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POST-CONCUSSION DISORDERS Mel B. Glenn, MD Synonyms Post-concussion syndrome Post-concussive syndrome Post-concussive disorders ICD-9 Codes 310.2 Post-concussion syndrome 850.1 Concussion without loss of consciousness 850.2 Concussion with loss of consciousness less than one hour DEFINITION Post-concussion disorders are a set of symptoms commonly seen after concussion. The term concussion is generally used as a synonym for mild traumatic brain injury. One commonly used definition of mild traumatic brain injury is a traumatically induced physiologic disruption of brain function, manifested by at least one of the following: any period of loss of consciousness; any loss of memory for events immediately before or after the accident; any alteration in mental state at the time of the accident (e.g., feeling dazed, disoriented, or confused); and focal neurologic deficits that may or may not be transient; but the severity of injury does not exceed the following: loss of consciousness of approximately 30 minutes or less; after 30 minutes, an initial Glasgow Coma Scale score of 13 to 15; and post-traumatic amnesia not longer than 24 hours. 1 There are a number of classification schemes. Concussion can be graded according to the criteria established by the American Academy of Neurology, which are based on the occurrence and duration of loss of consciousness, confusion, and concussion symptoms. They were intended to guide the management of sport concussion 2 (Table 138-1). The approach developed by the 2 nd International Symposium on Concussion in Sports, 3 including a more state-of-the-art set of guidelines for the treatment of sport concussion, is notable for its emphasis on outcome as well as the immediate sequelae of the injury. Simple concussion is defined as one that progressively resolve

Transcript of POST-CONCUSSION DISORDERSdocshare04.docshare.tips/files/27324/273244325.pdfcentral vertigo. As...

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POST-CONCUSSION DISORDERS

Mel B. Glenn, MD

Synonyms

Post-concussion syndrome

Post-concussive syndrome

Post-concussive disorders

ICD-9 Codes

310.2 Post-concussion syndrome

850.1 Concussion without loss of consciousness

850.2 Concussion with loss of consciousness less than one hour

DEFINITION

Post-concussion disorders are a set of symptoms commonly seen after concussion. The term

concussion is generally used as a synonym for mild traumatic brain injury. One commonly used

definition of mild traumatic brain injury is a traumatically induced physiologic disruption of brain

function, manifested by at least one of the following:

any period of loss of consciousness;

any loss of memory for events immediately before or after the accident;

any alteration in mental state at the time of the accident (e.g., feeling dazed, disoriented, or

confused); and

focal neurologic deficits that may or may not be transient;

but the severity of injury does not exceed the following: loss of consciousness of approximately 30 minutes or less;

after 30 minutes, an initial Glasgow Coma Scale score of 13 to 15; and

post-traumatic amnesia not longer than 24 hours.1

There are a number of classification schemes. Concussion can be graded according to the criteria

established by the American Academy of Neurology, which are based on the occurrence and

duration of loss of consciousness, confusion, and concussion symptoms. They were intended to

guide the management of sport concussion2 (Table 138-1). The approach developed by the 2nd

International Symposium on Concussion in Sports,3 including a more state-of-the-art set of

guidelines for the treatment of sport concussion, is notable for its emphasis on outcome as well as

the immediate sequelae of the injury. Simple concussion is defined as one that progressively resolve

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during a period of 7 to 10 days. A complex concussion involves persistent symptoms, spesific

sequelae (concussive seizure, loss of consciousness longer than 1 minute, prolonged cognitive

impairment), or concussion previous to the one in question.

TABLE 138-1 American Academy of Neurology Concussion Classification

Grade of Concussion Characteristics

Grade 1 Transient confusion

All symptoms < 15 minutes

Mental status changes < 15 minutes

Grade 2 Transient confusion

Any symptoms > 15 minutes

Mental status changes > 15 minutes

Grade 3a Brief loss of consciousness (seconds)

Grade 3b Prolonged loss of consciousness (minutes)

SYMPTOMS

The most common post-concussive symptoms are headache, dizziness (vertigo), poor balance,

forgetfulness, difficulty learning or remembering, difficulty concentrating, slowed thinking,

hypersomnolence, fatigue, poor energy, insomnia, depression, anxiety, irritability, sensitivity to

noise and light, and visual problems.4-6

Many of these symptoms may be related to events other than the cerebral insult. Symptoms may be

present alone or in various constellations and as such do not constitute a true syndrome.4 there may

be a lag of days or weeks between the 'concussion and the patient's first complaints, and some

related phenomena, such as depression and anxiety, may not become manifested until months after

the initial injury. Although these symptoms can be seen with any severity of injury, They are often

discussed in the context of mild traumatic brain injury. Overtime, many people make a complete

recovery.

Estimates of the numbers of the people in the United States who have a mild traumatic brain injury

each year range from 51 to 618 per 100,000 population.7 Estimates and reports of the proportion of

those who still have multiple symptoms 1 year after injury have ranged from less than5%8 to as high

as 78%,9 the latter number juxtaposed against a 47% incidence in a group of controls with

orthopedic injuries. The difference in symptoms between the concussion group and the controls was

largely due to complaints of dizziness, memory problems, and concentration problems. This study

was done in Lithuania, where litigation is uncommon. One study found that up to 5 years after

injury, the incidence of symptoms was higher among those with mild traumatic brain injury than

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among controls with other injuries.10 The incidence of the symptoms associated with post-

concussion disorder is relatively high in healthy populations,8 and there seems to be a tendency

among people with mild traumatic brain injury to underestimate the extent of preinjury symptoms.7,9

Most authors have not defined a particular time frame for designation of “persistent” post-

concussion disorder, although some have used 3 months as a cutoff.11

Most controlled studies indicate that cognitive deficits found on neuropsychological testing, largely

in young adults, generally resolves within 3 months of mild traumatic brain injury.7 Some studies

have found subtle differences from controls.12,13 Athletes who have had multiple concussion have

been found to have a poorer performance on neuropsychological testing14 and a greater prevalence

of mild cognitive impairment in later life15 than athletes who have not had a concussion. Although

prospective studies are needed to clarify cause and effect, this suggests that a single concussion may

result in some loss of brain function, possibly subclinical in most people.

