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In this regard, please prepare your final document (not more than 5 pages,including references) for inclusion in the bound copies of the forum output whichwill include the following:
• Introduction: development of the problem under investigation, including
its historical antecedents, and statement of thepurpose of theinvestigation.
• Method: description of the procedures used to conduct the investigation.
• Results: Report of the findings and analyses.
• Discussion: Summary, interpretation and implication of the results.
Title: THE POTABILITY OF WATER SOURCES in DANAO CITY
Research Proponents: ENGR. DELFA G. CASTILLA – Project Leader
DR. ROSE MARY ALMACEN
MR. RICARDO GARBO
DELIA G. SABIO
MA. LUISA T. JOPIA
Introduction:
Before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of
pollution has spread with it.
There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the
history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion
people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die
every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures representonly people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.
According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26,
2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health andenvironment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible
water scarcity problem in the country by 2025.
One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of the
water issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to
safe drinking water and sanitation.
Last Feb. 15, 2011, Sunstar Daily reported an outbreak of water-borne diseases of typhoid and cholera in Cebu. Mentioned in particulars were Danao City and Catmon and some
isolated cases in the southern parts of Cebu.This study was conducted in order to assess the water quality of Danao City and Catmon
where the outbreak occurred and also to evaluate the extent of water pollution.
A field experiment was conducted Oct. 1, 2012 and Dec. 13, 2012. Water samples weretaken and subjected to laboratory analysis by University of San Carlos – Laboratory in the
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following parameters; fecal coliforms, total coliforms, pH, turbidity (NTU), total dissolved
solids, chloride, sulfate, total iron, cadmium, lead, and manganese. The environment of the water
sources were also included by fielding questionnaires answered by the caretakers of the water sources.
Laboratory results were compared with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking
Water 2007 with the following results: fecal coliforms in Taytay, Tuburan, Tupas, and Catmonfailed with the respective results Too Numerous To Count (TNTC), 61, 2, and 4; for total
coliforms all samples failed; for total dissolved solids CTU-Sabang, CTU-Centrum, Taytay and
Tupas failed with the results of 565(+9), 645(+37), 562(+16), and 717(+45) respectively; for sulfate only Taytay failed with a result of 302(+2); and for manganese only Tupas failed with a
result of 0.524(+0.00159). All water samples passed in the following parameters; turbidity, pH,
chloride, total iron, cadmium, and lead content. Reasons for water contamination were: near to
the residential areas; near to septic tank; near to the livestock animals; near to industries andschools; don’t have proper waste water disposal practices and some do not have toilets and the
water sources were not cemented or properly contained.
This study concluded that the water from Danao and Catmon were not potable and needs
to be treated prior to distribution.
"There is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little
water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billionsof people - and the environment - suffer badly." World Water Vision Report,
2010
Water is the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of
living organisms is water (Redmond, 2008). Water is also a universal solvent, wherein ittransport, combine, and chemically break down substances. It is very necessary for earth's natural
processes to occur and therefore sustain life on Earth, not only for humans but also animals, plants and other organisms.When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present
a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute.
Today, with around 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits.Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits. How serious is the
problem? According to the environmental campaign organization WWF, "Pollution from toxic
chemicals threatens life on this planet. Every ocean and every continent, from the tropics to theonce-pristine polar regions, is contaminated."
While the world's population tripled in the 20th century, the use of renewable water
resources has grown six-fold. Within the next fifty years, the world population will increase by
another 40 to 50 %. (World Water Council, 2004) This population growth - coupled withindustrialization and urbanization - will result in an increasing demand for water and will have
serious consequences on the environment.
There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in thehistory of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely
1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion
people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die
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every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent
only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.
The July, 2004 census of Philippine population is 86.2 million and projected to reach 100million in 14 years. The current population growth rate is 2.71% or 3 persons born per minute.
With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of
Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agriculturalactivities. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff has
caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw
sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Eachof these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and translates
into economic costs. The adverse impact of water pollution costs the economy an estimated
Php67 billion annually (WEPA, 2003).
According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26,2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health and
environment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible
water scarcity problem in the country by 2025.
One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of thewater issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium
Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access tosafe drinking water and sanitation.
Danao City is one of the industrialized cities in Central Visayas. It is a 3 rd class city of
Cebu province with a population of 119,252 as per Philippine Census 2005. The biggestcompany being built in Danao City was the Cebu Mitsumi with more than 10,000 workers. There
are also a lot of factories in Danao built by the Durano’s clan but some of it is not in operation
now. Different cottage industries producing different products; like gun making, pottery, mango
juice, rattan furniture, metal foundry shop and many others. It has its own waterworks system butis available only to the residents in the Poblacion, Looc and Suba. Only 30% of the households
in the “Poblacion” are served by the system. About 13% have individual faucets, while 17% are
using the public faucets. One of the problems plaguing the system is the water pressure. A greatnumber of households, about 40% are getting water from dug wells, springs, or rivers. Others
have artesian wells as sources of water. The two major sources of water in the city are the
Tuburan Springs and Quisol Springs. The volume of supply is estimated to be 2,254 liters per minute or 700 gallons per minute. At present, there are 1,221 households having water
connections with the annual collections at P490,236.00.
