I n the course of archaeological investigations atlocality 85 in Sirmium, that could be assumedwith considerable certainty to be the segment of

imperial residential complex,1 the foot of gilt bronzefibula (C-169/2005), 31 x 22 mm in size (Fig. 1), wasdiscovered in the fall of 2005. The fibula fragmenthas been found in sector C, room 12, in the layer ofbuilding rubble originating from the same site andaccumulated after the completion of archaeologicalexcavations conducted in the previous year. On bothlateral edges of the fibula foot there are three castvolutes shaped as letter C. The ornament in the centralfoot zone is enclosed within a rectangular field,covering almost its entire surface. The decorationexecuted by engraving and highlighted by nielloconsists of intersecting circles, which create the motifsof quatrefoils and rhombs filled with short engravedand niello-filled lines. Above the ornamental panel issemicircular impression of the base of the fibula’smissing bow. The end of foot bent at right angle isterminating in an arch and the base of the trough--shaped pin holder is missing. On the bent surface,i.e. the rear wall of the pin holder, there is a crossexecuted by engraving and niello. Its upper arm isbent to resemble the Greek letter rho, so the mono-gram cross, crux monogrammatica or Christogram,the combined representation of cross and two initialletters of the word Christos was thus created. In otherwords, the cross itself represents letter chi, while its

bent upper arm makes letter rho. Letters alpha andomega are engraved above the side arm of the crossas direct allusion to Christ as the beginning and theend’, in accordance with His words in the Book ofRevelation (1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

The distinct ornament on the foot makes possiblerelatively precise reconstruction of fibula, despite thefact that its other parts are not preserved (Fig. 2).Namely, the ornamental scheme on this foot has directanalogies on somewhat longer fibulae feet from thegrave of Roman officer, most probably of Germandescent, discovered in Bonn2 and fibula from theunknown site, now in the Metropolitan Museum inNew York.3 In contrast to the Sirmium foot with threeC-shaped volutes on each lateral edge, the other twomentioned specimens have four C-shaped volutes on

101

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IVANA POPOVI],Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade

GILT FIBULA WITH CHRISTOGRAM FROMIMPERIAL PALACE IN SIRMIUM

Abstract. ‡ The foot of gilt bronze fibula was discovered in 2005 during archaeological investigations of locality 85 in Sirmium,that is assumed to have been the remains of the imperial palace. Ornament on the foot enclosed within rectangular field is executed

in the niello technique. End of the foot is bent at the right angle and the Christogram is engraved on it with Greek letters alphaand omega engraved above its side arm. The preserved part of fibula makes possible reconstruction of its appearance and

attribution to the group of massive bronze crossbow fibulae, which were produced in the second half of the 4th century andcharacterized by decoration consisting of gilding, niello, Christogram motif and/or the busts of young men in medallions.

Key words. ‡ Crossbow fibula, Christogram, Late Antiquity, Sirmium

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1 Systematic archaeological investigations of this site havestarted in 2003 and are still in progress. They were preceded bytest trenching in 2002, cf. Jeremi}, Popovi} 2004, 283-288.Archaeological investigations are organized by the Institute ofArchaeology in Belgrade in cooperation with the Museum of Sremin Sremska Mitrovica and the Office for Protection of CulturalMonuments in Sremska Mitrovica. The co-directors of investigationsare Dr. Ivana Popovi} and Dr. Miroslav Jeremi}.

2 A l´aube de la France 1981, 147‡148, nr. 234 a.3 Deppert-Lippitz 2000, 53‡54, Fig. 15; Dandridge 2000,

82‡84, Fig. 15‡17.

UDC 904:739.1/.2"652"(497.113)DOI: 10.2298/STA0757101P

the lateral edges. The ornament in central panel isidentical on all three feet, but the ornamental panel onthe Sirmium fibula is slightly shorter, hence theornament is less elaborate. On the bent segment ofthe foot, i.e. on the rear wall of the pin holder of theBonn fibula, there is the Christogram and letters alphaand omega, like on the Sirmium specimen, while thereare no such symbols on the foot of the fibula from theMetropolitan Museum.

The fibulae from Bonn and the Metropolitan Mu-seum, as well as the one whose foot was discoveredwithin the imperial palace complex in Sirmium, be-long to one not so numerous group of the crossbow fi-bulae having been produced during the second half ofthe 4th century and of distinct type, considering themode of manufacture and system of decoration. Incontrast to the simple bronze fibulae assembled fromthe cast elements, these gilt specimens were made inthe same way as the gold fibulae, which were certa-inly used as models, although not a single piece ofthese gold prototypes is preserved today. In otherwords, there is no single gold fibula which could bereliably dated in the third and the beginning of the fo-urth quarter of the 4th century. It could be the conse-quence of unhappy circumstances in the course of ar-chaeological excavations, but it also could be the re-sult of situation at that time, when there was not a

pressing need to produce gold fibulae, because thepersons for whom such honors were intended couldhave been satisfied with gilt bronze specimens ofidentical shape and impressive appearance as werethe gold fibulae.4

These gilt bronze specimens were produced fromthe pieces of sheet metal joined by forging. Althoughtheir entire length does not exceed 7‡10 cm, the topsurfaces of bow and foot are wider than on theearlier fibulae and therefore they had a voluminousappearance. The foot is of semicircular or triangularcross-section with top lateral edges having series of Cvolutes cast on the metal sheet of which the footwas made. The onion bulbs’, made of two metalhemispheres joined horizontally by forging, aremassive and hollow. Broad wavy band, appliqué, onthe transversal bar was also contributing to the massiveappearance of these fibulae. Nevertheless, besidesthese structural elements, their impressive appearanceis enhanced also by distinct decoration on the broadtop surfaces of bow and foot organized in ornamentalbands, which are like tapestry spreading over thefibula body. The motifs of geometric character within