The etiology of the various post-concussion symptoms is often multifactorial, and much of it is still

not well understood. The usual inciting factors are mild traumatic brain injury with residual

impairment of attention and memory, whiplash or other soft tissue injury to the head and neck, and

at time disruption of the vestibular apparatus or central vestibular insult. Problems with attention,

forgetfulness, and fatigue, coupled with the frequent development of headaches, insomnia, and

vertigo, often lead to considerable anxiety and depression and a “shaken sense of self.”16 In those

who develop persistent problems, a complex of symptoms often feed one on the other,4 exacerbating

the neuropsychological impairment, which may then take on a life of its own even as the underlying

brain injury continues to recover.16,17 A common scenario is one in which pain, anxiety, (including,

at times, post-traumatic stress disorder), and depression contribute to insomnia, which in turn

exacerbates headaches, and all of these symptoms contribute to cognitive impairment. Difficulty in

concentrating can also result in headaches.

There is evidence to suggest that persistence of symptoms is associated with preexisting social,

psychological, and vocational difficulties; age older than 40 years; being married; female gender;

higher educational background; current student status; litigation; being out of work secondary to

injury; lack of fault for a collision; nausea; memory impairment; multiple painful area after injury;

preexisting physical impairment; and preexisting brain (including prior head injury) and other

neurologic problems. However, studies vary with respect to some of these findings.6-8,14,18,19

Cognitive

The patient should be questioned about the inciting event with regard to whether there was a loss of

consciousness, loss of anterograde or retrograde memory, other alteration in mental status, or focal

neurologic finding. A patient's subjective feeling of being dazed or confused may or may not reflect

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actual brain injury. It is common for people to feel dazed because of the emotional shock

experienced after an accident. There is often limited or no documentation of the patient's mental

status immediately after the accident, and a clinician must do his or her best to reconstruct the

situation largely on the basis of the history given by the patient. The observations of the others may

help clarify whether the patient was responding slowly or otherwise appeared confused. Emergency

medical records should be obtained whenever posibble but may or may not reflect the patient's

mental status at the scene of the accident and may not pick up more subtle deficits if only

orientation is evaluated.

Headaches

Tension, migraine, cervicogenic (musculoskeletal), and mixed headaches are the most frequent

types seen after concussion. Pain from soft tissue injury at the site of impact., occipital neuralgic

pain, and dysautonomic cephalgia can be seen as well. The patient should be questioned with

respect to severity, quality, location and radiation, date at onset, duration, frequency, exacerbating or

ameliorating factors, and frequency of medication used in addition to associated symptoms such as

nausea, vomiting, visual phenomena, diaphoresis, rhinorrhea, and sensitivity to light and noise.20-22

Vestibular

Vertigo can be caused by cupulolithiasis or canalithiasis (benign paroxysmal positional vertigo),

brainstem injury, perilymph fistula, endolymphatic hydrops, or labyrinthine concussion, or it may

be cervicogenic. Perilymph fistula, endolymphatic hydrops, and labyrinthine concussion are usually

associated with hearing loss and tinnitus as well. Nonvertiginous dizziness is not usually directly

related to concussion; medication-induced dizzines (e.g., by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

and antidepressants) and other causes should be considered, including psychogenic dizziness.23

Other

The physician's history of the events surrounding the initial accident should also include exploration

of other associated injuries, seizure, vomiting, and drug or alcohol intoxication. A preinjury

medical, social, psychological, vocational, and educational history should be obtained, including

any history of attention deficit disorder or learning disability.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Cognitive

The examination of the individual with post-concussion disorder often elicits problems with

attention, memory, and executive function on mental status evaluation. Memory problems are most

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often related to attention deficits or difficulty with retrieval.24 The contribution of attention versus

encoding versus retrieval problems to verbal memory can be evaluated with presentation of a word

list followed by imidiate recall, recall after 5 minutes, and then a multiple choice recognotion test,

which provides the structure needed to assist retrieval when information has been encoded. Mini-

mental status test result may be normal; more extensive evaluation, and perhaps neuropsychological

testing, includingreaction time13 and continous performance tasks, may be necessary to reveal the

deficits. Findings more severe than expected for a mild traumatic brain injury indicate that there are

likely to be other contributing factors. Medications, anxiety, depression, insomnia, pain, and either

conscious or unconscious symptom augmentation can exacerbate or cause problems with attention

and memory.6,16 A sleep history should be obtained.

Psychological

Assessment of mood and affect may reveal evidence of depression and anxiety. The Patient Health

Questionnaire-9 is one approach to assessment of depression. It is a brief questionnaire that mirrors

the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition,

for major depression. It has been validated in people with traumatic brain injury.25 Post-traumatic

stress disorder should be suspected in individuals who have flashbacks, frequent nightmares, and

anxiety for situations similar to those that caused the original injury (e.g., riding in a car).

Headaches

Examination of the head and neck often elicit restriction of motion, tender points, or trigger points

radiating to the head. There may be tenderness at the site of the original head injury and

occasionally pain elicited by compression of the occipital nerves.21,22,26

Vestibular

During acute vertigo, nystagmus will often be present, generally stronger with peripheral than with

central vertigo. As adaptation begin to occur, nystagmus may be seen only with certain maneuvers

(e.g., after 20 horizontal head shakes) or may not be seen at all. When benign paroxysmal positional

vertigo is the cause, the Hallpike-Dix maneuver is performed from the sitting position on a flat

surface with the head rotated 45 degrees to either side. The patient is quickly lowered from the

sitting to lying position, until the head, still rotated, is extended over the edge of the examining

table. Vertigo is experienced and nystagmus is seen after a lag up to 30 seconds.23 Patients with

vertigo may also have balance problems with difficulty with tandem walk, hopping, and other

maneuvers involving movement of the head and eye-body coordination.

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Visual

Some patients complain of a feeling of visual disorientation or intermittent blurred vision. The

symptoms can be related to a need for changes in refraction, accommodative dysfunction,27 or

vascular, vestibular, attentional, or psychological problems. Frequently, nothing will be found on

routine examination.