Last Feb. 15, 2011, Department of Health (DOH) 7 had asked towns to create a
committee that will focus on monitoring the quality of drinking water. The move came followingreports of outbreaks of water-borne diseases; typhoid and cholera, in four local government units
(LGUs). In Danao City, cholera struck 300 persons and claimed six lives. In Catmon, the DOH 7
recorded 15 diarrhea cases and one death others were in Alegria and Balamban (Sunstar, 2011).With these scenarios, water should
be recognized as a great priority. The proponent wishes to know the extent of water pollution in
Danao City as well as the environmental risk and reliability analysis. Risk and reliability analysismay also provide a general methodology for the assessment of the safety of water related
engineering projects in Danao, thus recommend actions for intervention.
General Objectives:
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1. To evaluate the potability of the water sources in the chosen environment through;
a. physical analysis of the saltwater (pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids)
b. microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms)
c. metal analysis (cadmium, lead, manganese)
d. chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, total iron).
2. To know the status of the potable water sources as per interview by the respondents in
terms possible reasons of contamination.
3. To identify the reasons/sources water pollution, if it is existing.
4. To identify the extent of the seawater seepage in the water sources of Danao City.
5. To formulate an equation for the sea water penetration in the presence of chloride (mgCl/L) with respect to the distance of the water source from the shoreline.
6. To provide awareness to the stakeholders on the extent of safety of potable water in
the city of Danao.
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Origin
Genesis 1-2
Population:
Genesis, Aristotle
& MalthusianTheory of
Population
Water
Management
System
Fresh
Water
Water Cycle
Pollution:
Water
Ocean
Desalinatio
n
Water
Quality and
Analysis:
R.A. 9275
Waste
Water
Treatment
Water
Related
Diseases
evaporation
precipitatio
n
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Fig. 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Theoretical and Conceptual Background
“ And God said, let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the openfirmament of heaven.”
Genesis 1:20
God is so great that he don’t want His people to perish, He provided all the
natural resources for the humankind to use. Natural resources include plants, animals,
mineral deposits, soils, clean air, and water. There are 1.3 × 109 km3 of water in the
oceans, 3.3 × 107 km3 in the polar ice caps, 2 × 105 km3 in glaciers, 105 km3 in lakes,
and 1.2 × 103 km3 in rivers. In addition, 2.2 × 105 km3 of water fall annually as
precipitation." (Debenedetti, 2003)
The water in the ocean is salty and not fit to drink. The water in the polar ice caps
and in glaciers will mix with the water in the ocean. The world's oceans comprise 97.3%
of the total water on earth and consist of 5 oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and
Southern. The current range for the volume of the world's ocean is from 1.3 to 1.5 billion
cubic kilometers and it will still get larger and larger as time passes. These processes
are continuing today. It is estimated that the volume of the earth's ocean increases by 1
cubic meter every year. (Elert, 2001)
About 2 percent of the planet's water is fresh, but 1.6 percent of the planet's
water is locked up in the polar ice caps and glaciers. Another 0.36 percent is found
underground in aquifers and wells. Only about 0.036 percent of the planet's total water
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supply is found in lakes and rivers (Qadri, 2000). That's still thousands of trillions of
gallons, but it's a very small amount compared to all the water available. The freshwater
resources, such as the water in streams, rivers, lakes, and groundwater that provide
people and all life forms with most of the water they need every day to live. Even if
freshwater is just 2% it is enough due to water cycle.
Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle is a series of movements of water above, on,
and below the surface of the earth. The water cycle consists of four distinct stages:
storage, evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Water may be stored temporarily in the
ground; in oceans, lakes, and rivers; and in ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from the
earth’s surface, condenses in clouds, falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain or
snow), and eventually either runs into the seas or reevaporates into the atmosphere
(Gedzelman, 2008). Almost all the water on the earth has passed through the water
cycle countless times. Very little water has been created or lost over the past billion
years. Water from precipitation which is called rain continually seeps into the ground to
recharge the aquifers, while at the same time water in the ground continually recharges
rivers through seepage. Even though you may only notice water on the Earth's surface,
there is much more freshwater stored in the ground than there is in liquid form on the
surface. In fact, some of the water you see flowing in rivers comes from seepage of
groundwater into river beds. The amount of water that seeps into the ground depends
on how steep the land is and what is under ground. For example: places that have lots
of sand underground will allow more water to sink in than ones that have lots of rock.
When the water seeps down, it will reach a layer of ground that already has water in it.
That is the saturated zone. The highest point in the saturated zone is called the water
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table. The water table can raise and lower depending on seasons and rainfall.
Groundwater flows through layers of sand, clay, rock, and gravel. This cleans the
water. Because groundwater stays underground, things that fall into surface water can't
fall into it. This means that groundwater stays cleaner than water on the surface. It
has its problems, too. When farmers use fertilizers and insecticides, rain will wash them
into the soil where they get into aquifers or groundwater. Gas stations have big,
underground tanks where they keep the gas. If these leak, the gas sinks into the
groundwater, too. Groundwater doesn't need as much treatment as surface water, but
it usually gets some because of these problems.