102 IVANA POPOVI]

Fig. 1 ‡ Foot of gilt fibula, Sirmium

Sl. 1 ‡ Stopa pozla}ene fibule, Sirmium

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4 Depper-Lippitz 2000, 53.

these bands were executed by engraving and the co-loristic effect was achieved using black niello andwhite silver plating on yellow gilt background.5 Inaddition to the intersecting circles creating the motifsof quatrefoils and rhombs on the fibulae from Bonn,Sirmium and the Metropolitan Museum, on otherspecimens are encountered also the motifs of squares,octagons, rhomboids, herringbone or the S motif.Within these ornamental panels, which substitutednarrow decorative bands, on earlier specimens therewere sometimes incorporated small medallions withengraved portraits or busts of young men with theirfaces turned three-quarters to the side and clad in thedraped tunics. According to the pieces discovered sofar, the number of these portrait medallions, imaginesclipeatae, varies from one to ten. Within theseornamental bands sometimes also occurs the panelwith Christogram, which could be executed also onthe rear wall of the pin holder.

Although the fibulae of this type have beenencountered within the wide area from Britain to the

Black Sea,6 the largest concentration of these finds isrecorded in the middle and lower Danube basin andthe regions gravitating toward that area (Fig. 3), whereby all appearances the workshops producing suchfibulae also existed. In the graves from the large LateRoman necropolis Ságvár (Triciana), near the LakeBalaton in Hungary, as much as nine such specimenshave been recorded and particularly interesting arefibula from grave 249, found with a coin of ConstantiusGallus from 351/354 AD, and specimen from grave253, discovered with a coin of Valentinianus I, mintedbetween AD 367 and AD 375.7 Considering the fibulaefrom this necropolis the portrait medallions withinornamental panels occur on two specimens8 andChristogram on one specimen.9 It is interesting thatfibulae of this type have been found also in the femalegraves at this necropolis.10 Besides the fibula fromgrave 249 at the mentioned necropolis, among theearliest money-dated specimens of this type is attributedthe fibula from grave A at the necropolis on the siteMucsfa-Szárászpuszta, decorated with two portraitmedallions on the foot and found together with coinsof Constantine I, Constans and Constantius II.11 Thegilt fibula with three portrait medallions within anornamental band was recorded in a grave fromthe last third of the 4th century at large Pannoniannecropolis Csákvár (Floriana),12 while the specimenfrom grave 25 at the necropolis Somodvar is dated bythe coin of Valens from AD 364/378.13 Other fibulaeof this type from Pannonia are not precisely dated by themonetary finds. Two specimens from Osijek (Mursa),one with portrait medallion and two Christograms onthe bow, and the other with four portrait medallions,are chance finds. Fibula with four portrait medallions14

from [trbinci near \akovo (Certesia ?) was foundduring the archaeological excavations and on the basisof the analysis of the portraits it was dated into theperiod between 323 and 337,15 while for fibulae from

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5 Depper-Lippitz 2000, 54; Dandridge 2000, 83‡84. 6 Keller 1971, 217‡218 (Liste 10).7 Burger 1966, 143‡144, Pl. XC, 1‡5, 7; XCI, 1, 3; XCIII, 2.8 Burger 196, 6 Pl. XCI, 1, 3 (graves 97 and 114).9 Burger 1966, Fig. 95, 20/3 (grave 20).

10 Burger 1966, Fig. 95, 20/3 (grave 20).11 Guggisberg 2003, 159, F 22, Abb. 287.12 Salomon, Barkóczi 1971, 70,75, Abb. 11. 18, T. XVII, 9.13 Keller 1971, 41.14 Vinski 1974, 8, T. II, 1; III, 1.15 Migotti 2008, 9‡11; 56‡58.

Fig. 2 ‡ Gilt crossbow fibula, possiblereconstruction

Sl. 2 ‡ Pozla}ena lukovi~asta fibula,

mogu}a rekonstrukcija

104 IVANA POPOVI]

Fig. 3 ‡ Finds of gilt crossbow fibulae with Christogram (a‡f), male busts (1‡43) and combination of bothmotifs (2, 3, 10, 17, 24, 38): a ‡ Bonn, b ‡ Ságvár-Triciana, c ‡ Sremska Mitrovica‡Sirmium, d ‡ Pleven, e ‡Prahovo‡Aquae, f ‡ Ni{‡Naissus, Fortress; 1‡ Barrington, 2 ‡ London, 3 ‡ Marteville, 4 ‡ Paris, 5 ‡ Chartres,6 ‡ Cortrat, 7 ‡ Bourges, 8 ‡ Köln‡Deutz, 9 ‡ Trier, 10 ‡ Basel, 11‡13 ‡ Windisch, 14 ‡ Murnau, 15 ‡ Enns,16 ‡ Spodnja Hajdina, 17 ‡ Drnovo‡Neviodunum, 18 ‡ Somlóvásárhley, 19 ‡ Csákvár, 20‡21 ‡ Ságvár, 22 ‡Mucsfa-Szárápuszta, 23 ‡ Dunaújváros-Intercisa, 24‡25 ‡ Osijek‡Mursa, 26 ‡ Ni{, 27 ‡ Kozlodui, 28 ‡^omakovci, 29‡31 ‡ Pleven, 32 ‡ Stara Zagora-Augusta Traiana, 33 ‡ Kolarci, 34 ‡ Varna‡Odessos, 35 ‡^erna Gora; 36 ‡ Bulgaria, Archaeological Museum, Sofia, 37 ‡ Serbia, National Museum, Belgrade, 38 ‡Gamzigrad‡Romuliana; 39 ‡ [trbinci; 40 ‡ Zmajevac; 41 ‡ Vinkovci; 42‡43 ‡ Tamuda (44‡52 ‡ unknown

sites: Syria; Paris, Louvre Museum; London, British Museum; Munich, private collections)

