Postmodern Language Teacher
Transcript of Postmodern Language Teacher
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
1/22
ThePostmodernLanguageTeacher: TheFutureof
Task-basedTeaching
AndrewEdwardFinch (KyungpookNationalUniversity)
I. Introduction
Whatever one thinks of contemporary art, architecture, economics,
education, literature, media, medicine, philosophy, politics, and science,
with theirpostmoderncharacteristicsofborder-crossing, de-colonization,
decentralization, deconstruction, eclecticism, pastiche, relativism,
self-contradiction, self- reference and self-reflexiveness, there can be
littledisagreementabouttheacceleratingrateofchangeinthesedisciplines.
Thischangehasbecomesymptomaticoflifeinthe21stcentury:
We are living in a time of rapid social change. ... such change will
inevitably affect the nature of those disciplines that both reflect our
societyandhelptoshapeit. (Hutcheon1989: vii)
Rogersspellsouttheimplicationsofthissituationforeducation:
We live in an environment that is continually changing. It seems that
rapid change is our only constant. We are facedwith an entirely new
situation in which the goal of education, if we are to survive, is the
facilitationofchangeandlearning. (Rogers1969: 151-152)
Expandingthistheme, EdwardsandUsherstatethat "educationisitself
goingthroughprofoundchangeintermsofpurposes, contentandmethods"
(Edwards & Usher1994: 3). Identifyingeducationas "bothasymptomof
andacontributortothesocio-culturalconditionofpostmodernity" (1994:
3), these authors point to postmodern features of current educational
practices and use these to suggest "a way of looking at education
differently" (1994
:1).Accordingly
,this
paper
examines
contemporary
TeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage (TEFL) theoryandpractice, and
relates thepostmodern featuresof these toparalleldevelopments inother
fields, showing that they are representative of trends in postmodern
thinking. In particular, Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is
recommendedasasuitablealternativetopedagogic "modesandcategories
inherited from the past [which] no longer seem to fit the reality
experiencedbyanewgeneration" (Hutcheon1989: vii).
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
2/22
InviewofthelackofsourcesdealingwithpostmodernismandTEFL, it
hasnotbeenpossibletoperformareviewofliterature, thoughtherearea
numberofrelated texts (e.g. Pennycook1998) thatcouldbedescribedas
postmodern. Afurtherdifficultyisthatwhentheword "postmodern" does
appear inarticlesandbooks (e.g. Mockler2004: 2), the authorsassume
thatthereaderisalreadywell-informed, eventhoughverylittledebateon
postmodernism and TEFL appears to have taken place. This paper
therefore examines postmodernism per se, before discussing its
implicationsfortheTEFLprofession.
II. ChangingDefinitions
In contrast to its 'modern' precursor, postmodernism (in a
characteristically self-referential manner) appears not only to defy
definition, buttoincludethisambiguityaspartofitsmakeup. ('Definition'
is itself a concept based on Enlightenment ideals of logic and reason.)
Hence, O'Farrellcomplainsthatproponentsofpostmodernismrarelyagree
over what the term 'postmodern' actuallymeans: "Indeed, many would
arguethatthisverylackofagreementisinitselfoneofthedistinguishing
featuresofthe 'postmodern'" (O'Farrell1999: 11). Hutcheonconfirmsthat
"Postmodernism isaphenomenonwhosemode isresolutelycontradictoryaswellasunavoidablypolitical" (1989: 1), andWardembracesthe "sense
of fluidity and open-endedness" which "resists being conveniently
summarizedineasy 'soundbites' andrefusestolenditselftoanysinglecut
anddrieddefinition" (Ward2003: 1).
Theextremeflexibilityofpostmodernism isnot, however, areasonfor
not attempting to identify its characteristics (though evasion of definite
statements can also been seen as a characteristic of postmodernism).Hutcheonthereforepersevereswithherattempttosaywhatpostmodernism
isandisnot:
Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to say that the postmodern's initial
concernistode-naturalizesomeofthedominantfeaturesofourwayof
life; to point out that those entities thatwe unthinkingly experience as
'natural' (they might even include capitalism, patriarchy, and liberal
humanism), are in fact 'cultural' - madeby us, not given tous. Even
nature, postmodernismmightpointout, doesn'tgrowontrees. (Hutcheon
1989: 1-2)
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
3/22
Ward further suggests that postmodernism is a set of concepts and
debates aboutwhat itmeans to live in our present times. Thesedebates
haveanumberofcommonthemes:
1.They propose that society, culture and lifestyle are significantly
differentfromwhattheywere100, 50oreven30yearsago.
2.They are concerned with concrete subjects like the developments in
massmedia, theconsumersocietyandinformationtechnology.
3.They suggest that these developments have an impact on our
understandingofmore abstractmatters, likemeaning, identity andevenreality.
4. Theyclaim thatold stylesofanalysisareno longeruseful, and that
new approaches and new vocabularies need to be created in order to
understandthepresent. (Ward2003: 6)
Postmodern concepts have been adopted and adapted by diverse
disciplines (Hutcheon focuses on architecture, literature, photography,
films and feminism; Ward ranges from philosophy to cultural studies,
geographyandhistory), and ithasbeensaid that "therearereallyseveral
postmodernisms in existence, or at least many variations" (Ward: 5).
Because of this, meanings and definitions tend to be ungeneralizable.
