Power and the Accompanying Political Behavior

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11 POWER AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

CHAPTER SCAN

Power and the accompanying political behavior are inevitable in all organizations. French andRaven categorized power as having five forms: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power,referent power, and expert power. Power can be used for personal gain, or for social purposes.Etzioni identified three types of power and three types of organizational involvement that lead toeither congruent or incongruent use of power. Symbols of power are discussed. A final sectionaddresses managing the boss and sharing power through empowering organizational members.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Distinguish between power, influence, and authority.2. Describe the interpersonal and intergroup sources of power.3. Understand the ethical use of power.4. Explain power analysis, an organizational-level theory of power.5. Identify symbols of power and powerlessness in organizations.6. Define organizational politics and understand the major influence tactics.7. Develop a plan for managing employeeboss relationships.8. Discuss how managers can empower others.

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Chapter 11: Power and Political Behavior

KEY TERMS

Chapter 11 introduces the following key terms:

power

influenceauthorityzone of indifferencereward powercoercive powerlegitimate powerreferent powerexpert powerinformation powerpersonal powersocial power

strategic contingenciespowerlessnessorganizational politicspolitical behaviorempowerment

THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED

I. LOOKING AHEAD: Carly Fiorina:Fortunes Most Powerful Woman

II. THE CONCEPT OF POWER

Power is the ability to influence another person. The process by which we affect the thoughts,behavior, and feelings of another person is called influence. Authority is the right to influenceanother person. Most individuals prefer to use influence rather than authority to get things done.

When we attempt to influence an individual, our approaches may or may not fall within theemployee's zone of indifference. The zoneof indifference is the range in which attempts toinfluence are perceived as legitimate, and the receiver responds to the influence willingly.

III. FORMS AND SOURCES OF POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

A. Interpersonal Forms of Power

French and Raven identified the five most common bases of power in an organization asreward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert power.

1. Reward Power

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Reward power is the control over rewards that are valued by another. Typicalexamples of rewards are salary increases, bonuses, and promotions. In addition,praise can be used as a reward.

2. Coercive Power

Coercive Power is the ability to administer unpleasant consequences. Theimplied force relates to threats and punishments. Some forms of coercive powerinclude verbal abuse, lack of support, and disciplinary actions.

3. Legitimate Power

Legitimate power is similar to authority, and is based on position and mutualagreement. This form of power is provided to individuals by the organization.Some managers resort to legitimate power if they are insecure with their ability toinfluence employees using other forms of power.

4. Referent Power

Referent power is based on interpersonal attraction. Followers identify with theleader and willing follow out of admiration and respect.

5. Expert Power

Expert power is based on knowledge and/or skills. Followers must perceive theagent as an expert, and trust that the expertise is valid and that the knowledge orskills are relevant and useful to them.

B. Using Power Ethically

The following three questions can help managers determine whether they are usingpower ethically: (1) Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people inside andoutside the organization? (2) Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties? (3) Doesthe behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly?

C. Two Faces of Power: One Positive, One Negative

McClelland takes a stand for the use of power in a right or wrong fashion. Personalpower is used for personal gain, and results in a winlose approach. Conversely, socialpower involves the use of power to create motivation or to accomplish group goals.

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D. Intergroup Sources of Power

Groups also use multiple sources of power. When groups control activities that othergroups depend on in order to complete their tasks, they control strategic contingencies.In order to exercise this control, a group must have the ability to cope with uncertainty,its function must be central to the organizations success, and it must perform anindispensable function for the organization.

IV. POWER ANALYSIS: A BROADER VIEW

Etzioni's approach to power measures the involvement of members that will lead to eithercongruent or incongruent uses of power. He also proposed the classification of organizations bythe type of membership, which included alienative membership (members have hostile, negativefeelings about the organization), calculative membership (members weight the benefits andlimitations of membership), and moral membership (members have positive feelings about theorganization). He also identified three types of organizational power: coercive, utilization, andnormative.