Man was created by God to have dominion over the living things that moved
upon the earth (Genesis 1:27-28). Aristotle, the Greek philosopher had theorized that
successful creatures on earth possessed a gift or perfecting principle (King, 2008) that
enabled them to rise to meet the demands of this world. Those who perished did not
have the perfecting principles. Man had mastered procreation that is why the world now
is overpopulated. Malthus (1798) recognized that population if unchecked, grows at a
geometric rate: 1 2 4 8 16 32. However, food only increases at an arithmetic rate, as
land is finite: 1 2 3 4 5 6. Human population tends to grow faster than the power in the
earth to produce subsistence. Today, there are around 7 billion people on the planet
(Woodford, 2012). The effects of these two unequal powers must be kept equal. This
principle can be used as a preventive measure, humans should limit their population
size voluntarily or else we can’t apply the perfecting principle.
It is a tenet of the neo-Malthusian position that population growth inexorably
leads to the destruction of the environment. It is only a matter of time before the earth’s
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carrying capacity will collapse under the pressure of people. One of the ways that
humanity is ‘biting the hand that feeds it’ is through pollution of the air and water. Water
pollution is usually caused by human activities.
One traditional way that hydrologists concerned with social water issues measure
scarcity is by looking at per-capita water availability or use; i.e., the water available or
used in a region per person. Assuming that the world's renewable freshwater supply is
relatively constant, the average amount of water available per person in 1850 was about
43,000 cubic meters per year. By 1990, this figure had dropped to 9,000 cubic meters
per year, simply because of the increase in global population. When measured this way,
the spatial and temporal distribution problems described above become even more
evident.
Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or more
substances have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for
animals or people. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other inland waters can naturally clean up
a certain amount of pollution by dispersing it harmlessly. It is all about quantities: how
much of a polluting substance is released and how big a volume of water it is released
into (MBG, 2006). A small quantity of a toxic chemical may have little impact if it is
spilled into the ocean from a ship. But the same amount of the same chemical can have
a much bigger impact pumped into a lake or river, where there is less clean water to
disperse it. This, in turn, could affect the health of all the plants, animals, and humans
whose lives depend on the river.
A 1971 United Nations report defined ocean pollution as: "The introduction by
man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment
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including estuaries resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources,
hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing, impairment of
quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities." Water pollution almost always
means that some damage has been done to an ocean, river, lake, or other water
source. Fortunately, Earth is forgiving and damage from water pollution is often
reversible.
Adult human needs to drink at least 1.5 liters of water a day to replace fluid lost in
urine, sweat, and respired air and to perform essential biochemical functions. Moreover,
almost 90 percent of body mass is water. Water, however, can also carry dangerous
pathogens and toxic chemicals into the body. The catalogue of waterborne pathogens is
long, and it includes many that are well-known as well as far larger numbers of more
obscure organisms. Waterborne pathogens include viruses (e.g., hepatitis A,
poliomyelitis); bacteria (e.g., cholera, typhoid, coliform organisms); protozoa (e.g.,
cryptosporidiosum, amebae, giardia); worms (e.g., schistosomia, guinea worm); and
toxins (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, numerous organic chemicals). (Last, 2000)
Water also harbors the intermediate stages of many parasites, either as free-
living larvae or in some other form, and it is the vehicle for essential stages in the life
cycle of many dangerous insect vectors, notably mosquitoes and blackflies. Chemical
contamination or pollution of drinking water is another serious problem—one that has
become a great deal worse in the modern industrial era, due to the widespread, and
often unregulated, discharge of toxic substances into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Water sources like springs, rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, wells, reservoirs, and
rainwater runoff into tanks and cisterns can all be contaminated by fecal matter of
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human or animal origin (Santo Domingo, 2010). Organic matter of other origin like dead
animals and decaying vegetation can contaminate drinking water too, in ways that
range from very dangerous to merely unpleasant.
There is no easy way to solve water pollution; if there were, it wouldn't be so
much of a problem. Broadly speaking, there are three different things that can help to
tackle the problem—education, laws, and economics—and they work together as a
team (Woodford, 2012). Educating the people is a way of making them aware of the
problem so that they can stop dumping their waste water anywhere. Concerned citizens
should form a group as a watchdog for water quality. Greater public awareness can
make a positive difference. The best to implement the effective Waste Water
Management is by passing laws whether local, national or global. The international laws
governing the oceans are as follows; the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
(signed by over 120 nations), the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection
of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic . Most countries also have their
own water pollution laws. In the United States, for example, there is the 1972 Clean
Water Act and the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. In the Philippines, Republic Act No.
9275 was enacted last 2004 otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act. Its aim
is to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from land-based sources like
industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household
activities. It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and
minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the
stakeholders.