However, anumberofbroadapproachescanbe identified (Table1), andtheseareusedlaterinthispapertodiscusscontemporaryTEFLtheory:
TABLE1: CharacteristicsofpostmodernismCharacteristic Description
1. Border-crossing breakingdownofbarriers
2. De-colonization diversificationandregionalism
3. Decentralization lateral, ratherthanhierarchicaldecision-making
4. Deconstruction questioningtraditionalassumptionsaboutcertainty, identity, truth
5. Eclecticism mixingfeaturesfromdifferentsystemsandfields
6. Pastiche imitatingandsatirizingtheworksofothers
7. Relativism time, space, truthandmoralvaluesarenotabsolutebutarerelativetothepeopleholdingthem
8. Self-contradiction duplicity; themakingofself-underminingstatements
9. Self-referenceandself-reflexiveness
useofmeta-languageandself-constructingforms
III. ChangingSciences
The 'modern' AgeofReasonsubscribedtoanumberof 'metanarratives'
(Lyotard 1984), which influenced all Western thought. These
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
4/22
metanarratives included i) progress; ii) optimism; iii) rationality; iv) the
searchforabsoluteknowledgeinscience, technology, societyandpolitics;
and v) the idea that gaining knowledge of the true self was the only
foundation for all other knowledge (Ward 2003: 9). Science (which
replacedreligioninthe 'modern' eraasthesubjectofunquestioningfaith)
wasseenfromthisstandpointas: i) progressive (movingtowardsastateof
'complete knowledge'); ii) unified (all sub-disciplines shared the same
goal); iii) universal (aiming at total truths which would benefit all of
human life); and iv) self-justifying (since itwasintenton thebettermentofthe 'humanrace').
Such 'common sense' notions (the common sense of Newtonian
MechanicsandtheIndustrialRevolution) receivedanumberoftheoretical
setbacks in the 20th century, however. Einstein developed a physics of
relativity (Hofstadter 1999: 10); G?del showed that everymathematical
andscientificsystemwasincompleteandcontaineditsowncontradictions
(Hofstadter1999: 1); andHeisenbergproposedhis "uncertaintyprinciple"
alongwithquantummechanics (Hofstadter1985: 45). Thesewerestunning
blows to the modernist ideal, since they not only questioned the
Enlightenment's ideals of 'absolute knowledge' and 'absolute truth,' but
they refuted even the possibility of their existence. Finally, the French
philosopher, JacquesDerrida (1967), added further nails to the 'rational
thought' coffin, whenheshowedthatthereisnosystem, notheory, andno
scienceorpoliticalsystemwhichrestsonentirelyrationalfoundations.Thesetheoreticalwarningsabouttheendofthemodernprojectbecame
realitywhentheconceptofbenign, philanthropicscientificinquiryproved
to be inadequate (or even inaccurate) for the needs of contemporary
society. Thiscollapseoffaithcanbetracedtoanumberofcauses:
1.the contribution of science to ecological disasters (e.g. pollution,
greenhouse gases, acid rain) andmass killing (nuclear, chemical and
biologicalweapons);
2.the
commercialization
of
science
(e.g.the
withholding
of
permission
by pharmaceutical corporations in the US to make cheaper, generic
versionsoftheirlife-savingdrugsinunder-developedcountries [World
TradeOrganisation2001]);
3.the lossof faith in theability tomeasure reality (due to findings in
complexitytheory, relativitytheory, quantummechanics, etc.); and
4.thedivisionofscienceintoamassofspecialisms (diversedisciplines
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
5/22
and sub-disciplines now follow their own paths and speak their own
languages).
Inthelightofthisethicalandpedagogicalconfusion, itisnotsurprising
that 'the masses' have become skeptical about the notion of a unified,
'objective' science, searching for the answer to life (satirized byAdams
1995). Instead, they see politicians (and their hired scientists) ignoring
vital issues (acid rain, chemical waste landfills, global warming, etc.),
defending unethical and destructive developments ('the bomb,' napalm,anthrax, 'collateraldamage,' 'friendlyfire,' preemptiveinvasions, etc.), and
misleadingcitizenswith inaccurate information (e.g. mythicalweaponsof
mass destruction). This cold reality has left voters doubting the link
between impersonal, unaccountable, commercialized sciences and
'progress' (cf. Kuhn1960). AsO'Farrellasks:
Wasadevastatednaturalenvironment theonlyoutcomeof thescientific
search to improve our physical living conditions? Clearly there was
something verywrong indeedwith thewhole idea that unaidedReason
andRationalitycouldsaveus. (O'Farrell1999: 14)
This lossof faith in experimental sciencepromptedLyotard to define
postmodernism as an attitude of 'incredulity towards metanarratives'(Lyotard1984: 105), and inspiredothers to identify the 'deaths' or 'ends'
of social norms that were previously taken for granted. These deaths
included:
1.the end of history - skepticism about the idea of progress, and the
way in which histories are written (e.g.. the re-presentation of the
SecondWorldWarinJapaneseschooltextbooks);
2.theendof 'man' - 'mankind' wasnowseenasasocialandhistorical
invention; and
3.thedeathofthereal - realityhadbecomeincreasinglyconstructedby
signs: "theimagebearsnorelationtoanyrealitywhatever: itisitsownpuresimulacrum" (Baudrillard1988: 170).
These 'deaths,' and the consequent postmodern preoccupation with
exhaustion, pessimism, irrationality and disillusionment, express the
confusion of a world which has lost faith in 'modern' 'scientific'
metanarratives.
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
6/22
IV. ChangingWorlds
Thelossofthecornerstonesof 'absoluteknowledge' 'absolutetruth' and
'objectiveinquiry' didnotcausescientiststogiveuptheirstudies, however.
