Critique of Pure Reason1: One class of {its} [reasons] knowledge2- eta!"#sicso $eta!"#sics leads to t"e "ig"est questions%: &od 't"e e(istence of &od) *orcing reason to answer+ake sense of t"e question of &od: ,dealofPure Reason -elf 'iortalit# of t"e soul) *orcing reason to answer+ake sense of t"e question of t"e self:Paralogis of Pure Reason1 .i/ided into /ia negati/a and /ia !ositi/a2 *ro t"e Preface '0) of t"e Critique of Pure Reason3 Cannot 1e known wit" certaint#2ello3 student of Postodernis4 ,0i -"indou and3 at t"e1e"est of 0iel $aestrado3 , will tr#toorgani5e+arrange"isnotes in a /er# student-friendl# anner6 770n#wa#3 Postodernis "as 1een descri1ed as: ,ncredulit# towards etanarrati/es '8#otard) Precursor: 9iet5sc"e Returns 1ack to t"e question of trut" ,ndicates t"at all in $odernit# are inter!olations: t"ere areno suc" t"ing as trut": t"e -o!"ists were rig"t all along &oing 1e#ond t"e $odern !aradig8ets 1egin wit" ;ant [-ailor;ant< '77)];ant3 according to 01ulad3 is t"e *at"er ofPostodernis6="#> ,t is 1ecause of t"e Critique of PureReason6 =orld 'freedo) *orcingreasontoanswer+akesenseof t"equestionof t"eworld:0ntino# of Pure Reasono ?"e ,deal3 Paralogis3 and 0ntino# of Pure Reason are called .ialectics 'illusions: astaleate)3 ore !articularl# Transcendental Dialectics '?"ings we cannot know)o $eta!"#sics cannot stand t"e Critique of Pure Reason: re-ec"oed 1# 9iet5sc"e '.eat"of &od) Co!leted t"e !ro@ect of eta!"#sics6 A# doing so3 also co!leted t"e !ro@ect of odernit#6o $odernit# .eals wit" t"e question of scienceB C D: scientific ?"e self is t"e foundation of science ?o ake sense of realit#3 we ust go 1ack to an3 t"e foundation ;nowledge is ultiatel# !"enoena ';ant) 0nt"ro!ocentric 1ecause knowledge can onl# 1e "uan knowledge -cience is ultiatel# !"iloso!"# '2egel) ;ant was seen as its !innacle: 1ut was reacted against 1# t"e &eran ,dealistsand ot"ers 'still continuing t"e !ro@ect of odernit#) 0 question of life '8ate $odernit#) ="at can we know: !"enoena [0est"etics 'intuition: to !ercei/e) E 8ogic 'Fnderstanding)] .i/ided into two !arts3 t"e first is t"e critique of knowledge: t"e second is "ow to !roceed aftert"e critiqueG6;ant did soet"ing after $odernit#6 ="at coes after ;ant is after $odernit#6 ?o do Postodernis is to1e cogni5ant of ;ant6?"ree $asters of -us!icion: $ar(3 *reud3 9iet5sc"e4 Aecause it is s#steatic3 it ust "a/e a foundation65 ?"e social sciences are a !roduct of Positi/is66 .ialectical aterialis is t"e true science 'Ort"odo( $ar(ist)67 0fter t"e Critique3 t"ere ust 1e a re1uilding cogni5ant of t"e Critique6 2usserl Resuscitated t"e question of science -tarted !"enoenolog#+*at"er of P"enoenolog#H'science of 1eginnings) 'science ofessencesI) Returns 1ack to .escartes 8ast !art of $odernit# 2is !ro@ect1J is to secure and understand t"e foundation of knowledgeo ?"e ost concrete of w"at is gi/en to us is e(!erience6 -o "e 1egins wit" e(!erience Aegins wit" consciousness11 'cannot 1e in t"e a1stract) for "is !ro@ect ?"e !ro!ert# of consciousness is