Sl. 3 ‡ Nalazi pozla}enih lukovi~astih fibula sa hristogramom (a‡f), mu{ke biste (1‡43) i

kombinacije oba motiva (2, 3, 10, 17, 24, 38): a ‡ Bon, b ‡ [agvar‡Triciana, c ‡ Sremska Mitrovi-

ca‡Sirmium, d ‡ Pleven, e ‡ Prahovo-Aquae, f ‡ Ni{-Naissus, Tvr|ava; 1 ‡ Berington, 2 ‡ London, 3

‡ Martvij, 4 ‡ Pariz, 5 ‡ [artr, 6 ‡ Korta, 7 ‡ Bur`, 8 ‡ Keln‡Dojc, 9 ‡ Trijer, 10 ‡ Bazel, 11‡13

‡ Vindi{, 14 ‡ Mirno, 15 ‡ Ens, 16 ‡ Spodwa Hajdina, 17 ‡ Drnovo‡Neviodunum, 18 ‡ Somlovara-

{lei, 19 ‡ ^akvar, 20‡21 ‡ [agvar, 22 ‡ Mu~va‡Sarapusta, 23 ‡ Dunajvaro{‡Intercisa, 24‡25 ‡ Osi-

jek‡Mursa, 26‡Ni{, 27 ‡ Kozloduj, 28 ‡ ^omakovci, 29‡31 ‡ Pleven, 32 ‡ Stara Zagora‡Augusta Tra-iana, 33 ‡ Kolarci, 34 ‡ Varna‡Odessos, 35 ‡ ^erna Gora; 36 ‡ Bugarska, Arheolo{ki muzej, Sofija,

37 ‡ Srbija, Narodni muzej, Beograd, 38 ‡ Gamzigrad-Romuliana; 39 ‡ [trbinci, 40 ‡ Zmajevac, 41 ‡

Vinkovci, 42‡43 ‡ Tamuda, (44‡52 ‡ nepoznata nalazi{ta: Sirija; Pariz, Muzej Luvr; London,

Britanski muzej; Minhen, privatna kolekcija)

Zmajevac (with one portrait) and Vinkovci (with twoportraits) no certain chronological period was defi-ned.16 There is also no information concerning thefinding circumstances of the specimen from Velikanear Slavonska Po`ega with ornamental band witho-ut any other ornaments.17 Particularly interesting isthe specimen from Drnovo (Neviodunum) with sixportraits and Christogram on the bent section of thefoot.18

The concentration of gilt fibulae of this type hasbeen recorded, except in Pannonia, also in the middleand lower Danube basin. The specimen from Prahovo(Aquae) has Christogram at the beginning of anornamental band19 (Fig. 4), while there are two portraitmedallions between the rhombs on the ornamentalband on the fibula from the unknown site in Serbia(Fig. 5).20 In the course of archaeological excavationscarried out along the south rampart of Gamzigrad(Romuliana) in 2006 one fibula was discovered underthe head of the deceased in a male burial. This fibulahas the bust of a young man in a medallion withinornamental band on the foot, while two portraitmedallions are on the fibula bow, while Christogramor cross-in-circle is depicted between them.21 On the

fibula discovered at the Fortress in Ni{ (Naissus)Christogram is depicted on a rear wall of pin holder,22

while on the specimen from Jagodin Mala necropolisin this town three portrait medallions are incorporatedwithin the ornamental band on the bow.23

In the lower Danube basin, in the territory ofpresent-day Bulgaria, as much as nine fibulae withportraits of young men either on the ornamental bandor on the bent section of the foot have been discove-red. Number of images varies between one and six.Six medallions were encountered on the fibula from

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Fig. 4 ‡ Fibula with Christogram, Prahovo (Aquae)

Sl. 4 ‡ Fibula sa hristogramom, Prahovo, (Aquae)

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16 Migotti 2008, 85‡86.17 Vinski 1974, 8‡9, T. III, 3.18 Vinski 1974, 8, T. III, 2.19 Popovi} 2001, cat. 89.20 Popovi} 2001, cat. 88.21 For the information and possibility to consult photo-

documentation of this find I am thankful to Dr. Sofija Petkovi}from the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade and Maja @ivi} MAfrom the National Museum in Zaje~ar, who are going to publish indetail this fibula in their works in this volume of Starinar.