Onthecontrary, newpostmodernbranchesofscienceappeared (e.g. chaos
theory, complexity theory, game theory, model theory, quantum phsyics,
systems theory, and string theory) and the applied technology that came
from them resulted inenhancedcommunication, facilitating thespreadof
mass media, satellite communications, and computer networks, (theInternet). Such unconstrained interaction between members of different
nations, cultures, and hierarchies quickly enabled (and highlighted) a
numberofsocialupheavals, asevidencedby:
1.anerosionofconventionaldistinctionsbetweenhighandlowculture;
2.fascinationwithhowour lives seem increasinglydominatedbyvisual
media;
3.a questioning of ideas aboutmeaning and communication, and about
howsignsrefertotheworld; and
4.a sense that definitions of human identity are changing, or ought to
change. (Ward2003: 11)
In addition to these perceptual changes, the unimpeded crossing of
previously well-defined and monitored borders led to a reappraisal of
physical and political geography. Soja (1989) argued that the primary
characteristicofpostmodernismisitsreplacementofhistoricalwithspatial
concepts. He also identified the 'non-spaces' (airports, motorway resting
places, shoppingmalls, the Internet, chatrooms, etc.) of postmodernism.
These 'non-spaces' share anumberof characteristics: i) they tend to be
independentoftheirgeographical (national) location; ii) theymixuniversal
and regional influences (globalmusic, fashion, technology, etc. alongside
localproductsandvariants); and iii) theyhighlightapostmodern tension
between sameness and difference (cf. Deleuze 1994). Such geographies
createnew, symbolicboundaries, whileerodingthethreemainconceptsof'modern' politics: i) nation; ii) class; and iii) belief in the wholesale
transformationoftheworld (Ward2003: 173).
V. ChangingEducations
Masseducationwasalsopartofthe 'modern' planforthebettermentof
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
7/22
mankind, and set out to deliver progress, development and security,
throughaneducatedworkforce. However, asO'Farrellobserves:
Aschoolingsystemwhichpromisedsocialequalityandenlightenmentforallhasdone littlemore than reinforce socialdivisionandentrenchnew
formsofconformity, ignoranceandexclusion. Wasthisthehappinessand
socialharmonypromisedbytheEnlightenmentphilosopherJean-Jacques
Rousseauand19thcenturyeconomistKarlMarx? (O'Farrell1999: 13)
Educationhasbeennotableforitsresistancetopostmodernideas, sinceschools and universities have traditionally been prime agents of
Enlightenment ideals: "The project of liberalmass schooling and higher
education in the late twentieth century is built around the intellectual
authorityinheritedfromtheEnlightenment" (Peters1995: xxx). Itfollows,
therefore, that "postmodernism's emphasis on the decentred subject
constructedbylanguage, discourses, desireand theunconscious, seemstocontradict the very purpose of education and the basis of educational
activity" (Edwards & Usher1994: 2).
The role and nature of education has further been complicated by its
social purpose - helping individuals to become fit for society (cf. the
concept of 'Hongik-Ingan' ["Contributing to the overall benefit of
humankind" - Korea InstituteofCurriculumandEvaluation2005: p. 5]whichisattheheartofeducationpolicyinKorea). Thisgoalhasinvolved
the imposition and acceptanceof "well-regulated liberty" (Donald1992:
12), with thepedagoguesexerting theirauthority 'in thebest interests' of
the students: "The strict application of nurturing and protective attitudestowardchildrenhascreatedaparadoxicalsituationinwhichprotectionhascome tomeanexcluding theyoungfrommeaningful involvement in their
owncommunities" (Postman1995: 102). This is theparadoxofasystem
whichattemptstoprepareindividualsforademocraticsocietyanddoesso
through the autocratic, teacher-centered, compulsory classroom, thus
denyinganyopportunitiestoactdemocratically (cf. Chomsky2005).
Another postmodern aspect of contemporary education is its
commercialization. Hutcheonsituatesthepostmodern "squarelywithinbotheconomiccapitalismandculturalhumanism - twoofthemajordominants
of much of the western world" (1989: 13), and education in the
postmodern world has accordingly been made accountable to capitalist
market forces. This need to show ameasurable result in return for the
money invested, has been termed "the discourse of instrumentalism"
(Mockler 2004: 3), and was demonstrated by the U.S. presidential
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
8/22
candidateG. W. Bush in the2000pre-electiondebate: "Youmusthave
mandatory testing. Youmust say that if you receivemoney, youmust
showuswhetherornotchildrenarelearningtoreadandwriteandaddand
subtract" (NewYorkTimes2000, citedinMockler2004: 3). Consequently,
the state, students, parents, schools and universities are no longer
concerned with intrinsic knowledge, but rather with its empirical
'usefulness' intermsofgettingajob, obtainingscholarshipsandgrants, or
holdingontostatefunding:
Inshort, knowledgeisnolongerassessedintermsofitstruthorfalsityor
itspromotionofjustice, but intermsof itsefficiencyatmakingmoney.
(Lyotard1984: 51)
IntheKoreancontext, theexcessiveattentionpaidtohigh-stakestesting
hasproducedaparticularvariantof thisphenomenon. Rather thanasking
the extrinsic "Will this lesson helpme to learn English for use in the
globalvillage?", or the reflexive "Will this lessonhelpme learnhow to
learnEnglish?", ortheintrinsic "Willthislessonhelpmetomaximizemy
love of language and showme the beauty inherent in language learning
andculturalexchange?", highschoolstudents inKorea typicallyask (and
aresupportedbytheirparentsindoingso) "WillthisinformationbeontheCSAT?" If theanswer is "No," thenstudents turn theirattention tomore
obviously instrumental learning texts, such as those issued by the
EducationalBroadcastingService (EBS).