t"at it is intentional12 'intentional of soet"ing)o Consciousness is a correlate 1etween t"e , and t"e o1@ecto ="at connects t"e , and t"e o1@ect is consciousnesso Consciousness does not 1elong to t"e worldo Consciousness is not deterined 1# t"e world =e 1egin wit" w"at is gi/en to us '!rinci!le of !rinci!les 'originar# gi/enness1%)) P"enoenolog# 1egins wit" refle(ion 'to t"ink a1out t"inking) =e "a/e to o!en consciousness8 Aack to t"e t"ings t"esel/es 'concrete)69 ,deas 'for'eidos'=esen)))10 K!isteological in nature11 .escartes concei/ed of consciousness in t"e a1stract612 LConsciousness is conscious of soet"ing6M13 Content of consciousness;ant is reacted 1# 2egel and 2usserl6Aut lets 1egin wit" 2usserl first6 A# e(aining consciousness3 one "as to do a reduction 'ste!!ing 1ack fro t"e world)o 8eads to a transcendental1B stand!oint 'fro wit"drawing fro t"e world1C)o ="at we gat"er fro t"e transcendental stand!oint is a priori and t"erefore uni/ersalo ?ranscendental stand!oint is 1efore e(!erienceo ?ranscendental stand!oint can ake sense of t"e ordinar# {originar# '>)} gi/enness '>) epoch16 'sus!ension of @udgent) [necessar# in wit"drawing fro t"e world] K/er#t"ing is gi/en /ia consciousness P"enoenolog#1G 1H is not !s#c"olog#1Io Pro1le of ,nduction Our e(!erience2J 'w"ic" is not all t"e tie) e/entuall# 1ecoes "a1it3 [and] t"en1ecoes fact6 0 fact 1eing !articular is not necessar#6 ?"e scientific et"od works on t"e induction et"od6 Aecause it is founded one(!erience3 it cannot arri/e at uni/ersal trut"s6o Ps#c"olog# is naN/e 'not understanding t"e 1asics) *reud .isco/ered t"e unconscious ?"e ego 'self) is tra!!ed 1etween t"e law 'su!erego) and desire 'id) ?"e wit"drawal is su!!osed to take awa# t"e 1iases ?ranscendental stand!oint reac"es !ure consciousness3 t"en to t"e !ure ego21'!resu!!osition-less self)6 0fter t"is one can e(aine an o1@ect in its !urest for14 a priori15 A# wit"drawing [fro] t"e world does not ean den#ing t"e world616 Aracketing t"e world17 -cience of true 1eginnings18 Rigorous 'to stri! and look at t"e foundations)19 ,ntends to 1e Lnatural scienceM: atte!ts to naturali5e consciousness 'contingent trut"s)20 Particular 1ecause it is onl# a !ortion21 ?"e !ure ego is t"e source of e/er# ental act3 a terinus6 ,t s"ould not 1e e!irical6 ?o counicate t"e ,ntuition of ,deas '=esensc"au 'seeing of ,deas))3 one "as to s!eak a1out it'!"enoenological descri!tion)o =esensc"au leads to a!odicticit#22 'necessar#)9atural stand!ointo ="ere we 1egino Pre-!"iloso!"ical3 contingent3 a posteriori ?"e ego is freed fro its e!irical coitents 'fro reduction) 0n# science is now !ossi1le 1ecause of !"enoenolog#3 1ecause !"enoenolog# is now t"efoundation of science 2e is e(tending ;ant2% 'in a sense of e(tending !"enoena into science)o Oer# influenced 1# ;ant -#nt"etic a priori knowledge is !ossi1le t"roug" !"enoenolog# 2is !"enoenolog# is onl# a 1eginning *ree fanc# is iagination3 o!ening t"e o1@ect to its !ossi1ilities =e "a/e to understand originar# gi/enness .oes not !ur!ort to