Olfactory

The sense of smell may be affected by damage to branches of the olfactory nerve as they pass

through the cribriform plate or by focal cortical contusion.26

The examination findings of other cranial nerves, muscle strength, cerebellar test result, deep

tendon reflexes, plantar stimulation, frontal signs, and sensation are usually normal.

FUNCTIONAL LIMITATIONS

The extent to which post-concussion disorders interfere with function varies with the extent of the

associated pathologic process but depends also on the psychological reaction to the post-concussion

impairments. The most common consequences of post-concussion disorders are limitations in home

and community living skills and social, academic, or vocational disability. Patients may be forgetful

and inattentive, have difficulty following conversations, and find crowded, noisy environments

difficult to tolerate. Headache are often exacerbated by attentional demands and other stresses.

Vertigo causes difficulty in toleration of motion, including, for some, moving vehicles.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTING

If computed tomography was not performed acutely, a computed tomographic scan of the head

should be obtained as soon as possible after injury to rule out intracranial hematoma in all patients

with mild head injury who have had any question of loss of consciousness and who also have any of

the following: focal neurologic findings, headache, vomiting, age older than 60 years, drug or

alcohol intoxication, anterograde amnesia, physical evidence of trauma above the clavicles, or

seizures.28 Although definitive criteria have not been established for those who have had no loss of

consciousness, it is probably wise to obtain a computed tomographic scan or magnetic resonance

imaging study for anyone who continues to have significant problems (headaches, lethargy,

confusion, or anterograde memory loss), has focal neurologic findings, and has not had any

neuroimaging acutely. Functional neuroimaging has not yet been studied thoroughly enough to be

used to answer clinical questions after mild traumatic brain injury.

Cervical spine radiography should be performed on patients with significant neck pain shortly after

the accident to assess for fracture or subluxation.

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Neuropsychological evaluation should be performed if forgetfulness and attention deficits persist,

particularly when rehabilitation therapies are to be pursued. Testing can provide the patient and the

treatment team with a more thorough understanding of the patient's neuropsychological strength and

weaknesses in some instances can assist with understanding of the interplay between neurocognitive

and other psychological contributions to cognitive disturbance. Tests for assessment of malingering

and symptom magnification can be incorporated when necessary. It is useful for sports teams to

have their players undergo at least brief baseline cognitive testing or, if the resources are available,

formal neuropsychological testing so that any changes can be identified in cases of subtle symptoms

after the concussion.3

A sleep study (polysomnography) is indicated to rule out sleep apnea and other disorders when

excessive daytime sleepiness does not improve despite the absence of sedating medications. The

threshold for obtaining polysomnography should be lower for obese patients and those who snore

prominently.

When vestibular complaints are prominent or are not improving in the early months after the injury,

a thorough vestibular evaluation, including electronystagmography, may be indicated. Audiologic

evaluations should be done when hearing loss is suspected or when tinnitus persists.23

Opthalmology or optometry evaluation by someone with particular expertise in visual problems

related to brain injury should be considered when visual symptoms are present.

Differential Diagnosis6,18,26

Depressive disorders

Anxiety disorders

Somatoform disorders

Whiplash injury with headache (myofascial pain syndrome)

Sleep apnea

Early progressive dementia

Malingering and symptom magnification

TREATMENT

Initial

Treatment depends on the specific constellation of symptoms and their severity. In general, if the

patient is seen in the first few weeks after the injury, the major emphasis is placed on caring for

acute problems with vertigo, headache, neck pain, and insomnia and on educating the patient and

significant others. Explanations should integrate the physical, cognitive, and psychological

dimensions of the symptoms in as clear and simple a manner as possible. This is no small task,

given the diversity of symptoms and possible causes and our limited understanding of post-

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concussion disorders at this time. Some patients are very sensitive to discussion of psychological

etiology and may not return if they think that this has been overemphasized. The patient's

experience, including the psychological reactions, should be validated and normalized.16 The patient

should be told that improvement is to be expected; after milder concussions in young people with

no history of previous concussion, attention deficit disorder, or learning disability, reasonable

reassurance should be given that a good recovery is likely without dismissing what the patient is

experiencing. Establishment of a reasonable expectation for recovery can be helpful in preventing

persistent post-concussion disorder.29 Anticipation of the psychological reactions to post-concussion

symptoms that occur in some patient allows the patient to recognize these reactions if they begin

and leaves the door open for the individual to seek psychological help. Follow-up should be planned

and more extensive counseling provided at the first signs of significant distress and should be

considered if substantial improvement is not seen within 3 months even without apparent

psychological turmoil. Patients with significant symptoms should be instructed to take time off from

work, school, or other taxing activities, as the attentional demands and accompanying psychological

stresses of attempting to perform under these circumstances can exacerbate the symptoms.18

Athletes should not go back to competitive sports until they are free of symptoms and have gone

through a program graded exertion symptom free. Those with complex concussion should move

through this program more slowly than those with simple concussion.3

Acute vertigo may require a few days of bed rest.23 The management of acute neck pain is described

in Chapter 5.

Rehabilitation

Cognitive

If symptoms persist, patients may benefit from speech or occupational therapy for cognitive

restoration and/or to learn strategies for managing problems with arousal, attention, memory, and

executive function. The timing of therapies depends on the severity of the disability and the pace of

recovery, which can often be determined within the first 3 months after injury. There are no

published data on the timing of these interventions, and no specific guidelines are available that

address the use of restorative versus compensatory approaches. Therapies should address the

specific functional tasks that the individual faces on a daily basis and may need to include

community outings. Foam earplugs or sunglasses can be tried for those sensitive to noise and light,

respectively.26 Paper or electronic memory aids may be helpful. Psychostimulants (e.g.,

methylphenidate, 5 to 60 mg/day; amphetamines, 5 to 60 mg/day) and other drugs that treat

attentional and arousal disorders (e.g., atomoxetine, 10 to 100 mg/day; donepezil, 5 to 10 mg daily;

modafinil, 100 to 400 mg daily), including dopaminergic drugs and NMDA receptor blockers (e.g.,

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amantadine, 100 to 400 mg/day; memantine 5 to 20 mg/day) may be useful for reducing the extent

of attention deficits and underarousal.30 When sleep apnea is contributing to attentional or arousal

problems, positive airway pressure therapy is indicated.