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Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through
something called the polluter pays principle (Woodford, 2012). This means that whoever
causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays
can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take
out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean
that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is now common in
Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Or it could mean that factories that
use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow pipes,
so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the
polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting by making it less
expensive for them to behave in an environmentally responsible way. With these
suggested strategies, the Malthusian Theory will not happen.
Water from suspect sources usually can be made safe to drink by boiling.
Ancient empirical observation of this fact in India and China may have led to the
popularity in those countries of drinking tea and other infusions made with boiling water.
However, boiling is neither practical nor sensible for the treatment of large municipal
water supplies. These must be protected by appropriate treatment measures—filtration
and purification generally through chlorination that were developed mainly in the
nineteenth century in the industrial nations. Provision of safe drinking water supplies
has been among the most effective and important measures ever taken to advance the
public's health.
The other essential components in the prevention of waterborne diseases are the
sanitary disposal of sewage and the environmental control of toxic chemicals. Sanitary
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services are based on sewage disposal systems in most organized urban communities.
The combination of sanitary disposal of human sewage and the provision of safe water
supplies has virtually eliminated many of the serious waterborne epidemic diseases that
took such a heavy toll of life until the early years of the twentieth century. However,
sanitary services break down when floods, earthquakes, and other disasters occur, and
at such times it is essential to boil water to ensure that pathogens are killed. Other
methods, such as the use of iodine or chloramine in tablet or powder form are
sometimes used; both under emergency conditions and by backpackers and the like,
but these methods are less effective than boiling.
For general guidelines to have a safe potable water some tips are suggested
WEPA, 2012. Potable water should be tested more often if there’s suspect of water
contamination. Each year, test for coliform bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS should be
done. It is best to test these contaminants during summer or following a rainy period.
These kinds of tests should also be conducted after repairing or replacing an old well or
pipes, and after installing a new well pump. Every 3 years, test for sulfate, chloride,
iron, manganese, lead, hardness and corrosion index should be done. If a new baby is
expected in the household it is a good idea to test for nitrate in the early months of a
pregnancy, before bringing an infant home, and again during the first 6 months of the
baby's life. (http://inspectapedia.com/water/watrtest.htm, 2012)
Where you live, or what you are living next to, can sometimes affect the quality of
your well water. If someone in your family becomes ill, or the taste, odor or color of your
water changes, your water supply may be contaminated. If your well is in an area of
intensive agricultural use: test for pesticides commonly used in the area, coliform
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bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS. If you live near a coal or other mining operation: test for
iron, manganese, aluminum, pH and corrosion index. If your well is near a gas drilling
operation: test for chloride, sodium, barium and strontium. If your water, smells like
gasoline or fuel oil, and your well is located near on operational or abandoned gas
station or buried fuel storage tanks: test for fuel components or volatile organic
compounds ('OC's). If your well is near a dump, junkyard, landfill, factory, or dry
cleaning operation: test for volatile organic chemicals (such as gasoline components
and cleaning solvents) pH, TDS, chloride, sulfate and metals. If your well is near
seawater, a road salt storage site, or a heavily salted roadway and you notice the water
tastes salty or signs of corrosion appear on pipes: test for chloride, TDS and sodium.
(http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-safe-distance-between-a-water-sourface-and-
a-toilet.html)
Amrita Virtual Lab Collaborative Platform had the following theories about water
content:
Water clarity is measured by monitoring the turbidity. This is useful to check the
effectiveness of the treatment process, but is no use in controlling dosing or
investigating the source of a problem if one arises. Turbidity is the amount of particulate
matter that is suspended in water. Turbidity measures the scattering effect that
suspended solids have on light: the higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the
turbidity.
Alkalinity is an aggregate property of the water sample which measures the acid-
neutralizing capacity of a water sample. It can be interpreted in terms specific
substances only when a complete chemical composition of the sample is also
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performed. The alkalinity of surface water is due to the carbonate, bicarbonate and
hydroxide content and is often interpreted in terms of the concentrations of these
constituents. Higher the alkalinity, greater is the capacity of water to neutralize acids.
Conversely lower the alkalinity less will be the neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity of sample
can be estimated by titration with standard H 2SO4 or HCI solution. Titration to pH 8.3 or
decolorization of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutralization of OH -
and 1/2 of CO32-, while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to orange of methyl
orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity.
Saline water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt while fresh water has less than
1,000 ppm (Water Supply Paper, 1958). This saline water can be made into freshwater,
which everyone needs everyday. The process is called desalination, and it is being
used more and more around the world to provide people with needed freshwater.
Advances in technology are allowing desalination to become a reliable and cost-
effective water-scarcity solution transforming both brackish and sea water into fresh
water.
The Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water were presented in Table 1
as adapted by University of San Carlos – Water Laboratory wherein eleven parameters
of drinking water quality will be tested.