A furtherexampleof thecommercializationofeducation inKoreacan
befoundintheproliferationofprivatelanguageinstitutes. Theseinstitutes
exist to help students pass theCSAT, TOEFL, TOEIC, TEPS and even
high-school-entrance tests, though they also teach conversational (and
business-oriented) use-of-English. In thewords ofKim See-bong, the
ownerofsuchaninstitute:
Children fromnursery school tohigh schoolgo to fiveor sixhagwons
(private institutions) aweek. Some take inasmanyasnine. When theycome backhome, they stillhave toprepare for the schoolwork." (Kim
2005)
The Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI), has reported
that "sevenoutof10studentsarereceivingtutoring, withprivateeducation
expenses taking up an average of 12.7 percent of the household
expenditure" (Soh 2004). The 'grand postmodern metanarrative' in this
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
9/22
situation is the urge to make money and obtain secure employment,
whateverthesacrificeincurredintermsofHongik-Ingan.
Itisevidentthateducationinthepostmoderneracannolongerseeitself
as independent of historical, economic and cultural factors, and schools
must come to termswith the demands of a postmodern society. In this
context, EdwardsandUsher (1994) offersomesuggestionsforshapingan
appropriatepostmoderneducationsystem:
1.Educationshouldbemorediverse intermsofgoalsandprocessesand
consequentlyintermsoforganisationalstructures, curricula, methodsand
participants.
2.Educationshouldnolongerfunctionasameansofreproducingsociety
orasaninstrumentinlarge-scalesocialengineering. It [should] become
limitlessbothintimeandspace.
3.There should be no attempt to place education into a straitjacket of
uniformprovision, standardised curricula, technicized teachingmethods,
anduniversal 'messages' ofrationalityormorality.
4.Educationinthepostmodernworldmustenablesgreaterparticipationin
adiversityofwaysbyculturallydiverselearners.
5.Education in thepostmodernworld is likely tobemarked bothby a
generaldecentringandagenerallooseningofboundaries. (Adaptedfrom
Edwards & Usher1994: 211-212)
Postman, in a postmodern postscript to these suggestions, notes that
"amongthe 'new' ideasnowcurrentinseveralplacesistheorganizationof
schoolingaroundthemes. Thisisaprogressiveidea, pointingasitdoesto
theneedforprovidingmeaning ineducation" (Postman1995: 101). This
'theme-based' approachappears inEnglishLanguageTeaching (ELT) as
project-basedteaching (Legutke & Thomas1991), anextensionofTBLT,
andprovidesa suitable introduction to adiscussionofpostmodernism in
ELTandTEFLinparticular.
VI. ChangingEnglishes
6.1PostmodernisminELT
Hutcheon speaksof the attemptbypostmodernism to "'de-doxify' our
cultural representations and their undeniable political import" (1989: 3).
This de-politicization has important implications for TEFL, which has
been ameans of spreading cultural, economic and religious values (e.g.
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
10/22
evangelicalEnglish teaching inKorea) under theassumptionofuniversal
"correctness," described by Phillipson as "English linguistic hegemony"
(Phillipson 1992: 73). The imposition of such external values has led
Bococktocallforthe "re-introductionofphilosophical, rationaldiscussion
ofvaluesandpolitics intosocial theoryand thesocialsciences" (Bocock
1986: 123). Benson and Voller point to "a growing recognition of the
politicalnatureoflanguagelearning" (Benson & Voller1997: 6) andnote
that terms such as 'ideology' and 'empowerment' have entered the
vocabularyof language education, mirroring a growing concernwith thesocial implicationsof language learningand theculturally invasivenature
ofmuchlanguageeducation (Phillipson1992; Pennycook1998).A postmodern approach to language learning therefore challenges
previous linguistic and cultural representations and their political
associations. Many 'modern' metanarrativesnormally takenforgrantedby
teachers and implicit in their practices (e.g. teacher-direction, teacher
control, textbooks, standardizedtests, experimentalresearch, and 'standard'
pronunciation), are in fact cultural andman-made, with various 'hidden
agendas' derivingfromanEnlightenmentviewofreality.
Harrisonwarnsthat "Whatwedoin the languageclassroomisaffected
by who we are, the views we hold, and the societies we are part of"
(Harrison1990: 1), andHollyaddsthatEnglish "canalsoactasameansofpolitico-cultural colonizationof the spirit, serving the interests of themost powerful concentrations of economic power the world has ever
known" (Holly1990: 18). Phillipsonthereforecallsfora "macro-societal
theoretical perspective" (Phillipson 1992: 2) of language pedagogy, and
calls attention to Stern's comment that "Social scientists ... have hardly
recognized the importance of theories and descriptions of society and
cultureforlanguageteaching" (Stern1983: 282).
The successofEuropean colonization, and in particular the scope and
breadth of theBritishEmpire (onwhich the sun never set), meant that
Westernreligions, moresandculturalnormsweredisseminatedthroughout
the 'civilized' world. Theparallelprocessof linguisticcolonizationwhich
accompanied this 'civilization' has been documented by authors such as
Phillipson (1992), Pennycook (1998) andCanagorajah (1999), while the
postcolonial rejection of 'linguistic imperialism' has found expression
throughthecurrentinterestinWorldEnglishes (Kachru & Nelson2001).
The 'linguistic imperialism' debate highlights postmodern, postcolonial
attempts to diversify English language learning, and to make a
decentralized 'Lingua Franca,' free of totalizing cultural and intellectual
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
11/22
agendas. This is one of the many inter-linked facets of postmodern
languageteachingandlearning, asitemizedinTable2.
TABLE2: AcomparisonofmodernandpostmodernELTmetanarratives
ModernELTmetanarratives PostmodernELTmetanarrativesHigh-stakes, standardizedtesting
Normative, summativemeasurement
'One-off' mid-termand 'final' tests.Focusontheproductoflearning
Centralization, Totalization
Classroom-BasedPerformanceAssessment
Absolute, formativemeasurementContinuousassessment
Portfolios, journals, self/peer-assessment
Focusonthelearningprocess.