Psychological

If symptoms persist beyond a few months, psychological counseling is almost always indicated.

Some individuals benefit from learning relaxation techniques and sleep hygiene. Education of the

patient and significant others should continue to emphasize the interaction between the cognitive,

psychological, and physical sequelae. It is important that the treatment team communicate on a

regular basis for treatment planning and to ensure that all clinicians approach these issues from a

common framework so that mixed messages are not delivered to the patients. Support groups are

often useful as well and offer an opportunity for further education about the various contributing

factors. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be helpful in concert with other treatments31 even when

symptoms do not seem to be explained by the medical condition.32 Family counseling should be

offered when there is evidence of significant stress on family members or problematic family

dynamics.

Depression and anxiety can also be addresses pharmacologically, usually simultaneously with

counseling interventions. It is usually best to begin with nonsedating, non-anticholinergic agents,

such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., citalopram, 20 to 60 mg/day) to avoid

further exacerbation of neuropsychological problems.30 Sedating agents such as trazodone (50 to

300 mg at bedtime), zolpidem (5 to 10 mg at bedtime), or eszopiclone (2 to 3 mg at bedtime) may

be necessary for those with significant insomnia20,30 if treatment of depression and anxiety and sleep

hygiene approaches are not useful.

Headaches

Post-traumatic headaches can have a number of different causes and may be multifactorial.17-23 They

are therefore best addressed on multiple levels, with the emphasis depending on the headache type.

Treatment of problems with attention, sleep disorders, and psychological stresses may reduce the

tension component of headaches. Relaxation techniques, including electromyographic biofeedback,

can be taught. When myofascial pain originating in the neck, upper back, or temporomandibular

joints contributes, physical therapy including stretching and strengthening exercises, postural

retraining, environmental modification, trigger point massage, modalities, electromyographic

feedback, and massage should be tried. However, headaches often persist despite these

interventions. Trigger points injection can be helpful, as can pharmacologic approaches. Patients

with temporomandibular joint problems can be treated with myofascial techniques, mouth guards,

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and exercises. Those headaches with an apparent vascular component may respond to

acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or vasoconstrictive agents commonly used to

abort migraine headaches (e.g., sumatriptan). Overuse of these agents can cause rebound headaches.

For prophylaxis, some β blockers (e.g., propranolol), calcium channel blockers (e.g., verapamil),

antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, nortriptyline, venlafaxine), and anticonvulsants (particularly

valproic acid) can be helpful. Tension headaches may respond to some of these agents as well,

although not to calcium channel blockers. Injection of local anesthetics and corticosteroids can be

considered for greater or lesser occipital neuralgia that does not respond to more conservative

approaches. Injection should be done at the site along the nerve that replicates the headache when it

is palpated.20,21,33

Vestibular

When vestibular symptoms persist beyond 3 months, vestibular rehabilitation may both encourage

central nervous system accommodation under controlled circumstances and assist the patient in

learning compensatory strategies.34 Canolith repositioning maneuvers may bring relief from benign

paroxysmal positional vertigo by displacing and dispersing calcium stones.35 Suppressive

medications (e.g., clonazepam, scopolamine, meclizine) should be used judiciously, if at all, when

other approaches have failed.23 The evidence for their efficacy is not strong, and they can cause

worsening of problems with attention and memory. Cervicogenic dizziness can be treated by

addressing the underlying cervical musculoskeletal problems.

Vocational

The extent to which an employer or academic institution is supportive after a mild traumatic brain

injury can be crucial to successful return to work for those with persistent post-concussion disorder.

Vocational counselors can facilitate communication between the patient and the workplace.

Therapies should attempt to simulate workplace tasks. A gradual return to work can ease the

transition.16

Procedures

Procedures are discussed in the previous sections.

Surgery

There is little that can be done surgically to manage post-concussion disorders. However, when a

perilymph fistula is suspected as the cause of severe vertigo or disequilibrium, and it does not

resolve with an extended period of activity restriction, surgical exploration and repair should be

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considered. The diagnosis is difficult to make and is largely dependent on history. Pressure-induced

vertigo or disequilibrium should raise suspicion. Sensorineural hearing loss is often present as well.

Surgery consists of a graft of fascia, perichondrium, or fat fixed to the opening in the round and/or

oval window with a fibrin glue. Various materials and solutions are sometimes use to augment and

buttress the graft. Limited activity and avoidance of lifting, bending, and straining are

recommended for several weeks after the procedure. The literature on outcome is limited to case

series, with success rate ranging from 82% to 95% for vestibular symptoms and from 20% to 49%

for hearing loss. Recurrence rates are reported at 8% to 27%, but others believe the recurrence rate

is considerably higher, as much as 67%.36-40

POTENTIAL DISEASE COMPLICATIONS

Persistence of post-concussion disorders beyond a few months is a possible outcome. Such patients

may present primarily as having a chronic pain problem or chronic depression.

Individuals who sustain a second concussion while still symptomatic from a recent concussion may

be susceptible to cerebral edema and dangerous increase in intracranial pressure (“second impact

syndrome”). Multiple concussion, even after apparent clinical recovery from earlier episodes, can

result in cumulative brain injury. Thus, caution must be exercises by those responsible for returning

athletes to play.41

POTENTIAL TREATMENT COMPLICATIONS

Those treating the patient with post-concussion disorders may contribute to the persistence of

symptoms either by overemphasizing the role of brain injury in causing symptoms due to other

etiologic factors or, conversely, by overemphasizing psychological factors when brain injury and

other physiologic variables are prominent.16,18 There is often a fine line to be walked, and each

patient must be approached individually in this regard, although few data are available to guide the

clinician.

Some of the complications related to medications can appear paradoxical. The frequent use of

analgesics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, acetaminophen, and narcotics) can cause

rebound headaches, as can the too frequent use of ergotamine and the “triptans.” Although they are

generally well tolerated, psychostimulants, dopaminergic agents, and antidepressants can lead to

sedation, worsening attention, agitation, or psychosis. There are myriad other complications

possible from the use of the medications mentioned.