Coercive power forces members to do something through threat or intimidation. It isappropriate for use in organizations with alienative membership.

Utilitarian power influences members by providing them with rewards and benefits.Managers prefer this form of power if it is available, and it is appropriate for businessesand other organizations with calculative membership.

Normative power influences members through peer pressure, or by letting theindividuals know that they are expected to act according to the overall wishes of thegroup. It is the appropriate form of power for an organization with moral membership.

V. SYMBOLS OF POWER

Since organizational charts only reveal authority and not power, it is important to determinewhat the symbols of power are across most organizations. One of the more easily identifiedpower symbols is that of a uniform for a police officer.

A. Kanter's Symbols of Power

The primary characteristic of Kanter's seven symbols of power is that they provide anability to aid or assist another person. Her symbols are active and other-directed. Thesymbols are: (1) ability to intercede for someone in trouble, (2) ability to get placementsfor favored employees, (3) exceeding budget limitations, (4) procuring above-averageraises for employees, (5) getting items on the agenda at meetings, (6) access to earlyinformation, and (7) having top managers seek out ones opinions.

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B. Kanters Symbols of Powerlessness

Powerlessness is a lack of power, which may have different symptoms in managers atdifferent levels of the organization.

C. Korda's Symbols of Power

Korda's symbols of power are easier to determine, and they include office furnishings,time power, and standing by.

VI. POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS

Organizational politics is the use of power and influence in organizations. Although manymanagers feel that politics distracts members from focusing on goal achievement, most also feelthat it is common in their organizations and necessary for success as an executive. Politicalbehavior consists of actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that are taken toinfluence others in order to meet ones personal goals.

A. Influence Tactics

Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, or feelings of another person.Influence can be levied upward, downward, or laterally. The four tactics used mostfrequently are: (1) consultation, (2) rational persuasion, (3) inspirational appeals, and (4)ingratiation.

B. Managing Political Behavior in Organizations

Since politics is inevitable in organizations, the best strategy is to take a proactive stance

in managing political behavior in the environment. This can be accomplished throughopen communication, clarification of performance expectations, participativemanagement, encouraging cooperation, managing scarce resources, and providing asupportive organizational climate.

VII. MANAGING UP: MANAGING THE BOSS

One way to be proactive about office politics is to assess the relationship of power betweenemployee and boss. The classic Harvard Business Review article by Gabarro and Kotter (1980)indicates a need to (1) understand your boss and your bosss context, (2) assess yourself andyour needs, and (3) develop and maintain a mutually supportive relationship.

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VIII. SHARING POWER: EMPOWERMENT

Sharing the power within an organization is empowerment. This creates a condition forheightened motivation through the development of a strong sense of personal self-efficacy. Theessence of empowerment resides in the four dimensions of meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact. In implementing empowerment, managers should: expressconfidence in employees and set high performance expectations, create opportunities foremployees to participate in decision making, remove constraints that stifle autonomy, and setinspirational goals.

IX. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: USING POWER EFFECTIVELY

X. LOOKING BACK: B2-4B Program Aims to Bring the Power of Technology to ThirdWorld Countries

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Power is the ability to influence others. Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts,behavior, and feelings of others. Authority is the right to influence others.

French and Raven's five forms of interpersonal power are reward, coercive, legitimate,referent, and expert power. Information power is another form of interpersonal power.

The key to using all of these types of power well is to use them ethically. McClelland believes personal power is negative and social power is positive. Intergroup power sources include control of critical resources and strategic contingencies. According to Etzioni's power analysis, the characteristics of the organization are an

important factor in deciding the type of power to use. Recognizing symbols of both power and powerlessness is a key diagnostic skill for

managers. Organizational politics is an inevitable feature of work life. Political behavior consists of

actions not officially sanctioned that are taken to influence others in order to meet personalgoals. Managers should take a proactive role in managing politics.