Table 1 Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water adapted by USC-Water Lab
Parameters Method Used Maximum Level (mg/L)Physical & Chemical Test:Turbidity Turbidity Meter 5 NTU (Nepheloturbidity unit)pH Glass Electrode 6.5-8.5Total dissolved solids Gravimetric 500Chloride Argentometric Titration 250.0Sulfate Turbidimetric 250.00Total Iron Phenanthroline, Colorimetric 1.0
Microbiological Test:
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Fecal Coliforms Membrane Filtration <1 fecal coliform colony/100 mlTotal Coliforms Membrane Filtration <1 fecal coliform colony/100 ml
Trace Metals:Cadmium AAS Flame Technique 0.003Lead AAS Flame Technique 0.01Manganese AAS Flame Technique 0.4
According to the Secretary of Health, Francisco T. Duque III (2007), the common
causes of drinking water pollutants were as follows:
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of water (or other fluid) caused by
individual particles that are too small to be seen without magnification. Turbidity in
drinking water is caused by particulate matter that may be present from source as a
consequence of inadequate filtration or from resuspension of sediment in the
distribution system. Most causes turbidity are due to the presence of suspended matter
such as clay, silt, fine organic or inorganic matter and microorganisms. Soil scientists
divide soil particles, also known as soil separates, into three main size groups: sand,
silt, and clay. According to the classification scheme used by the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA), the size designations are: sand, 0.05 to 2.00 mm
(0.002 to 0.08 in); silt 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002 in); and clay, less than 0.002
mm (0.00008 in). Depending upon the rock materials from which they were derived,
these assorted mineral particles ultimately release the chemicals on which plants
depend for survival, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, iron,
and manganese.
The degree of water turbidity affects the amount of sunlight that can penetrate
through the water column and may therefore be a limiting factor of photosynthesis of
marine plants.
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pH is a numerical measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water ranging from 0 to
14. Neutral waters have pH near 7. Acidic waters have pH less than 7 and alkaline
waters have pH greater than 7.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water originate from natural sources,
sewage, urban runoff and industrial wastewater.
Chloride in drinking water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial
effluents, urban runoff, and seawater intrusion. Seawater intrusion or salinity is defined
as the total solids in water after all carbonates have been converted to oxides, all
bromides and iodide have been replaced by chloride, and all organic matter has been
oxidized. Terms associated with salinity are chlorinity and chlorosity. Chlorinity includes
chloride, bromide,and iodide, all reported as chloride while chlorosity is the chlorinity
multiplied by water density at 20oC.
The chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for the salt
content of water, e.g. in case of the intrusion of seawater into an aquifer or the
estimation of the inorganic pollution of water.
Sulfates occur in natural waters and in wastewater. If high concentrations are
consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative
effects, but there is no significant danger to public health from sulfates.
Iron is found in natural fresh waters. It may be present in drinking water as a
result of the use or iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during
water distribution.
Fecal Coliforms Bacteria is a group of bacteria normally present in large
numbers in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm‐blooded animals.
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Specifically, the group includes all the rod‐shaped bacteria that are non‐spore‐forming,
Gram‐Negative, lactose‐fermenting in 24 hours at 44.5°C, and which can grow with or
without oxygen. Bacteria included in this classification represent a subgroup of the
larger group termed “coliform. “
Drinking-water supplies should be free from contamination by human and animal
excreta, which can contain a variety of microbial contaminants. Microbiological
parameters are indices of potential waterborne diseases and, in general, are limited to
bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa. The major interest in classifying and issuing
standards is the identification, quantification, and evaluation of organisms associated
with waterborne diseases. Practically, all pathogenic organisms that can be carried by
water originate from the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals.
Bacterial intestinal pathogens known to be transmitted in drinking-water are
strains of Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae,
Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus, Legionella pneumophila although, a
soil bacterium, may be contracted by inhalation exposure to the bacteria in water.
There are also many common viral and protozoan organisms that transmit disease in
humans. Human enteric viruses that may be present in water include Poliovirus,
Echovirus, Coxsackie Virus A, Coxsackie Virus B, new enterovirus types 68-71,
Hepatitis type A, Gastroenteritis type Norwalk, Rotavirus and Adenovirus. The
protozoans are Giardia, Cryptosporidium spp, Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli,
Naegleria and Acanthamoeba. (CE 521B Notes 1, 2nd sem AY 2010-2011 Department
of Civil Engineering University of San Carlos)
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Public health concern regarding cyanobacteria relates to their potential to
produce a variety of toxins, known as “cyanotoxins.” In contrast to pathogenic bacteria,
cyanobacteria do not proliferate within the human body after uptake; they proliferate
only in the aquatic environment before intake. Toxic peptides (e.g., microcystins) are
usually contained within the cells and may be largely eliminated by filtration. However,
toxic alkaloids such as cylindrospermospsin and neurotoxins are also released into the
water and may pass through filtration systems. Frequent examinations for fecal indicator
organisms remain as the most sensitive and specific way of assessing the hygienic
quality of water. Fecal indicator bacteria should fulfill certain criteria to give meaningful
results. The tests required to detect specific pathogens are generally very difficult and
expensive so it is impractical for water systems to routinely test for specific types of
organisms. A more practical approach is to examine the water for indicator organisms
specifically associated with fecal contamination. An indicator organism essentially
provides evidence of fecal contamination from humans or warm-blooded animals. The
criteria for an ideal organism are as follows: a. Always present when pathogenic
organism of concern is present, and absent in clean, uncontaminated water. b. Present
in large numbers in the feces of humans and warm-blooded animals c. Respond to
natural environmental conditions and to treatment process in a manner similar to the
waterborne pathogens of interest d. Readily detectable by simple methods, easy to
isolate, identify and enumerate e. Ratio of indicator/pathogen should be high f. Indicator
and pathogen should come from the same source or gastrointestinal tract.