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GANGGUAN PASCA GEGAR OTAK

Mel B. Glenn, MD

Sinonim

Sindrom pasca-gegar otak

Sindrom pasca-concussive

Gangguan pasca-concussive

Kode ICD-9

310.2 Sindrom pasca gegar otak

850.1 Gegar otak tanpa kehilangan kesadaran

850.2 Gegar otak dengan hilangnya kesadaran kurang dari satu jam

DEFINISI

Gangguan pasca gegar otak adalah kumpulan gejala yang sering terlihat setelah gegar otak. Istilah

gegar otak umumnya digunakan sebagai sinonim untuk cedera otak traumatik ringan. Salah satu

definisi yang umum digunakan untuk cedera otak traumatik ringan adalah gangguan fisiologis dari

fungsi otak yang dipicu oleh trauma, yang ditandai oleh setidaknya salah satu dari berikut:

setiap periode kehilangan kesadaran;

setiap kehilangan ingatan untuk kejadian segera sebelum atau setelah kecelakaan;

setiap perubahan dalam kondisi mental pada saat kecelakaan (misalnya, merasa linglung,

disorientasi, atau bingung); dan

defisit neurologis fokal yang mungkin atau tidak mungkin bersifat sementara;

tetapi keparahan cedera tidak melebihi berikut:

kehilangan kesadaran sekitar 30 menit atau kurang;

setelah 30 menit, skor Glasgow Coma Scale 13 sampai 15; dan

amnesia pasca trauma tidak lebih dari 24 jam.1

Ada sejumlah skema klasifikasi. Gegar otak dapat dibagi sesuai dengan kriteria yang ditetapkan

oleh American Academy of Neurology, yang didasarkan pada kejadiannya dan durasi hilangnya

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gejala kesadaran, kebingungan, dan gejala gegar otak. Mereka dimaksudkan untuk memandu

manajemen gegar otak pada olahraga2 (Tabel 138-1). Pendekatan yang dikembangkan oleh 2nd

International Symposium on Concussion in Sports,3 termasuk seperangkat pedoman untuk

pengobatan gegar otak pada olahraga, penting untuk menekan akibat dan gejala sisa dini dari cedera

tersebut. Gegar otak biasa didefinisikan sebagai sesuatu yang selesai secara progresif selama jangka

waktu 7 sampai 10 hari. Gegar otak yang kompleks melibatkan gejala persisten, gejala sisa spesifik

(kejang karena gegar otak, kehilangan kesadaran lebih dari 1 menit, gangguan kognitif

berkepanjangan), atau gegar otak sebelum gegar otak sekarang.

TABEL 138-1 American Academy of Neurology gegar Klasifikasi

Tingkatan Gegar Otak Karakteristik

Kelas 1 Kebingungan sementara

Semua gejala < 15 menit

Perubahan status mental < 15 menit

Kelas 2 Kebingungan sementara

Semua gejala > 15 menit

Perubahan status mental > 15 menit

Kelas 3a Kehilangan kesadaran singkat (detik)

Kelas 3b Kehilangan kesadaran berkepanjangan (menit)

GEJALA

Gejala pasca gegar otak yang paling umum adalah sakit kepala, pusing (vertigo), keseimbangan

yang buruk, pelupa, kesulitan belajar atau mengingat, sulit berkonsentrasi, lambat berpikir,

hipersomnolen, kelelahan, energi yang buruk, insomnia, depresi, kecemasan, mudah tersinggung,

peka terhadap kebisingan dan cahaya, dan masalah penglihatan.4-6

Banyak dari gejala ini mungkin berhubungan dengan kejadian selain gangguan otak. Gejala-gejala

ini dapat hadir sendiri atau dalam berbagai kombinasi dan dengan tidak menghilangkan gejala

sebenarnya.4 Mungkin ada selisih beberapa hari atau minggu antara gegar otak dan keluhan pertama

pasien, dan beberapa fenomena yang terkait, seperti depresi dan kecemasan, mungkin tidak muncul

sampai beberapa bulan setelah cedera awal. Meskipun gejala-gejala ini dapat dilihat dalam berbagai

tingkat keparahan cedera, Mereka sering dibahas dalam konteks cedera otak traumatis ringan.

Seiring waktu, banyak orang akan sembuh total.

Perkiraan jumlah orang di Amerika Serikat yang memiliki cedera otak traumatis ringan setiap tahun

berkisar dari 51 sampai 618 per 100.000 populasi.7 Taksiran dan laporan proporsi mereka yang

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masih memiliki beberapa gejala 1 tahun setelah cedera berkisar kurang dari 5%8 sampai setinggi

78%,9 jumlah terakhir disandingkan terhadap 47% kejadian dalam kelompok kontrol dengan cedera

ortopedi. Perbedaan gejala antara kelompok gegar otak dan kontrol sebagian besar karena keluhan

pusing, masalah ingatan, dan gangguan konsentrasi. Penelitian ini dilakukan di Lithuania, di mana

litigasi jarang. Studi ini menemukan bahwa hingga 5 tahun setelah cedera, kejadian gejala lebih

tinggi di antara orang-orang dengan cedera otak traumatis ringan daripada kelompok kontrol dengan

cedera lainnya.10 Insiden gejala yang terkait dengan gangguan pasca-gegar otak relatif tinggi pada

populasi yang sehat,8 dan tampaknya ada kecenderungan di antara orang dengan cedera otak

traumatis ringan untuk meremehkan luasnya gejala setelah cedera.7,9 Kebanyakan penulis tidak

menentukan kerangka waktu tertentu untuk menunjukkan gangguan pasca-gegar otak “menetap”,

meskipun beberapa telah menggunakan 3 bulan sebagai batasan.11

Kebanyakan penelitian terkontrol menunjukkan bahwa defisit kognitif ditemukan pada uji

neuropsikologi, sebagian besar pada orang dewasa muda, umumnya sembuh dalam waktu 3 bulan

dari cedera otak traumatis ringan.7 Beberapa penelitian telah menemukan perbedaan halus dari

kontrol.12,13 Atlet yang mengalami gegar otak berulang ditemukan memiliki kinerja yang lebih buruk

pada uji neuropsikologi14 dan prevalensi yang lebih besar dari penurunan kognitif ringan di masa

kemudian15 daripada atlet yang belum memiliki gegar otak. Meskipun studi prospektif diperlukan

untuk memperjelas sebab dan akibat, ini menunjukkan bahwa gegar otak tunggal dapat

mengakibatkan beberapa kehilangan fungsi otak, mungkin subklinis pada kebanyakan orang.