The employeeboss relationship is an important political relationship. Employees can usetheir skills to develop more effective working relationships with their bosses.

Empowerment is a positive strategy for sharing power throughout the organization.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. What are the five types of power according to French and Raven? What are the effects ofthese types of power? What is information power?

The five forms of interpersonal power are (1) reward, enabling an individual to grant positivereinforcements to employees, (2) referent, enabling an individual to influence others based oncharisma or admiration, (3) coercive, which rests on being able to administer negativeconsequences, (4) legitimate, enabling the individual to take advantage of his or her officialauthority, and (5) expert, when an individual utilizes knowledge or expertise that transfers to thecircumstance needing influence. Reward and coercive power lead to compliance, but they bothrequire the manager to be present to dole out rewards and punishment, thus creating dependencyrelationships. Legitimate power produces compliance, but doesn't necessarily lead to goalaccomplishment or employee satisfaction. Referent power has been linked with organizationalcommitment, but it is also potentially dangerous. Expert power has the strongest relationshipwith employee performance and satisfaction. Information power is access to and control overimportant information.

2. What are the intergroup sources of power?

The ability to control critical resources is an important resource for groups. In addition, groupsthat control strategic contingencies have a resource that others in the organization depend on tocomplete their tasks. The strategic contingencies include the ability to cope with uncertainty, ahigh degree of centrality within the organization, and nonsubstitutability.

3. Distinguish between personal and social power. What are the four power-orientedcharacteristics of the best managers?

Personal power is viewed as self-serving. Social power is used for the benefit of the entireorganization or its goals. Managers who use power effectively believe in the authority system.They prefer work and discipline, and believe in justice. They are altruistic, and publicly put theorganization and its needs before their own.

4. According to Rosabeth Moss Kanter, what are the symbols of power? The symptoms ofpowerlessness?

Kanter lists 7 symbols, including (1) the ability to intercede for someone, (2) ability to getplacements for favored employees, (3) exceeding budget limitations, (4) procuring above-average raises for employees, (5) getting items on the agenda at meetings, (6) access to earlyinformation, (7) and having top managers seek out ones opinion. You exhibit powerlessness ifyou are overly supervised, have inflexible adherence to rules, or your supervisor tends to do thejob rather than training you to do it. It might be worth asking students which symbols of powerwill change significantly through empowerment.

5. How do organizations encourage political activity?

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Organizations encourage political activity through unclear goals, autocratic decision making,ambiguous lines of authority, scarce resources, and uncertainty.

6. Which influence tactics are most effective?

The effectiveness of influence tactics depends on the target whether the influence attempt isupward, downward, or lateral. Overall, rational persuasion is the most effective influence tactic.

7. What are some of the characteristics of an effective relationship between you and your boss?

An effective relationship between you and your boss: 1) fits both your needs and styles; 2) ischaracterized by mutual expectations; 3) keeps the boss informed; 4) is based on dependabilityand honesty; and 5) selectively uses your bosss time and resources.

8. What are some ways to empower people at work?

In order to assure their employees are truly empowered, managers should express confidence in

them and set high performance expectations, create opportunities for employees to participate indecision making, remove bureaucratic constraints, and set inspirational goals.

DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. Who is the most powerful person you know personally? What is it that makes the person sopowerful?

Be sure that students answer this question in the context of the information presented in the

chapter. The bases of social power and the symbols of power are good for discussion here.

2. Why is it hard to determine if power has been used ethically?

There are three questions to ask in determining whether power has been used ethically. Thequestions examine: 1) whether there is a good outcome for people both inside and outside theorganization; 2) whether the rights of all parties are respected; and 3) whether all parties aretreated fairly and equally. It is sometimes difficult to determine when all of these goals havebeen met, and they can often conflict.

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3. What kinds of membership (alienative, calculative, moral) do you currently have? Is thepower used in these relationships congruent?