22 Jovanovi} 1978, 45, cat. 53, fig. 128.23 Jovanovi} 1978, 45, cat. 52, fig. 127.

the site ^erna Gora and five images were depicted onthe specimens from the northern necropolis at StaraZagora (Augusta Traiana) and at the site ^omakovci.Four images were depicted on the fibula from thenecropolis Stra`ata in Pleven and the specimen withthree medallions was also found at the same site. Threeimages were represented also on one fibula from thesite Kozlodui-Regianum and one from an unknownsite. Two medallions were encountered on the specimenfrom the necropolis at Varna (Odessos) and oneportrait was on the fibula from the site Kolarci.24

This group of fibulae belongs, according to theexisting classifications, to the Keller/Pröttel type 5and it is dated in the period from around AD 370 toaround AD 400. This chronological framework hasbeen derived on the basis of 23 grave finds of fibulaewith the portrait medallions,25 i.e. on the basis of type5 fibulae, being found together with distinct elementsof belt garnitures within certain grave association,26

although specimens from the Pannonian necropolesMucsfa-Szárászpuszta and Ságvár occur already withthe coins of Constantius II and Constans (337‡340;337‡350), i.e. of Constantius Gallus from AD 351/354 AD. There is, therefore, the opinion that this type

of fibulae was introduced as early as around AD350,27 while some isolated specimens have been foundin the graves dating from the beginning of the 5th

century.28 The money-dated finds from the necropolesAndernach and Krefeld-Gellep in Lower Germania fitinto the suggested chronological framework as theyincluded the coins of Valens minted in the period AD364/378 and AD 373/378.29

In our analysis of fragmented gilt fibula fromSirmium, we studied it within suggested type, payingspecial attention to specimens which included in theirdecorative scheme Christogram and/or the medallionswith portraits of young men. We think that both thesedecorative elements are motifs which independentlyor combined occur on the bows and feet of these

106 IVANA POPOVI]

Fig. 5 ‡ Fibula with portrait medallions, Serbia, unknown site

Sl. 5 ‡ Fibula sa hristogramom, Srbija, nepoznato nalazi{te

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24 Ivanov 1972, 9‡29, Fig. 1‡13; Dumanov 2006,113‡117, Fig. 1‡4, 6; Guggisberg 2003, F 27‡35.

25 Guggisberg 2003, 159.26 Keller 1971, 41‡53; Pröttel 1988, 364‡369.27 Deppert-Lippitz 2000, 53‡54.28 Pröttel 1988, 369.29 Keller 1941, 41.

fibulae, so the specimens decorated with just one groupof these motifs could not be distinguished. The statisticdata reveal that on 49 recorded fibulae with portraitmedallions, Christogram appears on nine of them(London ?, Marteville, Basel, Drnovo-Neviodunum,Osijek-Mursa, London-British Museum, Munich-private collections, 3 pieces),30 while autonomousappearance of Christ monogram on fibulae withoutmedallions with male images has been recorded onsmaller number of specimens, like those from gravesdiscovered in Bonn, at the necropoles Ságvár andStra`ata in Pleven or the chance finds from Prahovo(Aquae) and from the Fortress in Ni{ (Naissus)31 (Fig.3). The conclusion concerning relationship betweenthe fibulae with Christogram and portrait medallionsis corroborated also by the fact that the opinion thatlatter ones are imperial fibulae’, i.e. that portraits inmedallions depict Constantine and members of hisdynasty, are abandoned in literature,32 becauserelatively numerous dated specimens from graveassociations suggest somewhat later chronologicalframework. The opinion that these are the portraits ofbishops33 or saints34 is also unsustainable, concerningthe absence of any inscriptions or depiction of nimbiaround the heads of portrayed persons. Therefore, theoccurrence of these ornamental elements should beconsidered from a different angle and certainly notisolated from the ornamental band spreading liketapestry over the foot and bow of these fibulae. Afterall, as the bow of the Sirmium specimen is missing,we could not determine whether the ornament on thebow included also the portrait medallions, althoughanalogously decorated specimens from Bonn and theMetropolitan Museum do not have them.

The crossbow fibulae including also the giltspecimens decorated with ornamental bands,Christograms and portrait medallions are functionaljewelry used to fasten the cloak, chlamys, at theshoulder and worn in the late antiquity by the higherranking officers and civil servants. They were used,as largitio and donativa, to commemorate imperialjubilees and victories and, as civilian population inthe 4th century got many military characteristics, theybecame ornamenta dignitatis for the larger segmentof population. In contrast to the earlier specimensdecorated with narrow ornamental bands on the footand bow and sometimes with inscriptions, the groupof fibulae we are talking about has diverse ornamen-tal motifs coloristically enhanced using niello andsilver plating on the gilt background. Christogramsand portrait medallions that are elements of the

ornamental scheme of the fibulae of this group appearonly sporadically on the related fibulae of type 6, datedin the period around AD 400 and in the first half ofthe 5th century.35 But, C volutes on type 6 fibulae arenot incorporated in the narrow foot, but they are itsdominant element executed in the openwork technique.These ornamental motifs on rare known specimens ofthe type 6 fibulae are isolated from other ornamentalelements and somewhat differently executed than onthe earlier specimens of type 5. Thus, on the fibula ofthat slightly later group found in grave 42 at Ságvárnecropolis, Christogram is placed on top of the pincassette,36 while on the fibula from grave 1033 inPe}ine necropolis in Viminacium the very reducedChristograms are placed in nine medallions on theornamental band and the yung man’s portrait is on thebent section of the end of the foot.37 The portrait ofyoung man on the bent section of foot of the fibulafrom village Kolarci in Bulgaria,38 that was executedin a panel without medallion could be stylisticallyassociated with portraits of melancholic figures inthe painting and sculpture of the 4th‡5th centuries.This is the latest so far known fibula with a portrait ofyoung man. Nevertheless, the Christogram motifreappears on exceptionally luxurious gold crossbowfibulae made in the opus interrasile technique and datingfrom around AD 450 to AD 538.39 But, ornamentalelements on these fibulae incorporating Christogram,differ from the ornamental elements on the gilt bronze

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30 Guggisberg 2003, 157, Tab. 2; 307‡322 (46 registeredspecimens); Popovi} 2001, cat. 88 (Serbia, unknown site, NationalMuseum in Belgrade); Dumanov 2006, 113, Fig. 1 (^erna Gora).