create a s#ste 9ot e/er#1od# can do t"e reduction ,deas allow t"e world to 1e2eidegger One of t"e ore i!ortant students of 2usserl 2e "as a lo/e-"ate relations"i! wit" 2usserl &rooed 1# 2usserl to 1e t"e latters "eir .edicated Being and Time to 2usserl K(!elled 2usserl fro t"e uni/ersit# Concerned wit" t"e question of Aeing2B ="at we know as Aeing is not actuall# Aeingo [Aeing is] t"at w"ic" is '0ristotle)22 0!odicticit# is indu1ita1le6 Aecause t"e ,deas is a!odictic3 it is indu1ita1le623 ?"e word !"enoenolog# is !resent in ;ant60nd we o/e on to 2egel4 O"3 not #et3 a!!arentl#6-o3 lets sto! 1# 2usserls student first3 2eidegger6o ,ts stud# is called eta!"#sics '0ristotle): ontolog# '8ei1ni5) =e "a/e forgotten Aeing 'fro t"e intellectuali5ation of culture) ?"e !ast conce!tion2C of Aeing is no longer Aeing =e are no longer talking a1out Aeing 1ut entities A# intellectuali5ing3 we are defining3 taking awa# fro t"e originariness '>) Parenides and 2eraclitus are actuall# s!eaking t"e sae t"ing ?o reduce Aeing2D into "uan conce!ts 1ecoes a fallac# '>)o =e cannot uni/ersali5e Aeing ?"inking cannot 1e di/orced fro doing in Aeing ?"e "istor# of =estern eta!"#sics2G is ontot"eolog#2H Aeing is not a conce!t =e cannot a!!roac" Aeing directl#: we "a/e to 1e content wit" w"at is gi/en to us: entities2I =e "a/e to do an ontic detour ?"e entit# w"ic" is concerned a1out its Aeing is t"e one we can interrogate '.asein) 2uan 1eing [is classified as eit"er]:o .as $an 'not concerned a1out its Aeing)o .asein .asein cares '-orge)%J ="en we care a1out our e(istence3 t"e "ori5on%1o!ens u! and reali5ean# t"ings &eworfen"eit P a1andonent24 *undaental question '="at is Aeing>)25 -tarting fro Plato26 *ro uni/ersali5ing Aeing27 Categori5ing Aeing: is!lacing Aeing28 Concerned wit" entities3 not Aeing29 1eings 'seienden)30 &i/es aut"entic e(istence: an i!ortant attri1ute31 ,n it3 Aeing will a!!ear as a !"enoena: su1@ect to tie .asein is a Aeing-in-t"e-world: "as t"e c"aracteristic of t"rowness 't"rown in t"eworld) ?"inking is anifested in asking Aeing is e(istence: a!!ears in s!ace and tie =e are entities t"at can onl# gras! t"ings in s!ace and tie Aletheia 'awa# fro forgetfulness)%2 {is eit"er}:o ?o unco/ero ?o re/ealo ?"e re/ealing of Aeing 2is !"enoenolog#%% is an e(istential anal#tic of Aeingo P"enoenolog# is su!!osed to 1e unco/ering 2is question is a question of ontolog# 's"ift fro 2usserl) 8anguage is t"e wa# to Aeing3 t"e "ouse of Aeingo 0llows Aeing to a!!ear to us3 in its "ig"est for 'language of t"e !oets)2egel ,ntroduced to *rance 1# 0le(ander ;o@e/Q and Rean 2#!!olite ;nowledge is L?rut" is t"e w"oleM ?"e -!irit is none ot"er t"an "uan reasono ?"e ,dea is Reason actuali5ed in its o/eent ?"e stud# of t"e dialectical o/eent of t"e -!irit is !"enoenolog# ?"ere is no dualit#: t"oug"t is anifested or it is not t"oug"t 2is work is 1asicall# t"e -!irit reali5ing to 1ecoe 01soluteo ?"ePhenomenologyof Spiritist"estor#of consciousnessunfoldingitself3 tr#ingtounderstand itself: fro its 1arest sense%B towards self-consciousness%C32 ?rut" is aletheia633 $et"od w"ere .asein re/eals Aeing34 0nial consciousness*inall#3 2egel4 {?"roug" self-consciousness3} 'we can t"ink a1out) 8ogicS9atureS$indS0rtSReligionSP"iloso!"