There should be a significant difference between work-related membership and socialorganization membership. Students could also compare classroom membership with either of theprevious examples. Students should be asked whether a single form of power is appropriate in anorganization, as Etzioni suggests.

4. As a student, do you experience yourself as powerful, powerless, or both? On what symbols orsymptoms are you basing your perception?

Answers will vary. Sometimes it is useful to analyze the family structure and where theindividual falls among siblings.

5. How does attribution theory explain the reactions supervisors can have to influence tactics?How can managers prevent the negative consequences of political behavior?

Supervisors will react differently to influence attempts depending upon the attribution they makefor the reason for the influence attempts. Managers can prevent the negative consequences ofpolitical behavior through having clear policies and procedures, and through proactivecommunication with subordinates.

6. Are people in your work environment empowered? How could they become more empowered?

Most of the positions that students have held are largely powerless. It is helpful to point out thatit is not the position than renders them empowered or powerless, but the nature of theorganization.

7. Chapter 2 discussed power distance as a dimension of cultural differences. How wouldempowerment efforts be different in a country with high power distance?

The empowerment goal would probably be much more difficult to initiate. "Unfreezing" thecultural norm would be challenging, because people would believe in the legitimacy ofhierarchy.

8. Think of a person you admire. Write a newspaper feature analyzing the persons use of powerin terms of the ideas presented in the chapter.

This is a good task to help students learn to write in an understandable way without using toomuch academic jargon.

ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

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1. Which of French and Raven's five types of power has the most potential for abuse? How canthe abuse be prevented?

Any of them can be abused. One that students might not name as readily as legitimate authorityis referent power. Individuals who are charismatic have the ability to sway individuals in areaswhere they often have little or no expertise. For example, why should you vote for a politicalcandidate because an actor or actress supports that person? Many cults also have leaders withsignificant referent power. Referent power may be an ego builder for the power holder, and thusholds potential for abuse.

2. Under what circumstances is it ethical to manipulate people for the good of the organization?

If the situation satisfies the following three conditions, then it could be considered ethical tomanipulate people for the good of the organization: 1) there is a good outcome for people bothinside and outside the organization; 2) the rights of all parties are respected; and 3) all parties aretreated fairly and equally. However, managers must be careful not to adopt a Machiavellianattitude in assuming that the end justifies the means. There are numerous examples in which

companies believed the end justified the means and abused their power.

3. Are moral memberships the only ethical organizational memberships? That is, can alienativeand calculative memberships be ethical? Explain.

Discussion on this issue might center on the idea that the memberships themselves are neitherethical nor unethical. However, the use of various forms of power may be considered ethical orunethical, depending on the membership.

4. What are the most common forms of political behavior that you see in your work or schoolenvironment? Are they ethical or unethical? Explain.

Students should be careful not to mention individuals or companies by name, and should focustheir answers on behavior.

5. Is it possible to have an organization where all power is equally shared, or is the unequaldistribution of power a necessary evil in organizations? Explain.

Students may confuse the concepts of organization and reporting lines with equally sharedpower. Empowerment does not take away responsibility, nor would it necessarily result inineffectiveness. It would most likely be inefficient, especially in the early stages. The benefits ofempowerment probably outweigh its inefficiencies in most organizations.

CHALLENGES

11.1 EVALUATE YOUR POLITICAL POTENTIAL

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Students often have a very negative view of politics in organizations, because the press typicallyreports only the negative outcomes of political behavior. This challenge provides them with anopportunity to think more broadly about political behavior and to apply it to their particularsituations. You may want to discuss whether any of these characteristics seem contradictory (i.e.,sensitive and devious).

11.2 ARE YOU SELF-EMPOWERED?

To go beyond the challenge, you may want to ask students to develop an action plan forbecoming more self-empowered, particularly if they scored low on this scale. This exercisemight also lead to discussion related to the types of jobs or careers individuals might be mostcomfortable in given their level of self-empowerment.