Coliform Organisms (Total Coliforms) is defined as all the aerobic and
facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, nonsporeforming, rod-shaped bacteria that
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ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 h at 35oC. This definition includes E. coli ,
the most numerous facultative bacterium in the feces of warm-blooded animals, plus
species belonging to the genera Enterobacter , Klebsiella, and Citrobacter .
Total coliform could be considered as part of natural aquatic flora because of their
regrowth in water. Because of this characteristic, their detection in water supply may
mean false positive for fecal contamination. Another way by which false positive can
occur is when the bacteria Aeromonas is present in the sample. Aeromonas can
biochemically mimic the coliform group. False negatives can occur when coliforms are
present along with high populations of HPC bacteria. The presence of HPC bacteria
may restrict the activities of coliform group bacteria. Water intended for human
consumption should contain no indicator organisms.
However, pathogens more resistant to conventional environmental conditions or
treatment technologies may be present in treated drinking-water in the absence of E.
coli or total coliforms. Protozoa and some enteroviruses are more resistant to many
disinfectants including chlorine, and may remain viable and pathogenic in drinking-water
following disinfection process.
Cadmium is used in manufacture of steel, plastics and battery and released to
the environment through wastewater or fumes. Cadmium is released in water supply as
impurity of the zinc coating of galvanized pipes and solders and metal fittings.
Lead may be present in water primarily from plumbing systems containing lead
pipes, solder, fittings or the service connections to the homes. Although it may be found
naturally occurring in certain areas, rarely is it present in water supply as a result of its
dissolution from natural sources.
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Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface and groundwater sources,
particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions.
The minimum frequency of sampling for drinking water were presented in Table 2
taken from the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water.
Table 2. Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems
Source & Mode of Supply
PopulationServed
Frequency of Sampling
Microbiological Test Physical &Chemical Test
Level 1 90-500 Once in 3 months Once a year Level 2 600 Once in 2 months Once a year Level 3 Less than
5,0001 sample/month Once a year
5,000-100,000 1 sample/5000 population monthly Once a year More than100,000
20 samples & additional 1sample/10,000 population monthly
Once a year
Emergency Supplies of Drinking Water
Before delivery to users Once a year
Water Refilling Stations 1 sample monthly Twice a year Water VendingMachines
1 sample monthly Twice a year
Related Literature
The study made by Alalim (2006) in Daanbantayan, Cebu had a similarity in this
study. However, that study was descriptive in which the extent of water potability was
based on the perceptions of the respondents. This study will use both descriptive and
experimental method in which different parameters will be measured to identify the
presence of pollutants in the fresh water. The degree of seawater seepage will be also
determined and will be used for forecasting of fresh water availability.
Population growth, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of
Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and
agricultural activities as quoted by Pulley and Serra in the Philippine Environment
Monitor 2003. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural
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runoff has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in
the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils,
and even solid waste. Each of these pollutants has a different noxious effect that
influences human livelihood and translates into economic costs. The adverse impact of
water pollution costs the economy an estimated Php 67 billion annually (more than US $
1.3 billion). The Government continues its fight against worsening water pollution by
espousing and including among its priorities, environment policies, legislation, and
decrees that address the growing need to control water pollution. In the last few years,
the Government has also employed economic instruments such as pollution fines and
environmental taxes. The pending Clean Water Act proposes an integrated, holistic,
decentralized and participatory approach to abating, preventing and controlling water
pollution in the country. This monumental step, taken collectively by various
stakeholders, is the first attempt to consolidate different fragmented laws and provide a
unified direction and focus to fighting water pollution.
The Philippines Environment Monitor 2003 comprises eight sections: (i) an
overview of the country’s water quality and availability status, and water pollution
conditions of surface, ground and coastal waters by region; (ii) the sources of water
pollution, including various types of effluents, their generation, and the effects of
wastewater discharges to human health and the environment; (iii) the four critical
regions that were found to have unsatisfactory rating for water quality and quantity; (iv)
the effects and economic losses due to polluted waters, health cost, and costs to fishery
and tourism sectors; (v) a description of the water policies, institutional arrangements in
water resources management, and enforcement of standards and economic
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instruments; (vi) urban sanitation and sewerage program and performance; (vii)
investment requirements in water pollution control; and (viii) the challenges in
implementing an integrated water resources management program.
Methodology
Descriptive method was undertaken in this study. It underwent three Phases;
Phase 1 was the identification of water sources in Danao City through interview of the
Department Head of Danao City Water Works. Phase 2 will be the sampling stage by
taking water samples from the water sources in five areas in Danao City and were
subjected to different water analysis like physical analysis (turbidity, pH, total dissolved
solids), microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms), metal analysis
(cadmium, lead, manganese), and chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, iron). The
testing will be done only once per area since the water sources were identified under
Level 1 and 2 as per Philippine National Standards for drinking water. The water
samples will be taken right away to the accredited water testing center of USC-Water
Laboratory.