31 A l´aube de la France 1981, nr. 234 a; Burger 1966, Fig.95, 20/3; Tabakova-Cenova 1981, 103, Fig. 6, 3; Popovi} 2001,cat. 89; Jovanovi} 1978, 45, cat. 53, Fig. 128.

32 Laur-Belart 1959, 57; Ivanov 1972, 22, 26; Jovanovi}1978, 57; Tabakova-Cenova 1981, 136. A detailed survey of theexisting opinions about the meaning and the symbolics of theportrait medallions on fibulae was given by Migotti 2008, 16‡23.

33 Cabrol, Leclercq 1923, 1490.34 Heurgon 1958, 25‡26.35 Keller 1971, 52‡53.36 Burger 1966, 143, Pl. XCI, 2. 37 Spasi}-\uri} 2008, 419-420, sl. 8, T. II, 5.38 Ivanov 1972, 18, Fig. 14, 15.39 Deppert-Lippitz 2000, 57‡61, Fig. 18‡24 (fibula from the

unknown site, today in the museum in Stockholm, specimens fromthe sites Apahida in Rumania, Tournai in Belgium, Reggio Emiliain Italy, Palatine Hill in Rome, from Asia Minor, today in BurtonY. Berry Collection, Bloomington and from the unknown site,today in the Louvre Museum in Paris).

fibulae from the second half of the 4th century, so itmakes possible following an evolution of the symbolicmeaning of this decorative scheme. Decoration of thegilt bronze fibulae of type 5 reflects accurately theaesthetic ideas and concepts in the art of the secondhalf of the 4th century. The elaborate floral andgeometric motifs highlighted by niello and medallionswith schematized portraits of young men appear notonly on fibulae of this type, but also on belt bucklesand appliqués, on silver vessels and other objects, oftenin scenes of animal hunting and other nature illustratingscenes. This iconographic scheme is customary alsoin mosaics, frescoes, on luxurious glass vessels andivory.40 The floral motifs, first of all that of vine, clearlyindicate the Dionysian character of these motifs,which are associated with comfortable lifestyle. Theschematized busts of young men are also a segment ofthat classicistic ornamental program and their originis probably in the representations of lesser deities andpersonification of natural phenomena and allegoriesin the Roman art. This decorative program used in allfields of the applied arts was accepted also by theChristians, so many pagan motifs remained in usealong with the Christian symbols. Therefore, it is notsurprising that Christograms appear on fibulae togetherwith busts of young men and floral and geometricmotifs enhanced by niello, so to say the symbolsreminding of comfortable lifestyle, richness of natureand force of its phenomena. Namely, among militaryand civil elite, the owners of these fibulae, there werein the end of the 4th century without doubt manyChristians and most of them (according to someopinions as much as 80%) were of barbarian descent,as grave finds concentrated along the Danube limesindicate.41 The appearance of Christian symbols onobjects of pagan iconographic contents has beenrecorded also on the luxurious silver vessels, like, forinstance, on the Hunting Plate’ from the Seuso tre-asure, where the Christ monogram is incorporated inthe inscription of the central medallion.42

The foot of gilt fibula from the imperial palace inSirmium is adorned besides the Christogram on therear wall of pin holder also with wide ornamentalband with motif of intersecting circles creatingquatrefoils and rhombs. The ornamental bands withintersecting circles, ellipses and squares highlightedby niello and sometimes combined with the medallionswith busts of young men appear frequently also onluxurious silver vessels in the middle-second half ofthe 4th century.43 However, the motif of quatrefoilsand rhombs resulting from intersection of circles or

octagons is most frequently encountered in mosaics,even in the mosaics from the imperial palace andvilla urbana in Sirmium.44

So, an ornamental scheme on the foot of gilt fibulafrom Sirmium clearly indicates that decorative systemsin the Late Roman art swiftly passed from one groupof objects to the other, so we could speak about the artindustry (Kunstindustrie), which united many aspectsof craftsmanship and artistry. Within such setting,common for the objects of art originating from paganand Christian milieu, the Christogram appears on therear wall of pin holder of the fibula from Sirmium, asit also appears on different parts of already mentionedfibulae of that type with or without portraitmedallions,45 on the silver vessels46 and jewelry,particularly finger rings,47 from the same period. Thissymbol is certainly an indicator of Christian convictionof the fibula owner, although other ornamental motifsdo not suggest it openly. Still, on the pin holder ofSirmium fibula is depicted a rising cross, i.e. the crosserected at Golgotha, that is an unambiguous allusionto Christ, but also to his triumph over death. Theapocalyptic letters, alpha and omega, suspended fromlateral arms of the cross, symbolize Christ as the be-ginning and the end’ in accordance with His words inthe Book of Revelation, where Christ says in variousvariants on three occasions (1:8; 21:6; 22:13): I amthe Alpha and Omega, the Beginning and the End, theFirst and the Last’. But the complete symbolism ofthis motif was going to appear just few decades lateron gold fibulae made in the opus interrasile technique,where the monogram cross does not appear withinornamental motifs known from many paganmonuments, but within the setting imposing strongChristian message. Perhaps the best example ofevolution of the motif on the crossbow fibulae feetthat developed for approximately one century, fromthe end of 4th to the end of 5th ‡ beginning of the 6th

century, could be seen on luxurious gold specimen

108 IVANA POPOVI]

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40 Guggisberg 2003, 142‡164.41 Deppert-Lippitz 2000, 54.42 Mundell-Mango, Bennett 1994, Nr. 1, Fig. 1/1‡50.43 Guggisberg 2003, 134‡139.44 Roman Imperial Towns 1993, Fig. 29 (mosaic A from ro-

om 16 of the imperial palace in Sirmium); unpublished mosaicfrom room 21 of urban villa in Sirmium.