DeconstructionofstandardizedtestingCompetition
Aggression, Division
Individualization, 'winner-takes-all'MutuallyExclusiveGoalsAttainment
(MEGA) (Kohn, 1992)
Collaboration
Inter-personalandintra-personalresponsibilityingroupwork
Sociallearning, teamworkDecentralization
StudyingEnglishthroughits 'highest
achievements' -EnglishliteratureStrictboundariesRestrictionsofgenre
LearningEnglishthroughpop-culture,
comics,cartoons,movies,theInternet,etc.Pluralityofgenres
Boundary-crossingEclecticism
Structural,propositionalsyllabi
Totalization
Process,task-based/project-basedsyllabi
Deconstructionoftraditionallanguagelearningconcepts
Behaviorism
Languagelearningaspredictableandindependentofemotions
Recognitionofaffectiveandsocialfilters
Languagelearningassocial, cultural,emotionalandunpredictable
Linear,sequentiallearning
LanguageascodeStructuralsyllabi
'Absolute', grammatical 'truths
Cyclic,contextuallearning
Meta-languageandlearningstrategies
Complex, dynamic, cycliclearning
Self-reflexiveness, Self-reference
Linguisticandculturalimperialism
Standardized,WesternEnglish
The 'native-speaker' ofEnglish
Studyingandimposingthecultureofthetargetlanguage
Centralization,Colonialism
Totalization
Postcolonialism, De-colonialism
RegionalEnglishes, dialectsand
pronunciations(e.g. 'Konglish') expresslocal
cultures.
Deathofthe 'nativespeaker'Studyingregionalandglobalculturesthroughthetargetlanguage
Regionalism,Globalism,Diversification
Quantitative,experimental
, 'objective
'researchStatisticalmeasurementofrigorouslyisolatedandindependentlyobserved
'truths'
'Absolute' 'scientific' 'truth'
Qualitative,subjective
,action
research
RecognitionthatbeliefsandperceptionscontrollearningSystemsanalysisofthewholelearning
environment. Triangulation
Subjective, individual, personaltruthsPsychologicalRelativism
Teacher-centeredlearning
Teacher-controlledlearningAutocraticinstruction
Student-centeredlearningInvolvingstudentsintheirlearningRecognizingindividualdifferencesinlearning
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
12/22
TeachingthesamethingtoeveryoneatthesametimeTeacherasfountofknowledge
Transferofknowledgetothe 'empty
vessels' ofthestudents
Grammar-translation
Totalization, Centralization
needs, learningstyles, learningpreferences,
proficiencylevels, etc.TeacherasfacilitatoroflearningFacilitationoftheappropriatelearningexperiencefortheappropriatestudentattheappropriatetime
Task-BasedandProject-Basedlearning
Decentralization, Empowerment
Unfortunately, thereisnospaceinthispapertodiscussallthefactorsin
Table 2. However, it is noticeable that the educational theories and
practicesoutlined in the right-hand column ofTable 2have arisen as a
result of professional inquiry, and that the postmodernism perspective
provides a means of bringing them all together under the pluralist
umbrellas of border-crossing, deconstruction, decentralization,
post-colonialism, regionalism, relativismandself-reflexiveness.
The multiplicity of factors and influences in TEFL is itself amanifestationofthepostmodernsciencesofsystemstheoryandcomplexity
theory. According to these, a system (such as a language learner) will
interactwithothersystemsatthesamelevel, orathigherandlowerlevels
(e.g. parents, classmates, friends, TV, computer games, internet sites,
movies, andreligion), andwilldevelopandchangethroughthesecomplex,dynamic interactions. This will lead to the emergence of a unique
collection of needs, intelligences, learning preferences, learning styles,
beliefs, perceptions and attitudes, which arenot simply the sum of their
constituent parts (Finch 2004b: 29). This scenario can be applied to
hierarchies of systems, from the learner (him/herself a collection of
subsystems) to the learning environment, the teacher, the school, the
education system, researchers, authors of academic texts, and theTEFL
professionitself.
In likemanner, TEFLpedagogyhas 'emerged'(Finch2004b: 32) in its
currentformasaresultofthecomplexanddynamicinteractionsbetween
approaches, authors, teachers, researchers, students, learningcommunities,
cultures, andinnumerableotherfactors.
6.2Tasks: apostmodernteachingparadigm
Theproduct/processparadigmshiftdescribedbyBreen (1987) occurred
in response to the inadequacy of a pre-existing metanarrative (the
propositionalsyllabus) andled to theemergenceof the 'task' asaunitof
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
13/22
analysis (rather thangrammar, situation, topic, or lexis) andas "acentral
pedagogical tool for the language teacher as well as a basic unit for
language syllabusdesignand research" (Williams & Burden1997: 168).
Leaver and Willis point out that TBLT satisfies US governmental
accountabilityrequirements (cf. thediscourseofinstrumentalism):
It is a tribute to the efficacy of task-based instruction (TBI) that this
methodhasbecome theoneofchoice in thebestgovernmentprograms.
Sincethe1980s, nearlyallgovernmentinstitutionshaveusedTBIintheir
foreignlanguageprograms. (Leaver & Willis2004: 47)
Ellis also suggests that "tasks can be seen as tools for constructing
collaborative acts" (2003: 178) and that they can cater for learning by
providingopportunitiesforlearners:
1.to use new language structures and items through collaborationwith
others;
2.tosubsequentlyengage inmore independentuseof thestructures they
haveinternalizedinrelativelyundemandingtasks;
3.to finallyuse the structures in cognitivelymore complex tasks. (Ellis
2003: 178)
A task-based approach combines and promotes many postmodern
features of TEFL theory and practice: collaboration (border-crossing),
autonomy (de-colonization), student-centeredness (decentralization), and
negotiation of meaning (deconstruction). In addition, tasks involve the
students in their learning (self-referencing), and in doing so, promote
decision-making, problem-solving, criticalthinking, andresponsibilityfor
learning (decentralization). Furthermore, TBLThasbecomeassociatedwith
the development of learning strategies, which are an essential part of
autonomous learning. Formative self-assessment thus requires learners to
set goals, assess their achievements, and reflect on their needs
(self-reflexiveness). Finally, TBLT enables form and performance to be
combined (border-crossing) inaForm-FocusedInteraction (FFI) approach
(Finch 2006), in which students learn the grammar by using it
meaningfullyintheclassroom.
