must always be beyond the power of the state to confer must always be beyond the power of the state to confer or remove. Religious liberty includes the right to freely or remove. Religious liberty includes the right to freely practice any religion or no religion without governmental practice any religion or no religion without governmental coercion or control.coercion or control.


Constitutional PrinciplesConstitutional Principles– Federalism Federalism Power is shared between two sets Power is shared between two sets

of governmental institutions, those of the states of governmental institutions, those of the states and those of the central or federal authorities, and those of the central or federal authorities, as stipulated by the Constitution.as stipulated by the Constitution.

– Civilian Control of the Military Civilian Control of the Military Civilian Civilian authority should control the military in order to authority should control the military in order to preserve constitutional government.preserve constitutional government.

Information Management in Public Information Management in Public PolicyPolicy

The environment of public policy in the United The environment of public policy in the United States has changed dramatically because of the States has changed dramatically because of the advances in information technology.advances in information technology.

In 1813, Congress made provision for the In 1813, Congress made provision for the protection of state documents by requiring that protection of state documents by requiring that copies of important legislative documents be made copies of important legislative documents be made available to selected universities, state libraries, available to selected universities, state libraries, and historical societies.and historical societies.

The origin of the federal depository library system.The origin of the federal depository library system.

Information Management in Public Information Management in Public PolicyPolicy

By 1945, the USGPO was doing eight By 1945, the USGPO was doing eight mailings per day to each of 418 depository mailings per day to each of 418 depository libraries.libraries.

Beginning in 1980s and 1990s, the USGPO Beginning in 1980s and 1990s, the USGPO began the shift to microfiche.began the shift to microfiche.

In the 2000s, the USGPO is not the only In the 2000s, the USGPO is not the only source of information and most source of information and most documentation is now electronic.documentation is now electronic.

The Cold War: Origins of The Cold War: Origins of Information Technology in the U.S.Information Technology in the U.S.

Colossus computer – 1943. Codebreaker.Colossus computer – 1943. Codebreaker. ENIAC – 1942—1946. Ballistics ENIAC – 1942—1946. Ballistics

calculations.calculations. UNIVAC 1 – weighed 8 tons. - Sold to UNIVAC 1 – weighed 8 tons. - Sold to

Census Bureau. First commerical sale.Census Bureau. First commerical sale.– U.S. Navy and Atomic Energy Commission U.S. Navy and Atomic Energy Commission

bought the next two.bought the next two.– First private sector purchaser – General First private sector purchaser – General

Electric.Electric.


Mainframe computing – 1970sMainframe computing – 1970s– IBM 370.IBM 370.– IBM 7090, first transistorized computer.IBM 7090, first transistorized computer.

Personal computer – 1980sPersonal computer – 1980s– AppleApple– IBM PCIBM PC– Ended the use of mainframe computing by Ended the use of mainframe computing by

government.government.


Advanced Research Projects Agency Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) within Department of Defense.(ARPA) within Department of Defense.– Over 12 years, major governmental initiatives Over 12 years, major governmental initiatives

reconstructed telecommunications infrastructure reconstructed telecommunications infrastructure and provided foundation for the Internet.and provided foundation for the Internet.

– Data communications technology (air defense).Data communications technology (air defense).– Communications satellite development.Communications satellite development.– ARPAnet 1969 – first cooperative computer ARPAnet 1969 – first cooperative computer

network.network.

Architecture of Federal Information Architecture of Federal Information Policy, 1946-1980Policy, 1946-1980

Administrative Procedures Act of 1946.Administrative Procedures Act of 1946.– Federal Register, electronic 1993.Federal Register, electronic 1993.

Federal Records Act of 1950.Federal Records Act of 1950.– Preserve documentation of the organization, Preserve documentation of the organization,

functions, policies, decisions, procedures, and functions, policies, decisions, procedures, and transactions of agency.transactions of agency.

The Freedom of Information Act of 1966.The Freedom of Information Act of 1966.– Right to public access to government Right to public access to government

information.information.


The Technology Assessment Act of 1972.The Technology Assessment Act of 1972.– Office of Technology Assessment, later superseded by Office of Technology Assessment, later superseded by

other technology agencies.other technology agencies.

The Federal Advisory Committee Act of 1972.The Federal Advisory Committee Act of 1972.– Timely notice in Federal Register of advisory committee Timely notice in Federal Register of advisory committee

meetings.meetings.

The Privacy Act of 1974.The Privacy Act of 1974.– Protects privacy of individuals identified in information Protects privacy of individuals identified in information

systems maintained by federal agencies.systems maintained by federal agencies.


The Government in the Sunshine Act of 1976.The Government in the Sunshine Act of 1976.– Public entitled to fullest information on decision-making Public entitled to fullest information on decision-making

processes of federal agencies.processes of federal agencies.

Presidential Records Act of 1978.Presidential Records Act of 1978.– Made presidential records public rather than private.Made presidential records public rather than private.