45 Cf. notes 28, 29.46 Cf. note 39.47 Popovi} 2001, cat. 18, 19 (with cited literature).

from the Metropolitan Museum. Contrary to thestandard late antique ornamental scheme on the footof Sirmium fibula, on this specimen we encountertogether with monogram cross and apocalyptic lettersalpha and omega also the motif of spirally windingfoliages, clearly indicating Garden of Eden, while thecross itself is crowned with a wreath as symbol ofvictory. Thus, this is the message about triumphantcross, the synonym of the Golgotha cross, i.e. of thetree of life, which brings eternal life in contrast to thetree of good and evil in the Garden of Eden, thatbrought the mortality to mankind.48 Nevertheless, thisemphasized Christian symbolism is not conspicuous onthe Sirmium specimen, as an ornamental setting ofthe Christ monogram is common for many objects ofart produced in the second half of the 4th century in theChristian, as well as in the pagan milieu. Only in theensuing decades the standard late antique decorationwas to be transformed into genuine Christian one. Theluxurious gilt bronze fibula could have been awardedas emperor’s gift, in the final decades of the 4th century,to someone of the court officials, perhaps during themeeting between emperors and brothers Valentinianand Valens, taking place in Sirmium, or on theoccasion of crowning of Theodosius I during the stayof emperor Gratian in this town.49 As most of thesefibulae are grave finds, the question arises concerning

the reasons of its appearance within the remains of theimperial palace in Sirmium. It is important to mention,regarding this problem, that residential complex lostits original function already by the end of the 4th

century. It is confirmed by humble dwellings of stoneand brick fragments encountered in the open areas ofthe imperial palace and hippodrome.50 At the beginningof the 5th century the necropoles were no more situatedoutside town ramparts and the remains of the deadwere transferred to the enclosed town area as indicatedby small brick-built graves found in the interior of theSirmium town basilica (the church of St. Demetrius).51

At locality 85 in Sirmium have been recorded theremains of the cathedral church of medieval Dmitrovica,dating from the 14th‡16th centuries, built on top ofthe remains of late antique residential structure. Thechurch was surrounded by the necropolis with manylevels of burials. The remains of Early Christian cultstructure have been recorded only fragmentary.52 Theassumption that shortly before the attack of Huns andGoths in the beginning of the 5th century the remainsof the dead and their grave goods, including the giltfibula with Christogram, were transferred from thenecropolis extra muros to the small cemetery aroundor inside the church, that is a phenomenon alreadyrecorded in the Sirmium town basilica, remains forthe time being just a hypothesis.

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48 Deppert-Lippitz 2000, 64‡65.49 Mirkovi} 1971, 39‡40.50 Popovi} 1971, 129‡133; 144‡148; Popovi} 1982,

545‡555.51 Popovi} 1998, 54‡56.52 Archaeological investigations at this site are still in progress

and the results have not been published so far.

A l’aube de la France 1981 – A l’aube de la France.La Gaule de Constantin à Childéric, Paris, 1981.

Burger 1966 – A. Sz. Burger, The Late RomanCemetery at Ságvár, Acta Archaeologica AcademiaeScientiarum Hungaricae 18, 1966, 99–234.

Cabrol, Leclercq 1923 – F. Cabrol, H. Leclercq,Dictionaire d´archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie,Paris, 1923.

Dandridge 2000 – P. Dandridge, Idiomatic andMainstream: The Technical Vocabulary of a Late RomanCrossbow Fibula, Metropolitan Museum Journal 35,2000, 71–86.

Deppert-Lippitz 2000 – B. Deppert-Lippitz, ALate Antique Crossbow Fibula in The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, Metropolitan Museum Journal 35,2000, 39–70.

Dumanov 2006 – B. Dumanov, Novi nabl¥deniÔ

v†rhu fibulite s medalionni izobra`eniÔ, Spar-tacus II. 2075 godini om v†smaniemo na Sparmak.

Trako-rimsko nasledsmvo. 2000 godini hri-

smiÔnsmvo, Veliko T†rnovo, 2006, 113–117.

Guggisberg 2003 – M. Guggisberg (Hrsg.), Derspätrömische Silberschatz von Kaiseraugst. Die neuenFunde, Augst, 2003.

Heurgon 1958 – J. Heurgon, Le trésor de Ténès,Paris, 1958.

Ivanov 1972 – T. Ivanov, Obrazi na Konstan-

tin I i sinpvote mu vÍrhu lukovi~ni fibuli ot

BÍlgariÔ (rés: Représentations de Constantin Ier et deson fils sur des fibules en forme de bulbe de Bulgarie),ArheologiÔ 4, 1972, 9–28.

Jeremi}, Popovi} 2004 ‡ M. Jeremi}, I. Po-

povi}, Arheolo{ka istra`ivawa Sirmijuma u

Sremskoj Mitrovici na lokalitetima 79 i 85 (u

periodu od 2000. do 2003. godine), Starinar LI-II–LIV, 2004, 281–288.

Jovanoviã 1978 – A. Jovanoviã, Nakit u rimskojDardaniji (Sum: Jewelry in the Roman Dardania), Beo-grad, 1978.

Keller 1971 – E. Keller, Die spätrömischenGrabfunde in Südbayern, München, 1971.