#%D ?"e !rocess of unfolding is dialectics3 occurs in s!ace and tie 2istor# is t"e unfolding of t"e -!irito ;o@e/Q ?"e end of "istor# is t"e oent consciousness attainsa1solute '>)3 end of t"e unfolding of t"e -!irit ?"e oent t"at one sa#s "e is wrong3 "e 1ecoes t"e antit"esis to "is t"esis in "is s#ste Aecause of "i 'wit" 2eidegger and 2usserl)3 conte!orar# continental !"iloso!"#%G is !ossi1leo ;ierkegaard 2egels s#ste "as no !lace for t"e indi/idual =it" 9iet5sc"e3 lead to K(istentialis ="en t"e -!irit reac"es t"e 01solute3 it 1ecoes trut" itself Aecause of t"e negati/e3 t"e -!irit is a1le to o/e forwardo ?"e o/eent of -!irit is !ossi1le t"roug" negati/it# {9egati/it# is} a1sence3 contradiction3 antit"esis {9egati/it#} akes !ossi1le to 1e: [is t"e] !ossi1ilit# to 1e ?"e question of w"o , a is deterined 1# t"e question of w"at , do ?"oug"t ust 1e actuali5ed ?"e onl# science is !"iloso!"#: all ot"ers are !retending to 1e scienceAataille Reacting against 2egelo ?"e desire Lto 1eM%H is 1ot" tragic and incessant635 ?"ink a1out t"inking: desiring desire36 Consciousness is a1le to reali5e its a1solute for37 $ar(is3 K(istentialis3 P"enoenolog#38 L1eingM P to 1e w"ole 'fulfillent)8ets o/e on to AatailleT Conser/ation {can eit"er 1e}: 9egati/e 'not to do an#t"ing) Positi/e 'to do soet"ing) 'ust 1e understood t"is wa#)o ?"ere is no sta1ili5ed w"ole6o ="at is outside our sense of order is a onster ,nterrogates t"e question of useo Fse is su1@ect to cultural U !s#c"ological consideration &ift-e(c"ange is cultural3 !olitical3 econoic3 and s!iritual '$arcel $auss) Aasis: ri/alr#3 /iolence3 a kind of c"allengeo Power3 in its 1arest for3 is deferral of deat" 9ot founded on use ?raced 1ack to 2egel: aster-sla/e dialectic ?r#ing to get awa# fro 2egels s#ste ?o 1e trul# so/ereign is not to 1e su1@ected to use3 1ut to waste3 destruction3 laug"ter%Io 0 so/ereign is not su1@ect to t"e calculation of life and deat" Pointed out t"e question of autonoous 1eing ?"e notions of autono# and w"oleness are illusionso Our notions of w"oles will 1e alwa#s wrongo Our e(istence is in a{n} !recarious situation: we are alwa#s in relation to soet"ing else:unsta1le w"oles Conce!t of la1#rint"o Place wit"out origins or ends '!ur!ose)o ?"ere is no !ur!ose K!lo#ed t"e transgressi/e st#le3 to s"ock us 1ack to reali5e t"at we are insufficient3 to concretee(istenceo ?"e untiel# !"iloso!"er is t"e 1est @udge of "is tie3 for "e is not following t"e trend 2e does not 1elong an#w"ere $ade t"e *renc" inter!retation of 9iet5sc"e.errida *aous for t"e !ro@ect of deconstructiono {.econstruction is} fro destruktion 'fro 2eideggerBJ) 2eidegger was not radical enoug"39 Recognition t"at t"e so/ereign is in control of "iself,/e "eard t"at Aataille influenced a lot of *renc" !"iloso!"ers6 *ro t"e notes3 .errida is t"e first "onora1le ention 'tee "ee4)6 -o3 lets sto! 1# .errida6 .oinant 1ackgrounds: !"enoenolog# U structuraliso -tructuralis 0 reaction to !"enoenolog# 'all o1@ects are 1eing-for-#self) ?oakesenseof t"eoneric'drea)3 sc"i5o!"renic'adness)3 and#t"ic '#t")3 we "a/e to look at t"eir structureso ?"e unconscious is gi/en awa# 1# desire 0lternati/e 0 nae t"at 1rings fields toget"er '.esco1es) 0 kind of et"od $arried to seiolog#o {-eiolog# is t"e} science of signso 0n atte!t to !resent an enco!assing stud# of languageo *at"er: *erdinand de -aussureo -ign enco!asses all fors of language {?"esignis} 1ifurcatedtosignifier 'e(!ressionof t"eaudio iage of t"e o1@ect) and signified 'audio iage) $aking a connection 1etween t"e two issignification ,!lications: 8anguage is ar1itrar#o Our 1asis of naing soet"ing is 1asedon difference {?"e sign is} ar1itrar# 1ut de!endent on tieB1 {?"e sign is} difference 'w"at akes it t"is is 1ecause itis not t"at) ?"ere is no suc" t"ing as an original nae ?"e !rocess of signs relating to ot"er signs issignification 'due to t"e signifier)o ?"e *renc" structuralists used seiolog# to understand t"eeaning 1e"ind structures '>)3 e(!ress structures ,t "eralded t"e Ldeat" of anMo $eaning is out t"ere '1rings us to t"e Ldeat" of anB2MB% [reactionagainst su1@ecti/it#] 0 structure is ade u! of !arts t"at con/e# a certain t"ee Concerningitself of o1@ectsof e!t#contents'structures) toodels'-erres) 0 co!aratist et"od -tructures40 ?o return to t"e source3 we "a/e to destro# or circuscri1e t"e "istor# of ontot"eolog#641 -!eec" counit# 'con/ention)42 $erel# a !roduct of structures43 0 reaction against "uan natureo {Co!osed of:} surface structureVinforsWdee! structure {surface structureVinforsWdee! structure are}anal#5ed 0 et"od t"at gi/es us eaning w"en t"ere is isoor!"is 0 o/eent in *rance .econstruction is !lotting against t"e aster.errida ?"e "istor# of structure is as old as epistem '"uan knowledge)3 w"ere t"ere is an Le/entM 'aru!tureBB3 a redou1lingBC3 a scandalBD) -ign is su!!leent 'su1stitution 't"e signifier su1stitutes for t"e signified) and addition)o 8anguage is @ust a !la#6 ?"ere is not"ing outside t"e te(t: eaning is alwa#s deferredo ?"e oent we tr# to ca!ture t"e signified3 t"e signified 1ecoes a signifier 'dela# ofeaning Aeingis@ust a naeforanot"ernae '2eidegger enters t"eru!ture): su1@ect tot"e !la#ofdifference44 Ru!ture of t"e sign 't"e signifier colla!sing t"e signified3 1ecoes a signifier)45 ?"e signifier is redou1led 'w"en t"e signified transfors)46 $eaning is alwa#s dela#ed0t t"is !oint3 t"e notes "a/e segued a 1it to 8acan6 ,ts s"ort so ,ll@ustdictate w"at it sa#s:8acan L*loating signifiersM 'e(6 2uor) '1etween soet"ing and not"ing)are t"e 1est wa# to e(!ress desire ="en#oudesiresoet"ing3 t"ee(!ressionof t"at desirewillne/er 1e enoug"-orr# for t"at interru!tion6 8ets return to .errida6 Radicali5ed de -aussure Prie target of deconstruction: eta!"