Etiologi dari berbagai gejala pasca-gegar otak umumnya multifaktor, dan banyak yang masih belum

dipahami dengan baik. Faktor pemicunya biasanya cedera otak traumatis ringan dengan gangguan

sisa perhatian dan ingatan, whiplash atau cedera jaringan lunak lain pada kepala dan leher, dan pada

gangguan waktu karena aparatus vestibular atau gangguan vestibular pusat. Masalah dengan

perhatian, pelupa, dan kelelahan, ditambah dengan sakit kepala yang semakin sering, insomnia, dan

vertigo, sering menyebabkan kecemasan dan depresi dan "rasa terguncang."16 Pada mereka yang

mengalami masalah yang terus-menerus, beberapa gejala sering tumpang tindih satu sama lain,4

memperburuk gangguan neuropsikologi, yang kemudian dapat mematikan bahkan sebagai dasar

cedera otak yang mendasari terus muncul.16,17 Kejadian umumnya adalah sesaat di mana rasa sakit,

kecemasan, (termasuk gangguan ketegangan pasca-trauma), dan depresi yang menyebabkan

insomnia, yang pada akhirnya memperburuk sakit kepala, dan semua gejala ini menyebabkan

gangguan kognitif. Kesulitan dalam berkonsentrasi juga dapat mengakibatkan sakit kepala.

Ada bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa gejala yang menetap berkaitan dengan kesulitan sosial,

psikologis, dan pekerjaan yang telah ada; usia yang lebih tua dari 40 tahun; telah menikah; jenis

kelamin perempuan; latar belakang pendidikan yang lebih tinggi; status pelajar saat ini; litigasi;

berhenti bekerja setelah cedera; tabrakan kendaraan sebagai sebab dari cedera; mual; gangguan

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ingatan; nyeri pada beberapa tempat setelah cedera; gangguan fisik yang sudah ada sebelumnya;

dan masalah otak (termasuk cedera kepala) dan neurologis lainnya yang sudah ada sebelumnya.

Namun, penelitian bervariasi sehubungan dengan beberapa temuan ini.6-8,14,18,19

Kognitif

Pasien harus ditanya tentang kejadian pemicu yang berkaitan dengan apakah ada kehilangan

kesadaran, hilangnya ingatan anterograde atau retrograde, perubahan lain dalam status mental, atau

temuan neurologis fokal. Perasaan subjektif pasien yang bingung bisa atau tidak bisa mencerminkan

cedera otak yang sebenarnya. Umum bagi seseorang untuk merasa bingung karena shock emosional

yang dialami setelah kecelakaan. Sering terbatas atau tidak ada catatan status mental pasien segera

setelah kecelakaan, dan dokter harus melakukan yang terbaik untuk merekonstruksi sebagian besar

situasi berdasarkan sejarah yang diberikan oleh pasien. Pengamatan yang lain dapat membantu

mengklarifikasi apakah pasien lambat merespon atau muncul bingung. Catatan medis darurat harus

diperoleh setiap saat tetapi bisa atau tidak bisa mencerminkan status mental pasien di tempat

kecelakaan dan tidak mungkin menngetahui defisit yang lebih halus jika hanya orientasi yang

dievaluasi.

Sakit kepala

Ketegangan, migrain, cervicogenic (muskuloskeletal), dan sakit kepala campuran adalah jenis yang

paling sering terlihat setelah gegar otak. Nyeri dari cedera jaringan lunak di lokasi benturan, nyeri

oksipital neuralgis, dan cefalgia dis-autonomi dapat terlihat juga. Pasien harus ditanya sehubungan

dengan keparahan, kualitas, lokasi dan radiasi, tanggal saat onset, durasi, frekuensi, faktor

memperburuk atau memperingan, dan frekuensi obat yang digunakan sebagai tambahan untuk

gejala terkait seperti mual, muntah, fenomena visual, diaphoresis, rhinorrhea, dan kepekaan

terhadap cahaya dan bising.20-22

Vestibular

Vertigo bisa disebabkan oleh cupulolithiasis atau canalithiasis (benign paroxysmal positional

vertigo), cedera otak, fistula perilymph, hydrops endolymphatic, atau gegar pada labirin, atau

mungkin cervicogenic. Fistula perilymph, hidrops endolimfatik, dan gegar otak labirin biasanya

berhubungan dengan gangguan pendengaran dan juga tinnitus. Pusing non-vertigo biasanya tidak

langsung berhubungan dengan gegar otak; Pusing yang dipicu obat (misalnya, oleh obat

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory dan antidepresan) dan penyebab lainnya harus dipertimbangkan,

termasuk pusing psikogenik.23

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Lain

Anamnesi dokter tentang peristiwa seputar kecelakaan awal juga harus mencakup eksplorasi cedera

lain yang terkait, kejang, muntah, dan obat atau keracunan alkohol. Pengobatan sebelum cedera,

sosial, psikologis, pekerjaan, dan sejarah pendidikan harus diperoleh, termasuk riwayat gangguan

perhatian defisit atau ketidakmampuan belajar.