Phase 3 was the personal interview with the caretaker of the deep well following
the self-made questionnaire and field inspections wherein actual measurements were
done and actual observations of the state of the sampling site were also recorded by the
researcher.
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Letter requesting permission to conduct the study were made and was given to
Danao City mayor personally and to the barangay captains of Sabang, Tuburan,
Poblacion and Taytay.
Data was in terms of frequencies, percentages, and mean using MegaStat
software. Regression formula was also used in identifying the extent of the sea water
seepage through the presence of chloride in the water sample with respect to the
distance of the water source from the shoreline.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 3. Water Testing Laboratory Results by the USC-Water Laboratory
PARAMETER CTU, Sabang CTU-CENTRUM,Sabang
TAYTAY TUBURAN SUR TUPAZ,Poblacion
PNSDrinking
Water 2007
Fecal Coliforms <1 <1 TNTC 61 2 <1
Total Coliforms 2 1 TNTC TNTC 49 <1
Turbidity (NTU) 0.07 0.51 0.43 0.76 0.13 5
pH 7.09 7.16 6.98 6.80 7.06 6.5 – 8.5
Total dissolved solids 565 (+9) 645(+37) 562
(+16)
475 (+19) 717(+45) 500
Chloride (mg Cl/L) 80.8 111 39.2 17.6 50.9 250.0
Sulfate (mg SO4 /L) 19.8(+0.1) 4.75(+0.47) 302 (+2) 11.7(+1.2) 62.8(+0.9) 250.00
Total Iron (mg Fe/L) 0.02 0.023(+0.001) 0.05 0.22(+0.01) 0.035(+0.003) 1.0
Cadmium (mg Cd/L) <0.00025 <0.00025 <0.00025 <0.00025 0.00145(+0.00010) 0.003
Lead (mg Pb/L) <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 0.01
Manganese (mg Mn/L) 0.0012(+0.0002) 0.0024(+0.0001) 0.0027 0.0009(+0.0001) 0.5241(+0.0159) 0.4
Note: TNTC – Too Numerous To Count (>200 colonies per 100 ml)PNS – Philippine National StandardNumber in parenthesis ( ), denotes 95% confidence levelFailed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007
Water samples were taken from five sources in Danao City specifically in CTU
Sabang, CTU-CENTRUM Sabang, Taytay, Tuburan Sur, and Tupaz Poblacion. Only
the parameters that failed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007 were being discussed in
order to trace the possible reasons of the contaminants.
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Table 4. Contaminant Source Inventory Table
Questions CTU-Danao CTU-Centrum
Taytay TuburanSur
Tupaz,Poblacion
Year Constructed 1968 2010 1983 1989 1952Deep of the Drilling (ft) 55 140 20 40 40Maintained by Agency/Private CTU-Danao CTU-Danao Private City Hall PrivateFrequency of PreventiveMaintenance
Once amonth
Once amonth
None None None
Is there a budget for maintenance?
Yes Yes None Yes None
Last water treatment Jan. 11, 2010 None None None NoneIs there a presence of corrosion in
the pipe?
Yes None Yes Yes Yes
Cemented area surrounding thedeep well (square meters)
None 16 20 None 16
Did the users washed their clothes near the well? (within 100m)
No No Yes Yes Yes
Did the users take a bath or bathetheir animals near the well?
No No Yes Yes No
Did you see any unrestrictedlivestock 100 meters away?
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Number of population/householdsusing the deep well
2,000population
2,000population
5 households 107households
50households
All the households have toilets Yes Yes Yes No YesIs it shady? (sun rays cannot
penetrate within the area?
Yes No No Yes Yes
Is there a presence of soil erosionwithin 100m perimeter?
No No No Yes No
Distance of the nearest house(meters)
9 6 2 8 6
Distance of the nearest septictank (meters)
11 19 10 56 10
Distance of the nearest vegetablegarden or agricultural farm usingpesticides within 100
None None None None None
Distance of the nearest poultry,piggery or livestock animals (m)
None 142 60 22 None
Distance of the nearestuncemented water drainage
None 87 100 None 300
Distance of the nearest industrialsite or factory (meters)
250 200 300 1000 500
What is their product or business? Furniture/car wash
Furniture/car wash
Gasolinestation/FoodProducts
FoodProducts
Hospital
Distance from the public road (m) 300 230 25 30 15Distance from the shoreline(meters)
250 450 950 2500 750
What kind of soil the area has asto texture? (sand, clay, silt)
Silt Silt Sand Silt Sand
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Taytay
Figure 2.
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Fig. 2 Map of potential contaminant sources depicted on an aerial view
Microbiological Test Result (Fecal and Total Coliforms)
As to microbiological tests specifically Total Coliforms all the water sources failed
since the PNS Drinking Water Standard should be less than one fecal colony per 100 ml
of water. CTU-CENTRUM had 1, CTU - Sabang had 2, Tupaz Poblacion had 49 and
Taytay and Tuburan Sur had too numerous to count or more than 200 colonies per
100 ml of water.