A major field of research in TBLT has been concerned with thecategorization of tasks and the construction of valid sequences of tasks
according to linguistic, affective, and cognitive goals (Candlin 1987;
Skehan 1998; Willis 1996). Table 3 presents a classification of
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
14/22
language-learningtasksaccordingtocommunicativecomplexity (one-way
vstwo-way) andtasktypes. Whenconstructingasequenceoftaskstofit
agiven teachingaim, itcanbeeffective tofollow this table, progressing
from static, one-way, Discovery Tasks (Table 3, top left corner) to
complex, dynamic, two-wayIndividualTasks (bottomrightcorner). This
progression allows students to acquire new language through static,
experiential tasks (controlled language), andgradually introduces them to
morechallenging, complex, autonomoustasks (unpredictablelanguage).
TABLE3: Aclassificationoftask-types (Finch2004c: 97-98)
TaskTypes Static (one-way) Dynamic (two-way)DiscoveryTasks wordsearches
internet-basedlanguagepuzzlesmatchingactivities
interactivedictionaryactivities (pairs,
groups)
languagetriviagames/puzzles
groupmatchinggamesExperienceTasks
memorygames
reviewactivities (one-way)
simplelexisactivities (grammar,
vocabulary)
questionnaires (one-way)
brainstorming
reviewactivities (two-way)
basicinterviews
questionnaires (two-way)storytelling
GuidedTasks classroomEnglish
structuralactivities (drills)comprehensionactivitiesdictationactivities
discoveryactivities
groupproject-workdramas
role-playSharedTasks
pair-work(informationgap,
informationtransfer)
group-work(informationgap,
informationtransfer)tasksaboutclassmemberssimpledialogslanguagegames
pair-work(e.g. interviews)
group-work(problem-solving,
opinion-gapactivities)igsawactivitiespyramidactivities
role-plays & simulations
error-correction
peer-assessment
discussions, surveys
IndependentTaskshomework
self-study (books, internet)
self-assessment
independentprojectswritingtoanemailpal
web-quests
When this approach is extended by letting tasks grow into projects
(Legutke & Thomas1991), a formofTEFLemergeswhichcanbe said
both to be a result of, and to contribute to, effective and meaningful
languageeducationinthepostmodernera. Ratherthanexpectingeveryone
toacquire thesame languageat thesame timeandat thesamerate, and
then giving everyone the same test (totalization), a project approach
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
15/22
recognizes the diversity of learning needs, learning styles, language
proficiencies, beliefs, attitudes and levels, that exist in the typical EFL
multilevelclass, andallowsstudentstosatisfytheirlearningneeds, in the
manner that is best for them. By putting students 'in the driving seat'
(decentralization), theprojectsyllabus fostersactivecommunicationskills
(cooperation, discussion, negotiation, etc.) as well as
problem-identification, goal setting, self-assessment and reflection
(Legutke & Thomas 1991: 160). The role of the teacher in this new
situation is to facilitate learning by being a language resource andproviding guidance (linguistic, emotional, cognitive and social) where
appropriate.Such an approach is influenced by and demonstrates the postmodern
sciencesofChaosandComplexity: "Itisusefultoregardtheclassroomas
acomplexadaptivesystem" (VanLier1996: 38) inwhich "languagesgo
throughperiodsofchaosandorderasdootherlivingsystems. Furthermore,
their creative growth occurs at the border between these two"
(Larsen-Freeman 1997: 158). This borderline between order and chaos
describes the capacity for learning that complex adaptive systems have
when they are neither settled nor chaotic - a concept with various
implicationsforthelanguageclassroom:
Theeducationalcontext, with theclassroomat itscenter, isviewedasa
complexsysteminwhicheventsdonotoccurinlinearcausalfashion, but
inwhichamultitudeofforcesinteractincomplex, self-organizingways,
and create changes and patterns that are part predictable, part
unpredictable. (VanLier1996: 148)
Task-Based and project-based teaching thus offer a postmodernapproach to thepostmodernsituation inwhich teachersandstudentsnow
findthemselves. Inthissituation, anumberofissuescometothefore:
1.Knowledge is now less important than the ability to access and use
thatknowledge.
2.Oneskillisnolongersufficientforalifetime. Instead, educatorsmust
developintheirstudentstheabilitytore-skillmanytimes.
3.Language is no longer a means of imposing Western cultural,
economic and philosophical systems and concepts. Instead, Regional
Englishesofferstudentsameansofusing 'English' toexpresstheirown
cultural, religiousandpersonaltruths.
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
16/22
4.Memory and other (easy to test) low-order thinking skills have
becomeredundant, duetotheabilityofcomputerstostore (andretrieve)
factsmoreefficientlythanhumans.
5.High-order thinking skills (problem-solving, critical thinking,
creativity, inferencing, deducing, etc.) are vital for survival and
developmentinacontinuallychangingworld.
6.Language learning is no longer separate from its social context.
Languagelearnersandteachersmustbeawareofglobalissues (pollution,
global warming, over-population, etc.) caused by thoughtlessconsumerismandcolonialism.