#sics of !resenceBG BH BI 't"ere is !ri/ileging)o ?o e(ist is to s!eak L.ifferanceM is neit"er a word nor a conce!to L.ifferanceM is a neologis6o ?o s"ow t"at eaning is alwa#s elusi/e .iffer P t"e signifier is not t"is 's!ace) .efer P t"e signifier is not t"is and !assed 'tie)o ,f a conce!t3 it is not differance3 it 1ecoes not w"at it is $eaning is elusi/e =e can deconstruct ?rut" ?"ere is no center3 no essential structure 'w"at deconstruction s"ows) .econstruction ust coe fro a certain tradition ?"ere is no sta1le !ositiono Ainar# o!!osites doinateeta!"#sics6 .econstructions"ows us t"at t"e# are@usta!la# of differences 2eidegger is still doing t"e eta!"#sics of !resence ?"e writing of t"e !"enoenological descri!tion enters t"e !ro1leof language 'eidetico1@ecti/it# 1ecoes a nae su1@ect to t"e !la# of difference) ?"e critique of !"enoenolog# inaugurated t"e !ro@ect of deconstructiono -uccession is tieo ?"e noemais ianent 'in consciousness) and transcendent 'outside t"e world)3 o!ento s!ace and tie t"roug" hyle ?"e noema does not 1elong an#w"ere 'anarc"# of noema)3 and o!ens u! #o t"etie and t"e ot"er6 $eaning 'to 1e !assed down in "istor#3 ust 1e grounded inlanguageCJ) t"en 1ecoes t"e ot"er of t"e o1@ect and su1@ect to tie6 ?o reacti/ate t"e eaning of language3 one ust use language6 Reading is decodification 'connected to [Reacti/ation is inconsciousness])3 writing is codification6 $eaning "as not #et arri/ed47 K/er#t"ing "as to 1e t"ere48 Logos '1ot" 1eing and knowing) '!ossi1le onl# in !resence) 'trut")49 ?"oug"t50 *i(ed in writing9iet5sc"e ?rue world W{"as 1ecoe}S fa1le world 're/ersion of Platonis)o ,f we take awa# t"e trut"3 we cannot sa# soet"ing is false6 K/er#t"ing else is !ossi1leo ?akingawa#t"etrueworldistakingawa#t"e reference3 andwelose eaning3t"enrealit#6Aaudrillard 2#!errealit# is w"at is t"ere 'fa1le world) -iulation is to feign to "a/e w"at one does not "a/e 'connected to "#!errealit#) '!la# of signsdue to t"e loss of realit#) ?"e !roduct of t"e !la# of signs is "#!errealit#o ?"e 1od# is t"e gra/e#ard of signs6Aaudrillard ?"e question of realit# is !araount 2#!errealit# is ore real t"an t"e realo ?"e iage is soet"ing t"at is gi/en3 soet"ing t"at a!!ears -uccessi/e !"ases {of t"e iage}: Reflection of a !rofound realit# 'corres!onding) $asks and denatures a!rofound realit# 'ideolog# '$ar(ist sense)C1coes "ere) 's"owing 1# "iding) $asks t"e a1sence of a !rofound realit# {2as t"e sae connotations aswit" t"e a1o/e} 2as relation to an# realit# '!ro!er entrance of siulation) Own !ure siulacru 9eo-$ar(ist51 *alse consciousness="oo4 9earl# done6 ,ll @ust go t"roug" t"e last !"iloso!"ers in t"e notes3 9iet5sc"e and Aaudrillard3 in one go6 ?"e#re connected an# wa#6 8ets o/e on6O"3 t"ere are soe descri!tions of Postodernis left4 ?racing t"e question of t"e deat" of t"e real ?"ere is a strong current of anti-realis 'started 1# ;ant) 'found its wa# to t"e *renc" intellectual sceneo -tructuralis U !"enoenolog# colla!sed under .erridas critique 2#!errealit# is go/erned 1# signs2ere ends t"e notes6 ,t was a lot of fun transcri1ing6 &ood luck in #our e(as4 77=it" sincerit#30i -"indou