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

11.1 SOCIAL POWER ROLE PLAYS

Instructor's Notes:

The French and Ravens (1959) taxonomy of bases of social power is a useful conceptual tool.In an organizational behavior course, we invariably deal with notions of power, influence, andauthority, often as a prelude to getting into issues of leadership. The distinctions amonglegitimate, expert, referent, reward, punishment, and information bases of social power are alsovery relevant. While the material can be presented in lectures using relevant and entertainingillustrations, students often do not appreciate the richness of the concepts. This experientialexercise involves students in learning the material in an active way.

Goals of the ExerciseThree things happen with the exercise: (1) students get an opportunity to devise influenceattempts based on the French and Raven taxonomy; (2) the class assesses the probable results ofusing each kind of power; and (3) the class could more clearly focus on understanding socialpower at work in the class itself. This exercise is most effective one-third of the way into atypical course, when control and influence issues are most salient.

ProceduresDivide the class into six groups of equal size, each of which is assigned one of the power bases.(It is helpful to have three or four people who do not join a group but remain outside to assistwith data collection and tabulation.) The groups are given the same scenario, which involves one

person (a teacher) attempting to influence another person (a student). Each group has 10-15minutes to prepare an actual influence plan using the type of power that has been assigned theirgroup.

You may wish to tailor the presented situations to your own needs. The following one hasworked well with undergraduate classes.

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You are an instructor in a college class and have become aware that a potentially good student isrepeatedly absent from class and is sometimes unprepared when he is there. He seems to besatisfied with the grade he is getting, but you would like to see him attend regularly, be betterprepared, and thus, do better in the class. You even feel that the student might get really turnedon pursuing a career in this field, which is an exciting one for you. You are respected and likedby your students, and it kind of irritates you that this person treats your dedicated teaching withsuch a cavalier attitude. You want to influence the student to start attending class regularly.

This situation may be particularly useful because it allows you to discuss, at the conclusion ofthe exercise, your position in the class and how that particular class might respond if you were touse these different kinds of power.

When all groups have completed their planning, each selects one member to play the instructor.In the development of their role play, the group has to decide where the influence attempt is totake place (in the classroom, teacher's office, snack bar, and so forth). The group may also pick,from their own or another group, a student who is to be the recipient of the instructorsattempt.

While the role play is going on, the students in other groups are asked to think of themselves asthe student being influenced. They fill out the Reaction to Influence Questionnaire. After eachpresentation, all students outside the playing group record their reactions as if they were thestudent being addressed by the teacher. As an option, the forms can be collected by the assistantswho tabulate the results while the next group is playing the influencer. When all groups havepresented, the aggregated response to each question by influence type can be displayed on theboard for discussion. (The assistants are helpful since the data comes in fast, and your time isspent coordinating role playing. It's helpful for the assistants to have calculators.) The entireactivity, including introductory lecture and post-exercise discussion, can be completed in 50-70minutes.

OutcomesThe data allow the generation of tentative answers to several interesting questions:1. Which kind of influence is most likely to immediately result in the desired behavior?2. Which will have the most long-lasting effects?3. What effect will using a particular base of power have on the ongoing relationship?4. Which form of power will others find most acceptable?

The group can use the answers to these questions to begin to draw a contingency framework forthe use of different kinds of power. Under what conditions will a particular kind of influence bemost effective and what will be the likely side effects?It is fruitful to share your own reactions to the data. A typical class had the following meanresponse (5 = high agreement):

Q#2 Q#3 Q#4 Q#5

Punishment 4.0 3.1 2.1 1.6Reward 3.9 3.6 4.2 4.2Referent 2.9 2.2 3.4 4.6Legitimate 3.3 2.1 2.4 1.2

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Expert 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.6Information 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.7

For this group, it is clear that you could get compliance by using punishment; however, thatwould have a detrimental effect on your ongoing relationships with students (they have power oftheir own of all six types!). Likewise, using your superior role may get results but not withoutrelationship costs. It looks as if rewards are the most effective way to influence this group, butyou can also rely on your expertise.