In order to identify and locate potential sources of contamination, the caretaker of
the five deep wells were being interviewed and the results were presented in Table 4.
All samples taken from the different sampling stations were found to be well below the
required level of tolerated quantity of coliform for drinking water. High level of coliform
found in Taytay is quite understandable due to the following reasons; even if the area
near the well had been cemented the nearest septic tank is only 10 meters which is
supposed to be to 100 meters away from the water source to avoid water
contamination; dogs also roam around the area and as dogs it’s just normal to moved
their wastes anywhere thus contaminating the water source; a piggery can be found
within 60 meters thus adding contamination.
Same thing in Tuburan Sur wherein the users bathe their animals near the well
and while the animals were taking a bath they just move their feces there and since it is
not cemented the animal feces goes directly to the water source; not all households
have toilets, so they just move their wastes anywhere where they can’t be seen and the
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human waste goes to the water source as well; the nearest septic tank is only 56 meters
away and a piggery can be found 22 meters away which added air pollution aside from
water pollution.
In Tupaz, Poblacion only the septic tank which is 10 meters away caused the
presence of 2 fecal coliforms and 49 total coliforms which made the water not suitable
for drinking. It can be used for cooking provided that it should undergo a boiling point.
In CTU-Danao Campus dogs, cats, chicken and goats were roaming around the
campus and the nearest septic tank is only 9 meters away thus contaminating the water
sources.
Test Result of Total Dissolved Solids
All the water sources being tested except in Tuburan Sur failed as to the amount
of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ranging from 562-717 mg solids/L which is 12 to 43%
higher than the PNSDW for TDS. The possible reasons of the this contamination were
as follows; CTU-Danao is very near to DECA Homes which is just 9 meters away and
also near the school canteen which don’t have a proper waste water disposal. The
nearest furniture shop is just 250 meters away. CTU-Centrum water source is 6 meters
to the nearest residence, 19 meters to the nearest septic tank and 200 meters to the
furniture shop. The deep wells of Taytay and Tupaz, Poblacion were privately owned
and within the residential areas thus the greater the presence of total dissolved solids.
Sulfates Test Result
With regards to the amount of sulfates only the deep well in Taytay failed since
the nearest septic tank is just 10 meters away and it is within a residential area and
there is also the presence of a river 100 meters away.
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Manganese Test Result
The deep well in Tupaz, Poblacion was higher by 31% in manganese content
than the PNS Drinking Water since it is located in the city proper and most of the areas
there are cemented so oxygen cannot penetrate within the soil. Manganese can be
found in an anaerobic or low oxidation conditions.
Chloride/Salinity
Nowadays, there’s an invasion of a body of fresh water by a body of salt water,
due to its greater density as a result of global warming. It can occur either in surface or
groundwater bodies thus it can contaminate our water sources. So, according to USC-
Water Laboratory the chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for
the salt content or the salinity of the water source.
Table 5. Cloride content of the water source and its distance from the nearest shoreline
Chloride (mg Cl/L)PNS=250
Distance from the shoreline(meters)
CTU-Sabang 80.8 712CTU-Centrum 111 450Taytay 39.2 950Tuburan Sur 17.6 2500Tupaz, Pob. 50.9 750
Regression Analysis
r² 0.622
Adjusted r² 0.496
r -0.789Std. Error 580.653
n 5
k 1
Dep. Var. (meters)
ANOVA table
Source SS df MS F p-value
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Regression1,662,761.509
1 1 1,662,761.5091 4.93 .1130
Residual1,011,473.690
9 3 337,157.8970
Total2,674,235.200
0 4
Regression output confidence interval
variables coefficients std. error t (df=3) p-
value95%
lower 95% upper
Intercept 2,128.7184 541.9261 3.928 .0294 404.0677 3,853.3691
PNS=250 -17.6347 7.9409 -2.221 .1130 -42.9062 7.6368
b: -17.63469739
a: 2128.718374
Formula: y=a+bx
Example: if x = 100 meters
y=a+bx=2128.718374+(-17.63469739)(100)=365 mg/L of chloride
In using this regression formula, if the distance of the water source from the
nearest shoreline is 100 meters, there will be 365 mg/L of chloride, it means that the
nearer the water source to the shoreline the greater is the presence of chloride which is
also the indication of the sea water penetration.
GANNT CHART
Table 5. Shows the work schedule of the whole research project
Activities June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan
Preliminaries
Distribution of Questionnaires & Interviews
First Water Sampling
Second Water Sampling
Third Sea Water Sampling
Data Processing
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Report Writing & Editing
Submission of Reports / Dissemination
BUDGETARY REQUIREMENTS
Honorarium Php 36,000.00Supplies, Materials, Gadgets 4,500.00Travelling Expense 15,000.00Sea Water Analysis Fee 81,500.00TOTAL BUDGET Php 137,000.00
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Prepared by:
DELFA G. CASTILLACTU – Danao Campus