7."Onesize" doesnot "fitall." Studentscannotlearn (anddonotneed)
the entire English language. Instead, they need the ability to acquire
many specific types of English (Academic English, Business English,
ComputerEnglish, EngineeringEnglish, MediaEnglish, MedicalEnglish,
TourismEnglish, etc.).
A task-based/project-based approach to language learning offers a
well-researchedandpedagogicallysoundmeansofaddressingtheseissues.
Inaddition, it is interesting tonote that thisapproach focusesonholistic
learning (education of the whole person), and develops individual
(intrapersonal) and group (interpersonal) responsibility, while promoting
critical, informed problem-solving and accountability - goals that the
propositional paradigm and the 'modern' educationmovement ostensibly
aimedatbutsubvertedthroughautocraticcentralizationandtotalization.
VII. Conclusion
Postmodern TEFL theory presents English as a lingua franca with
regional variations - a global language in which there are no native
speakers, no standard pronunciations or grammars, and no target culture
(de-colonization, diversification, and regionalization). Western-oriented
practices (andpolitics) oflanguageteachingarebeingreinterpretedinthelight of indigenous learning needs and sociopolitical factors, and the
MEGA ethic of classroom competition and high-stakes testing
(totalization) is being replaced bymore effective and socially desirable
collaborativestudyingmodels (decentralization). 'Learningtolearn' isseen
as a lifelongprocess, inwhich language is used as ameans of learning
language (self-reference). Meanwhile, the mass media has successfully
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
17/22
colonized the profession, bringing its global messages of financial
accountability, consumerism, andthe 'image' asreality.
In this situation, TEFL as a profession cannot make any modernist
claimstobeprogressive, unifiedoruniversalinitsapproachesorpractices,
though it is a postmodern contradiction and 'doubleness' that various
establishments and schools of thought (e.g. the "peace as a global
language" movement) continue in this endeavor, and that postmodern
approaches include both neo-liberal and neo-conservative views on
education reform. Perching on thismetaphoricborder betweenorder andchaos, the postmodern perspective does, however, hold out hope for the
futureaswellasdescribingthedisillusionmentwiththepast. AsO'Farrell
concludes:
If education can be amachine for social conformity, it can also be a
machinefortheinvestigationofnewhorizonsandnewpossibilities. The
proliferationof 'difference' anduncertainty in thepostmodernworld, far
from being a problem, is a constant invitation to imagine the
unimaginable. (O'Farrell1999: 17)
ThepostmodernTEFL situationcanbe seenasheraldinganumberof
ELT deaths: i) the death of the 'native speaker' ii) the death ofstructuralism; iii) the death of imperialism; and iv) the death of the
'teacher.' Rather thanremaining inpostmoderndespairabout the inability
of 'modern' concepts to explain postmodern reality, however, it is
importantthatthese 'deaths' bealsoseenasthebirthsofnewteachingand
learning paradigms: i) the birth of multi-lingual, indigenous
('home-grown'), facilitators of learning; ii) the birth of an integrated,
holistic learning approach; iii) the birth of a Korea-specific, regional
English; andiv) thebirthofstudent-directedlearning, withthe 'teacher' as
consultant, languageresource, andmentor.
Thispaperthereforeembraces, andalsogoesbeyondpostmodernism, by
suggesting that aTBLT approach toTEFL inKorea represents a viable
pathfor thepresentand the future. Byshiftingresponsibility for learningand assessment to the learner, by focusingon the acquisitionof learning
skillsandsocialskillsinagroupcontext, andbyofferingtheopportunity
to learn inself-directed learningprojects, TBLT, andproject learning in
particular, canprovideafeasibleapproachtolanguagelearninginthe21st
century "through an awareness of howwe use language, how language
usesus, andwhatmeasuresareavailable toclarifyourknowledgeof the
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
18/22
worldwemake (Postman1995: 87).
VIII. Recommendations
This paper is theoretical, and there is no space to discuss the
practicalitiesandlogisticsofTBLT, thoughitisafeatureofthisapproach
thatthesehavebeenwellresearched, bothinternationally (Ellis, 2003) and
in Korea (Finch 2006). However, it must be recognised that
language-learninginKoreaisculturallyspecific, andcannotbedescribedby theories originating in other learning environments (e.g. the ESL
environments of theUS, theUK, Australia, NewZealand, etc.). Just as
regionalEnglishesofferameansofmakingEnglishspecifictothecultural
and personal 'truths' of world citizens, it is important that TBLT be
adaptedtoitsKoreancontext.
Itisrecommended, therefore, thatfurtherresearchintotheuseofTBLT
be carried out in Korea, and that this research should lead to the
constructionofanationaltask-basedlanguagecurriculum. Thiscurriculum
would be appropriate to the learning needs (cognitive, affective, social,
economic, and cultural) of the students, andwould (at secondary level)
mix structural components (grammar) with language performance, in a
holistic approach - Form-Focused Interaction. As students progress andbecomemoreawareoftheir learningneeds, theywould (at tertiary level)
move into project-based work, in which they would learn the specific
languageneededfor theircareers (BusinessEnglish, EngineeringEnglish,
NursingEnglish, TourismEnglish, etc.).
LanguageproficiencyinsuchaTask-BasedNationalCurriculumwould
be assessedbyongoing, formative, Classroom-BasedAssessment (CBA)
(portfolios, etc.) (Finch & Shin 2005), and performance assessment
(projects, presentations, etc.). TheCSATwouldcarrylessweight, but (if
suitably redesigned) could be a useful means of demonstrating
higher-orderthinkingskills. Inthiscase, CSATquestionswouldfocuson
application, ratherthanmemorizationofconcepts. Gradingoftheanswerswouldfocusonlogicalthinkingandexpressionofreasonedarguments.
If such a Task-Based National Curriculum were designed, extensive
in-servicetraininginTBLTandperformanceassessmentwouldbeneeded.