Anecdotal data collected following class sessions leads to the belief that this is an effective wayof teaching the French and Raven model. Most students appear to be actively and thoughtfullyinvolved, and when asked to evaluate the class, give high marks.

*Adapted with permission from Gib Akin,Exchange 3, No. 4 (1978): 38-39.

11.2 EMPOWERMENT IN THE CLASSROOM

Instructor's Notes:

Stress to the students that the ideas do not have to be workable, just discussible. One of the waysto keep the discussion moving is to ask students to keep in mind the goals and mission of theuniversity. This deters comments with simplified solutions like, no grades, no classes, noteachers, etc.

ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE

POWER DEPENDENCY

Instructor's Notes:

The power dependency model allows students to analyze the influences on their lives. Oncestudents begin this exercise, they are typically surprised at the number of influence and powerpoints that are surrounding them. Be sure to mention that work experience is not necessary tocomplete this exercise. Students may choose to view the environment they are in as a student.

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A POWER /DEPENDENCY ANALYSIS OF YOUR POSITION

from R. E. Quinn, S. R. Faerman, M. P.Thompson, M. R. McGrath, Becoming a MasterManager, A Competency Framework, Wiley and Sons, c1990, 273.

In some areas of your life you have a great deal of control over power and influence. On theother hand, in organizations you may have little control over power.

The diagram below illustrates the network of power and influence for a hospital manager. Thedegree that the manager depends on people and positions and the degree of emphasis areindicated between the position and the hospital manager.

On a separate sheet, list your organization and provide five medium and five high dependencycategories. You may choose a position in an organization with which you have experience, oryou could analyze your position as a student or a member of your family. After you havecompleted your list, answer the following questions, first to yourself, and then, if time permits,in small groups.

1. Whom do you really depend on in the position you're analyzing? How important iseach dependency? What is the basis of each dependency?

2. Are any of these dependencies inappropriate or dysfunctional? What can you do aboutthat?

3. How do you maintain your own base of influence in each of these dependencies? Doyou feel you have a base of influence in each of them?

4. What kinds of power and influence do you think you need to develop further? What

resources can help you?

HOSPITAL MANAGER - EXAMPLE

HIGH DEPENDENCY MEDIUM DEPENDENCY

Mayor's office City bureaucracyAccreditation agency State governmentMain employee union Local community groupsEleven smaller unions Other hospitals in the cityCivil service Local pressAffiliated medical school Federal government

MBTI EXERCISE

Exercise Learning Objectives:

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a. Students will be able to define power and explore how they use it.b. Students should understand that different people view the concept of power differently andthat groups get strengths from that difference.

Exercise Overview:

1. Students should have taken the MBTI or the short version in Chapter 3.

2. Students will be formed into groups based on how they perceive themselves obtainingenergy.

3. Students will use the text as a reference.

Exercise Description:

a. Ask students to form groups based on E or I energy direction. Limit 6 students to a group--

make enough groups so that everyone is in a group of at least 4 people.b. The instructor asks each individual to define power.c. The instructor has each individual review the text chapter on power and identify the types ofpower they use most often.d. The instructor now asks the groups to discuss their research; the end result will be a groupstatement that defines power and identifies the most common uses of power by that group. Theinstructor should ask the students to give specific examples of when and where they've usedpower.e. Report out--look for similarities and differences.

What the instructor should expect:

a. The "E" group should give the impression that power is the continual gathering and using ofinformation. Power is an external, organizational issue. With "Es", you will sense that power is"overpowering" others, up front, and outwardly directed.b. The "I" group should give the impression that power is internal, kept close to the vest, useddiligently, and almost a personal issue. With "I" you will sense that power is "quietly" used,behind-the-scenes, and inwardly directed.