The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980.The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980.– Mandated an information resource management (IRM) Mandated an information resource management (IRM)

approach to federal data.approach to federal data.

From BITNET to FIRSTGOV: From BITNET to FIRSTGOV: Growth of the Internet 1981-2000Growth of the Internet 1981-2000

BITNET (1981) – BITNET (1981) – Because It’s Time NETwork.Because It’s Time NETwork.– Cooperative network situated at CUNY.Cooperative network situated at CUNY.

NSFNet (1986) – Managed with IBM, MCI, and NSFNet (1986) – Managed with IBM, MCI, and Merit Network. 10,000 hosts by 1987.Merit Network. 10,000 hosts by 1987.

Combination of ARPANet, BITNET, and NSFNET Combination of ARPANet, BITNET, and NSFNET provided infrastructure for the Internet.provided infrastructure for the Internet.

1984 – Domain Name System (DNS) and Uniform 1984 – Domain Name System (DNS) and Uniform Resource Locators (URL).Resource Locators (URL).

From BITNET to FIRSTGOV: From BITNET to FIRSTGOV: Growth of the Internet 1981-2000Growth of the Internet 1981-2000

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers responsible for civilian URLs, FTP, lookup files. Military responsible for civilian URLs, FTP, lookup files. Military responsible for .mil, Feds responsible for .gov, and foreign responsible for .mil, Feds responsible for .gov, and foreign countries for the suffixes.countries for the suffixes.

In 1992, federal government repealed acceptable use In 1992, federal government repealed acceptable use policy allowing commercialization of the Internet.policy allowing commercialization of the Internet.

1992 – Supreme Court prohibited Internet sales taxation for 1992 – Supreme Court prohibited Internet sales taxation for companies without physical presence in state.companies without physical presence in state.

1993 – Federal funding of internet ends.1993 – Federal funding of internet ends. 1995 – Concept of the “Digital Divide.”1995 – Concept of the “Digital Divide.” 2000 – FirstGov.gov, portal to all government information.2000 – FirstGov.gov, portal to all government information.

Policy Issues in the Information Age, Policy Issues in the Information Age, 1986-20051986-2005

Public access to information.Public access to information. Public participation in e-government, Public participation in e-government,

including public comments on federal including public comments on federal regulations.regulations.

Accessibility for disabled. Rehabilitation Act Accessibility for disabled. Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1986.Amendments of 1986.

Individual privacy. Matching regulated but Individual privacy. Matching regulated but more match since 9/11.more match since 9/11.


Modernizing education. Increased technology Modernizing education. Increased technology infrastructure.infrastructure.

Regulating e-vice.Regulating e-vice.– Child Online Protection Act of 1998 (unconstitutional).Child Online Protection Act of 1998 (unconstitutional).– Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996

(unconstitutional).(unconstitutional).– Prosecutorial Remedies and Tools Against the Prosecutorial Remedies and Tools Against the

Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003 (PROTECT).Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003 (PROTECT).– Child Obscenity and Pornography Prevention Act of Child Obscenity and Pornography Prevention Act of

20032003– Many more acts.Many more acts.


Securing intellectual property.Securing intellectual property.– Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, extended to Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, extended to

digital media. Fair use for universities. Prohibited digital media. Fair use for universities. Prohibited removal of copyright management information from removal of copyright management information from digital media.digital media.

Electronic voting.Electronic voting.– Shift from paper ballots, but many security issues.Shift from paper ballots, but many security issues.

Regulating the outsourcing of IT jobs.Regulating the outsourcing of IT jobs.– Raises information security issues.Raises information security issues.

Securing E-Government, 1986 - Securing E-Government, 1986 - 20052005

Guaranteeing security of cyberspace key issue.Guaranteeing security of cyberspace key issue. 1980s mostly computer crime.1980s mostly computer crime. 1990s, architecture for securing cyberspace 1990s, architecture for securing cyberspace

against foreign and domestic enemies.against foreign and domestic enemies. Presidential Decision Directive 63 (Protecting Presidential Decision Directive 63 (Protecting

America’s Critical Infrastructure).America’s Critical Infrastructure). Government Information and Security Reform Act Government Information and Security Reform Act

of 2000.of 2000. 9/11.9/11.

Securing E-Government, 1986 - Securing E-Government, 1986 - 20052005

USA Patriot Act of 2001.USA Patriot Act of 2001. Cyber Security and Research Act of 2002.Cyber Security and Research Act of 2002. Amendments to Fair Credit Reporting Act to Amendments to Fair Credit Reporting Act to

reduce identity theft.reduce identity theft. OMB – Information Systems Council to OMB – Information Systems Council to

coordinate sharing of terrorist information.coordinate sharing of terrorist information. 9/11 Commission – separate, secure 9/11 Commission – separate, secure

network for federal information sharing.network for federal information sharing.

PPA 503 – The Public Policy- Making Process Lecture 2a - The Context of Public Policy: Values and...

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