Laur-Belart 1959 – R. Laur-Belart, Ein frühchri-stliches Grab aus Bazel, Urschweiz 23, 57–66.

Migotti 2008 – B. Migotti, Lukoviåaste fibule sportretima na podruåju Rimskog carstva / The Cros-sbow Brooches with Portraits in the Roman Empire,Zagreb, 2008.

Mirkoviã 1971 – M. Mirkoviã, Sirmium – itsHistory from the I Century A.D. to 582 A.D. The

Inscriptions from Sirmium and its Territory, Sirmium I,1971, 5–94.

Mundell-Mango, Bennett 1994 – M. Mundell-Mango, A. Bennett, The Seuso Treasure I, Ann Arbor,1994.

Popoviã 1971 – V. Popoviã, A Survey of the UrbanOrganization and Topography of Sirmium in the LateEmpire / Topografija i gradska struktura Sirmijuma udoba Kasnog carstva, Sirmium I, 1971, 119–148.

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110 IVANA POPOVI]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Prilikom arheolo{kih istra`ivawa lo-

kaliteta 85 Sirmijuma, za koji se sa velikom

dozom izvesnosti pretpostavqa de predstav-

qa deo carskog rezidencijalnog kompleksa,

otkrivena je, u jesen 2005. godine, stopa bron-

zane pozla}ene fibule (S-169/2005), dimenzi-

ja 31 x 22 mm (sl. 1). Fragment fibule na|en je

u sektoru C, u prostoriji 12, u sloju {uta koji

je nanet po zavr{etku arheolo{kih radova

prethodne godine, a koji poti~e sa istog loka-

liteta. Na bo~nim rubovima stope fibule na-

laze se po tri izlivene volute u obliku slova

C. Dekor u sredi{wem delu stope sme{ten je u

pravougaono poqe koje obuhvata skoro celu

wenu povr{inu. Ornament, izveden urezi-

vawem i nagla{en nielom, sastoji se od krugo-

va koji se seku, formiraju}i motive ~etvoro-

lista i rombova, ~ije su povr{ine popuwene

kratkim urezanim i nielom ispuwenim lini-

jama. Iznad ornamentalnog poqa nalazi se po-

lukru`ni otisak osnove luka fibule, koji ne-

dostaje. Kraj stope, povijen pod pravim uglom,

lu~no je zavr{en, a osnova olu~astog dr`a~a

igle nedostaje. Na povijenoj povr{ini, zad-

wem zidu dr`a~a igle, urezivawem i nielom

izveden je krst ~iji je gorwi krak povijen u

gr~ko slovo rho, tako da se formira monogram-

ski krst, ili hristogram, kombinovana slika

krsta i prva dva slova re~i Christos. Naime,

sam krst predstavqa slovo chi, dok wegov po-

vijen gorwi krak formira slovo rho. Iznad

bo~nog kraka krsta ugravirana su slova alfa i

omega, {to je direktna aluzija na Hrista kao

po~etak i kraj, u skladu sa wegovim re~ima iz

Kwige Otkrovewa (1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

Specifi~an ornament na stopi omogu}ava

da se relativno precizno rekonstrui{e iz-

gled fibule, iako weni drugi delovi nisu sa-

~uvani (sl. 2). Naime, ornamentalna shema na

ovoj stopi svoje direktne analogije nalazi na

ne{to du`im stopama fibule iz groba jednog

rimskog oficira, najverovatnije germanskog

porekla, otkrivenog u Bonu, i fibule sa nepo-

znatog lokaliteta, danas u Metropoliten mu-

zeju u Wujorku. Za razliku od sirmijumske sto-

pe, na ~ijim se bo~nim ivicama nalaze po tri

S volute, stope oba navedena primerka ukra-

{ene su sa po ~etiri S volute na bo~nim ivi-

cama, dok je dekor u centralnom poqu isti na

sve tri stope, s tim {to je ornamentalno poqe

na stopi fibule iz Sirmijuma ne{to kra}e,

pa je, samim tim, dekor mawe razvijen. Na po-

vijenom delu stope, odnosno na zadwem zidu

dr`a~a igle fibule iz Bona nalaze se, kao i

na sirmijumskom primerku, hristogram i slo-

va alfa i omega, dok je taj deo stope fibule iz

Metropoliten muzeja bez ovih simbola.

Fibule iz Bona i Metropoliten muzeja,

kao i ona ~ija je stopa otkrivena na prostoru

carske palate u Sirmijumu, pripadaju jednoj

ne tako brojnoj grupi lukovi~astih fibula,

proizvo|enih tokom druge polovine IV veka, a

specifi~nih po na~inu izrade i sistemu ukra-

{avawa (tip V). Za razliku od obi~nih bron-

zanih fibula koje su na~iwene od livenih

elemenata, ovi pozla}eni primerci su izra-

|ivani na isti na~in kao zlatne fibule, koje

su im, svakako, poslu`ile kao modeli, mada

nijedan od tih zlatnih prototipova danas nije

sa~uvan. U {iroka ornamentalna poqa na wi-

hovoj stopi, koja su zamenila uske ornamen-

talne trake na ranijim primercima, ponekad

su integrisani mali medaqoni sa ugravira-

nim portretima ili bistama mladi}a, glava

okrenutih tri ~etvrtine u stranu i obu~enih

u drapirane tunike. Prema dosada{wim nala-

zima, broj ovih portretnih medaqona, imaginesclipeateae, kre}e se od jedan do deset. Unutar

ovih ornamentalnih traka nekad se javqa i

poqe sa hristogramom, koji mo`e biti izve-

den i na zadwem zidu dr`a~a igle.