PEMERIKSAAN FISIK

Kognitif

Pemeriksaan individu dengan gangguan pasca-gegar otak sering memunculkan masalah perhatian,

ingatan, dan fungsi eksekutif pada evaluasi status mental. Masalah ingatan yang paling sering

berhubungan dengan defisit perhatian atau kesulitan memunculkan ingatan.24 Kontribusi perhatian

terhadap pengkodean terhadap masalah pengambilan memori terhadap ingatan verbal dapat

dievaluasi dengan presentasi dari daftar kata yang diikuti oleh ingatan segera, ingatan setelah 5

menit, dan kemudian beberapa tes rekognisi pilihan, yang menyediakan struktur yang diperlukan

untuk membantu pengambilan ingatan ketika informasi telah dikodekan. Hasil uji mini-mental

status mungkin normal; evaluasi yang lebih luas, dan mungkin uji neuropsikologi, termasuk waktu

reaksi13 dan uji kinerja terus-menerus, mungkin diperlukan untuk mengungkapkan defisit yang

terjadi. Temuan lebih parah dari yang diharapkan untuk cedera otak traumatis ringan menunjukkan

bahwa kemungkinan ada faktor lain yang memberikan kontribusi. Obat, kecemasan, depresi,

insomnia, nyeri, dan gejala augmentasi yang sadar atau tidak sadar dapat memperburuk atau

menyebabkan masalah perhatian dan ingatan.6,16 Riwayat tidur harus diperoleh.

Psikologis

Penilaian suasana hati dan afeksi dapat mengungkapkan bukti depresi dan kecemasan. The Patient

Health Questionnaire-9 adalah salah satu pendekatan untuk penilaian depresi. Ini adalah kuesioner

singkat yang mencerminkan kriteria diagnostik dari Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, edisi keempat, untuk depresi besar. Ini telah divalidasi pada orang dengan cedera otak

traumatis.25 Gangguan stres setelah trauma harus dicurigai pada individu yang memiliki kilas balik

ingatan, mimpi buruk berulang, dan kecemasan pada situasi yang mirip dengan yang menyebabkan

cedera (misalnya, mengendarai mobil).

Sakit kepala

Pemeriksaan kepala dan leher sering didapatkan keterbatasan gerak, titik lunak, atau titik pemicu

yang menjalar ke kepala. Mungkin ada nyeri di lokasi cedera kepala asli dan kadang-kadang nyeri

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yang ditimbulkan oleh kompresi nervus oksipital.21,22,26

Vestibular

Selama vertigo akut, nystagmus sering muncul, umumnya lebih kuat pada vertigo perifer daripada

dengan vertigo sentral. Sebagai adaptasi mulai terjadi, nistagmus dapat dilihat hanya dengan

manuver tertentu (misalnya, setelah 20 kali getar kepala horisontal) atau tidak dapat dilihat sama

sekali. Ketika benign paroxysmal positional vertigo adalah penyebabnya, manuver Hallpike-Dix

dilakukan dari posisi duduk pada permukaan yang datar dengan kepala diputar 45 derajat ke kedua

sisi. Pasien dengan cepat diturunkan dari duduk ke posisi berbaring, sampai kepala, masih diputar,

melewati tepi meja periksa. Vertigo dialami dan nystagmus terlihat setelah jeda sampai 30 detik.23

Pasien dengan vertigo mungkin juga memiliki masalah keseimbangan dengan kesulitan dengan

berjalan tandem, melompat, dan manuver lain yang melibatkan gerakan koordinasi kepala dan

mata-tubuh.

Visual

Beberapa pasien mengeluhkan perasaan disorientasi visual atau penglihatan kabur yang hilang

timbul. Gejala dapat berhubungan dengan kebutuhan untuk perubahan refraksi, disfungsi

akomodatif,27 atau pembuluh darah, vestibular, perhatian, atau masalah psikologis. Sering, tidak ada

kelainan yang ditemukan pada pemriksaan rutin.

Olfaktori

Indera penciuman mungkin akan terpengaruh oleh kerusakan cabang saraf penciuman ketika

mereka melalui plat cribiformis atau dengan fokus contusio kortikal.26

Temuan pemeriksaan saraf kranial lainnya, kekuatan otot, hasil tes cerebellar, refleks tendon dalam,

stimulasi plantar, tanda-tanda frontal, dan sensasi biasanya normal.

PEMBATASAN FUNGSIONAL

Sejauh mana gangguan pasca-gegar otak mengganggu fungsi bervariasi dengan tingkat proses

patologis yang terkait tetapi tergantung juga pada reaksi psikologis terhadap gangguan pasca-gegar

otak. Konsekuensi yang paling umum dari gangguan pasca-gegar otak adalah keterbatasan

ketrampilan dasar dalam rumah dan dalam masyarakat dan cacat sosial, akademik, atau kejuruan.

Pasien mungkin pelupa dan lalai, mengalami kesulitan mengikuti percakapan, dan berbaur,

lingkungan bising yang sulit ditolerir. Sakit kepala sering diperburuk oleh tuntutan atensi dan

tekanan lainnya. Vertigo menyebabkan kesulitan dalam toleransi gerak, termasuk, untuk beberapa,

kendaraan bergerak.

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PENGUJIAN DIAGNOSTIK

Jika computed tomography tidak dilakukan segera, CT-scan kepala harus diperoleh sesegera

mungkin setelah cedera untuk menyingkirkan hematoma intrakranial pada semua pasien dengan

cedera kepala ringan yang memiliki riwayat kehilangan kesadaran dan yang juga memiliki sebagai

berikut: temuan focal neurologis, sakit kepala, muntah, usia yang lebih tua dari 60 tahun, keracunan

obat atau alkohol, amnesia anterograde, bukti fisik dari trauma atas klavikula, atau kejang.28

Meskipun kriteria definitif belum ditetapkan bagi mereka yang tidak ada riwayat kehilangan

kesadaran, mungkin bijaksana untuk melakukan CT Scan atau MRI bagi siapa saja yang terus

memiliki masalah yang signifikan (sakit kepala, lesu, bingung, atau kehilangan memori

anterograde), memiliki temuan neurologis fokal, dan tidak memiliki riwayat neuroimaging.

Neuroimaging fungsional belum diteliti secara menyeluruh cukup untuk digunakan untuk menjawab

pertanyaan klinis setelah cedera otak traumatis ringan.

Radiografi serviks tulang harus dilakukan pada pasien dengan sakit leher yang signifikan tak lama

setelah kecelakaan itu untuk menilai fraktur atau subluksasi.