Instructor's Summary:

As we've pointed out, power means different things to different people. Additionally, people usepower differently even when going after the same result. Some people are very outwardlydirected in most everything they do. These people can appear to be overpowering and, when ina powerful position, overbearing.

Other people are more inwardly directed and hence their use of power is more subtle--keptwithin. Even when in a position of power these people may give the appearance of beingunwilling to use their power.

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In both instances, outward or inward use, complete understanding of the types of power andyour personal preferences of its use will help you as you enter and progress in your chosen field.

EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtainedfrom:

Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences andCases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.

Empowerment. p. 103-116. Time: 25-60 minutes.Purpose: To introduce the topic of empowerment; to help individuals focus on the skillsneeded to be empowering; to help individuals distinguish between what makes them feelempowered and what makes them feel powerless.

A Simple - But Powerful - Power Simulation. p. 119-120. Time: 60 minutes or more.Purpose: To understand power dynamics in organizations.

CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

THE AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION: EXERCISING INFLUENCE THROUGHPUBLIC ADVOCACY

1. The chapter defines influence as the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, or feelingsof another person. Explain the American Heart Associations public advocacy programs inthe context of this definition.

The American Heart Association (AHA) has the goal of reducing heart disease and strokeby 25% by the year 2010. The AHAs public advocacy programs are geared towardinfluencing policy makers and legislators to make a difference in the fight against heartdisease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases, thereby contributing to the realization ofthe 25% heart disease and stroke reduction goal.

2. Using Table 11.2 as a point of departure, describe the influence tactics that the AmericanHeart Association uses in its various approaches to public advocacy.

The two influence tactics that predominately characterize the American Heart Associationspublic advocacy programs are coalition building and rational persuasion.

The AHA seeks to influence policy and resource allocation decisions through itsparticipation in The National Coalition for Heart and Stroke Research and its linkage to andpromotion ofThe Congressional Heart and Stroke Coalition. The National Coalition forHeart and Stroke Research unites organizations in working for increased funding for heartand stroke research. The coalition is a catalyst for the coordination of research advocacyefforts of its member organizations. This includes the coordination of strategy development,information sharing, participation in lobby day, and developing coordinated grassroots

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efforts.The American Heart Association encourages it Web site visitors to e-mail theirsenators and representatives, asking them to join The Congressional Heart and StrokeCoalition. This Coalition works to raise awareness of cardiovascular diseases, serves as aresource center on relevant issues, and seeks to advance public policy aimed at fightingcardiovascular diseases.

Coalition building is also evident in the successful efforts of the president of the AmericanHeart Association to form a strategic alliance with four agencies of the federal government.This public/private partnership will help the AHA achieve its goal of significantly improvingcardiovascular health. Finally, the creation of the Grassroots Network can be considered tobe a form of coalition building.

The AHA uses rational persuasion to influence the actions ofThe National Coalition forHeart and Stroke Research. Rational persuasion is also used through the GrassrootsNetwork, wherein the AHA asks members to write, call, or visit decision makers at the local,state, and federal levels to express their views on important AHA issues. Rational persuasionis further evident in the action alerts of the AHAs Legislative Action Center, and in the

Centers provision of tips regarding how to effectively contact members of Congress.

3. Suppose that you considered joining the Grassroots Network of the American HeartAssociation. Why would you join the Network and what would you do to try to exerciseinfluence through the Network?

This question provides students with an opportunity to examine their own motivation forjoining (or for that matter, not joining) a volunteer organization that seeks to influence publicpolicy which impacts cardiovascular health. They also have the opportunity to explore howthey would behave in response to their personal motivation by identifying the influencemechanisms they would be most likely to use. In discussing how they might try to exercise

influence, the students could draw of the influence tactics that are described in Table 11.2.

Role Plays

Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of thisinstructor's manual.

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Power and the Accompanying Political Behavior

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