Itwouldalsobeimportanttoensurethatacollaborative, holistic, viewof
learning should replace the current test-driven classroom. Rather than
asking "Is thison the test?" studentsand teachersshouldbeasking "Will
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
19/22
this lesson helpme to become a responsible, honest, diligent, creative,
critical-thinking, problem-solvingworldcitizen?"
Finally, Korea is famous for itspersonal andnational committment to
education. Becauseofthis, studentsinhighschoolsfollowstudyschedules
thatareunthinkableinthewest. Atpresentthislearningiscompetitiveand
mostlyfact-based, andhighschoolgraduatespossesslittleabilitytoapply
the concepts they have learned in real life (Gardner, 1993: 3). If a
National Task-Based Curriculum were able to produce a society of
higher-orderthinkers, Korea'sworkethicwouldindeedbearfruit.
References
Adams, D. 1995. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Columbia: Ballantine
Books.
Barthes, R. 1977. RolandBarthes byRolandBarthes, trans. RochardHoward.
NewYork: Hill & Wang.
Baudrillard, J. 1988. SelectedWritings. Stamford: StanfordUniversityPress.
Benson, P. & P. Voller. 1997. AutonomyandIndependenceinLanguageLearning.
Harlow: Longman.
Bocock, R. 1986. Hegemony. Chichester: EllisHorwoodandTavistock.
Breen, M. P. 1987. ContemporaryParadigmsinSyllabusDesign, PartI. Language
Teaching20/2, 81-91.Canagarajah, S. 1999. Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching.
Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress.
Candlin, C .N. 1987. Towards Task-Based Learning. In C. N. Candlin & D.
Murphy (eds.). LancasterPracticalPapers inEnglishLanguageEducation.
Vol. 7. LanguageLearningTasks. (5-22). EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall
Chomsky, N. 2005. TheNon-election of 2005: TheElectoralCampaignsWere
RunbythePRIndustry. ZMagazineOnline18/1http://zmagsite.zmag.org.
Deleuze, D. 1994. Difference and Repetition. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Derrida, J. (1967, translated1976). OfGrammatology. TranslatedbyG. C. Spivak.
Baltimore: JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.
Donald, J. 1992SentimentalEducation, London: Verso.
Edwards, R. & R. Usher. 1994. Postmodernism and Education. London:
Routledge.
Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based LanguageLearning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
UniversityPress.
Finch, A. E. 2004a. AnAnalysisofEBSMaterialsfortheCSAT, EnglishSection.
EnglishTeaching59/3, 307-331.
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
20/22
Finch, A. E. 2004b. Complexity andSystemsTheory: Implications for theEFL
Teacher/Researcher. TheJournalofAsiaTEFL1/2, 27-46.
Finch, A. E. 2004c. Supplementing Secondary EFL Textbooks. Gyeongbuk
SecondaryEnglishEducation, XVI, 96 - 107.
Finch, A. E. 2006. Task-Based Supplementation: Achieving High School
TextbookGoals through Form-Focused Interaction. English Teaching 61/1,
41-65.
Finch, A. E. & D-IShin. 2005. IntegratingTeachingandAssessmentintheEFL
Classroom. Seoul: SahoipyungronPublishing.
Gardner, H. 1993. TheUnschooledMind:HowChildrenThinkandHowSchoolsShouldTeach. London: FontanaPress
Harrison, B. (ed.) 1990. CultureandtheLanguageClassroom. ELTDocuments132.
London: Macmillan. ModernEnglishPublicationsandtheBritishCouncil.
Hofstadter, D. R. (1985). MetamagicalThemas:QuestingfortheEssenceofMind
andPattern. NewYork:BasicBooks.
Hofstadter, D. R. 1999. G?del, Escher, Bach:AnEternal GoldenBraid. New
York: BasicBooks.
Holly, D. 1990. TheUnspokenCurriculum - orHowLanguageTeachingCarries
Cultural and IdeologicalMessages. In B. Harrison (ed.). Culture and the
Language Classroom. ELT Documents 132, (11-19). London: Macmillan.
ModernEnglishPublicationsandtheBritishCouncil,
Hutcheon, L. 1989. ThePoliticsofPostmodernism. London: Routledge.
Kachru, B. & C. Nelson. 2001. WorldEnglishes. InA. BurnsandC. Coffin (eds.).AnalysingEnglishinaGlobalContext:AReader. (9-25). London/NewYork:
Routledge,.
Kim, S-B. June 26, 2005. Gathering Clouds. Korea Times
http://times.hankooki.com/.
Kohn, A. 1992. Nocontest:TheCaseAgainstCompetition. NewYork: Houghton
MifflinCompany.
Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation. 2005. National Curriculum
http://www.kice.re.kr/kice/eng/info/info_2.jsp.
Kuhn, T. S. 1960. TheStructureofScientificRevolutions. Chicago: Universityof
ChicagoPress.
Larsen-Freeman, D. 1997. Chaos/Complexity Science and Second Language
Acquisition. AppliedLinguistics18/2, 141-165.
Leaver, B. L. & J. R. Willis. (eds.). 2004. Task-basedInstruction in Foreign
LanguageEducation:PracticesandPrograms. WashingtonD.C.: Georgetown
UniversityPress.
Legutke, M & H. Thomas. 1991. Process and Experience in the Language
Classroom. Harlow: Longman.
Lyotard, J. 1984. The Postmodern Condition. Minneapolis: University of
MinnesotaPress.
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
21/22
-
8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher
22/22
paper considers the implications of this situation and reviewspostmodern trends inTeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage
(TEFL) theory and practice, suggesting ways in which
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) might make foreign
languageacquisitionapersonally relevant, sociallymeaningful,
andculturallyacceptableprocess.