Iako su fibule ovog tipa konstatovane na

{irokom prostoru od Britanije do Crnog mo-

ra, najve}a koncentracija wihovih nalaza je u

sredwem i dowem Podunavqu i regionima ko-

ji gravitraju tom pojasu (sl. 3), gde su se, po

GILT FIBULA WITH CHRISTOGRAM FROM IMPERIAL PALACE IN SIRMIUM 111

STARINAR LVII/2007.

Rezime: IVANA POPOVI], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd

POZLA]ENA FIBULA SA HRISTOGRAMOMIZ CARSKE PALATE U SIRMIJUMU

svoj prilici, nalazile i radionice za wihovu

izradu.

Nasuprot standrdnoj kasnoanti~koj deko-

rativnoj shemi sa stope sirmijumske fibule,

na ovom primerku, uz monogramski krst i apo-

kalipti~na sloava alfa i omega, sre}emo motiv

spiralno uvijenih lozica, koje jasno asocira-

ju na Raj, dok je sam krst oven~an vencem, sim-

bolom pobede. Dakle, to je poruka o krstu ko-

ji pobe|uje, sinonimu za krst na Golgoti, od-

nosno za drvo `ivota koje donosi ve~ni `i-

vot, za razliku od drveta poznavawa dobra i

zla iz Rajskog vrta, koje je donelo smrtnost

~ove~anstvu. Me|utim, ta nagla{ena hri-

{}anska simbolika na sirmijumskom primer-

ku se ne uo~ava, budu}i da je dekorativno okru-

`ewe u kojem se Hristov monogram pojavquje

zajedni~ko za brojne umetni~ke predmete na-

stale u drugoj polovini IV veka kako u hri-

{}anskoj, tako i u paganskoj sredini. Tek u na-

rednim decenijama standardna kasnoanti~ka

ornamentika transformisa}e se u hri{}an-

sku.

Dekoracija bronzanih pozla}enih fibula

tipa 5 verno odra`ava estetske ideje i kon-

cepte u umetnosti druge polovine IV veka. Bo-

gati floralni i geometrijski motivi, nagla-

{eni nielom, i medaqoni sa shematizovanim

portretima mladi}a, pojavquju se ne samo na

fibulama ovog tipa, ve} i na pojasnim kop~a-

ma i aplikacijama, na srebrnom posu|u i dru-

gim predmetima, ~esto u kontekstu scena lova

na divqe `ivotiwe i drugih prizora iz pri-

rode. Ta ikonografska shema uobi~ajena je i

na mozaicima, freskama, luksuznim stakle-

nim posudama i slonova~i. Floralni motivi,

pre svega predstave vinove loze, jasno ukazuju

na Dionizijski karakter ovih motiva, koji

asociraju na ugodan `ivot. Shematizovane bi-

ste mladi}a predstavqaju, tako|e, deo tog kla-

sicisti~kog dekorativnog programa, a wihovo

poreklo se, verovatno, nalazi u predstavama

ni`ih bo`anstava i personifikacija prirod-

nih pojava i alegorija u rimskoj umetnosti.

Novcem datovani nalazi fibula sa ovom deko-

racijom jasno pokazuju da je re~ o proizvodima

iz druge polovine IV veka, tako da ranije izne-

ta hipoteza da su u medaqonima prikazani

~lanovi Konstantinove dinastije, gubi svoj

oslonac.

Luksuznu bronzanu pozla}enu fibulu mo-

gao je da dobije tokom posledwih decenija IVveka, kao carski dar, neko iz dvorskog okru-

`ewa, mo`da tokom sastanka, odr`anog u

Sirmijumu, izme|u careva i bra}e, Valenti-

nijana i Valensa, ili, pak, povodom kruni-

sawa Teodosija I, tokom boravka cara Gracija-

na u ovom gradu. Budu}i da najve}i broj fibu-

la ovog tipa predstavqa grobne nalaze, po-

stavqa se pitawe o razlozima wene pojave u

kontekstu ostataka carske palate Sirmijuma.

U okviru razmatrawa ovog problema va`no je

napomenuti da je rezidencijalni kompleks

ve} na kraju IV veka izgubio svoju prvobitnu

funkciju, {to dokazuju skromne stambene gra-

|evine od kamena i fragmenata cigala, kon-

statovane na slobodnim povr{inama carske

palate i hipodroma. Po~etkom V veka nekro-

pole se vi{e nisu nalazile van gradskih bede-

ma, a ostaci pokojnika su, kako to pokazuju ma-

li grobovi od opeka iz unutra{wosti gradske

bazilike (crkva svetog Dimitrija) u Sirmiju-

mu, pred naletom varvara preneseni u ogra|e-

ni gradski prostor. Na lokalitetu 85 Sirmi-

juma, iznad ostataka kasnoanti~ke rezidenci-

jalne gra|evine, registrovani su ostaci kate-

dralne crkve sredwevekovne Dmitrovice iz

XIV–XVI veka, oko koje se prostirala nekro-

pola sa vi{e nivoa sahrana. Ostaci ranijeg

ranohri{}anskog kultnog objekta registro-

vani su samo fragmentarno. Pretpostavka da

su po~etkom V veka, pred najezdom Huna i Go-

ta, ostaci pokojnika i wihovi grobni prilo-

zi, me|u kojima je bila i pozla}ena fibula sa

hristogramom, preneti iz nekropole extra mu-ros na malo grobqe oko ili unutar crkve, {to

je pojava ve} registrovana u gradskoj bazilici

Sirmijuma, ostaje za sada u domenu hipoteze.

112 IVANA POPOVI]