Evaluasi neuropsikologi harus dilakukan jika lupa dan defisit perhatian bertahan, terutama ketika

terapi rehabilitasi yang dikejar. Pengujian dapat memberikan pasien dan tim pengobatan

pemahaman yang lebih menyeluruh tentang kekuatan neuropsikologi pasien dan kelemahan dan

dalam beberapa kasus dapat membantu dengan memberikan pemahaman tentang interaksi antara

neurokognitif dan kontribusi psikologis lainnya untuk gangguan kognitif. Tes untuk penilaian

berpura-pura sakit dan gejala yang dibesar-besarkan dapat dimasukkan bila diperlukan. Hal ini

berguna bagi tim olahraga untuk pemain mereka menjalani setidaknya pengujian kognitif singkat

dasar atau, jika sumber daya tersedia, pengujian neuropsikologi resmi sehingga setiap perubahan

dapat diidentifikasi dalam kasus gejala halus setelah gegar otak.3

Sebuah studi tidur (polisomnografi) diindikasikan untuk menyingkirkan sleep apnea dan gangguan

lain ketika kantuk siang hari yang berlebihan tidak meningkat meskipun tidak adanya obat

penenang. Ambang batas untuk mendapatkan polisomnografi harus lebih rendah untuk pasien

obesitas dan mereka yang mendengkur jelas.

Ketika keluhan vestibular yang menonjol atau tidak membaik di bulan-bulan awal setelah cedera,

evaluasi vestibular menyeluruh, termasuk electronystagmography, dapat diindikasikan. Evaluasi

audiologi harus dilakukan ketika dicurigai gangguan pendengaran atau ketika ada tinitus.23

Opthalmology atau evaluasi optometri oleh seseorang dengan keahlian khusus dalam masalah

penglihatan yang berkaitan dengan cedera otak harus dipertimbangkan ketika gejala visual yang

hadir.

Differential Diagnosis6,18,26

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Gangguan depresi

Gangguan kecemasan

Gangguan somatoform

Cedera whiplash dengan sakit kepala (sindrom nyeri myofascial)

Sleep apnea

Demensia progresif dini

Berpura-pura sakit dan gejala yang dibesar-besarkan

PENGOBATAN

Awal

Pengobatan tergantung pada konstelasi spesifik gejala dan keparahannya. Secara umum, jika pasien

diperiksa dalam beberapa minggu pertama setelah cedera, penekanan utama ditempatkan pada

perawatan masalah akut dengan vertigo, sakit kepala, nyeri leher, dan insomnia dan mendidik

pasien dan lain-lain yang signifikan. Penjelasan harus mengintegrasikan dimensi fisik, kognitif, dan

psikologis dari gejala sejelas dan sesederhana mungkin. Ini bukan tugas mudah, mengingat

keragaman gejala dan kemungkinan penyebab dan pemahaman yang terbatas mengenai gangguan

pasca-gegar otak saat ini. Beberapa pasien sangat sensitif terhadap pembahasan etiologi psikologis

dan mungkin tidak kembali jika mereka berpikir bahwa ini terlalu ditekankan. Pengalaman pasien,

termasuk reaksi psikologis, harus divalidasi dan dinormalisasi.16 Pasien harus diberitahu bahwa

perbaikan lah yang diharapkan; setelah gegar otak ringan pada orang muda yang tidak memiliki

riwayat gegar otak sebelumnya, gangguan perhatian defisit, atau ketidakmampuan belajar, jaminan

yang beralasan harus diberikan bahwa pemulihan yang baik mungkin terjadi tanpa mengabaikan apa

yang pasien alami. Pembentukan ekspektasi yang wajar untuk pemulihan dapat membantu dalam

mencegah kelainan pasca-gegar otak yang menetap.29 Antisipasi dari reaksi psikologis pasca-gegar

otak gejala yang terjadi pada beberapa pasien memungkinkan pasien untuk mengenali reaksi ini jika

mereka mulai dan meninggalkan pintu terbuka untuk individu mencari bantuan psikologis. Tindak

lanjut harus direncanakan dan konseling yang lebih luas harus disediakan pada tanda-tanda pertama

dari marabahaya yang signifikan dan harus dipertimbangkan jika peningkatan substansial tidak

terlihat dalam waktu 3 bulan bahkan tanpa gejolak psikologis jelas. Pasien dengan gejala yang

signifikan harus diinstruksikan untuk mengambil cuti dari pekerjaan, sekolah, atau kegiatan berat

lainnya, seperti tuntutan perhatian dan tekanan psikologis penyerta dari usaha untuk bekerja dalam

situasi seperti ini dapat memperburuk gejala.18

Atlet tidak boleh kembali ke olahraga kompetitif sampai mereka bebas dari gejala dan telah melalui

program bertingkat untuk menghilangkan gejala. Mereka dengan gegar otak yang kompleks harus

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melalui program ini lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan gegar otak biasa.3

Vertigo akut mungkin memerlukan beberapa hari tirah baring.23 Manajemen nyeri leher akut

dijelaskan pada Bab 5.

Rehabilitasi

Kognitif

Jika gejalanya menetap, pasien dapat mengambil manfaat dari terapi okupasi atau wicara untuk

pemulihan kognitif dan / atau untuk mempelajari strategi untuk mengelola masalah dengan gairah,

perhatian, memori, dan fungsi eksekutif. Waktu terapi tergantung pada tingkat keparahan kecacatan

dan kecepatan pemulihan, yang sering dapat ditentukan dalam 3 bulan pertama setelah cedera.

Tidak ada data yang diterbitkan mengenai lamanya intervensi ini, dan tidak ada pedoman khusus

yang tersedia yang membahas penggunaan restoratif dibandingkan pendekatan kompensasi. Terapi

harus membahas tugas-tugas fungsional tertentu yang individu hadapi setiap hari dan mungkin perlu

menyertakan kegiatan masyarakat. Penyumbat telinga busa atau kacamata bisa dicoba bagi mereka

yang sensitif terhadap suara dan cahaya.26 Kertas atau alat bantu memori elektronik dapat

membantu. Psikostimulan (misalnya, methylphenidate, 5 sampai 60 mg / hari; amfetamin, 5 sampai

60 mg / hari) dan obat lain yang mengobati atensi dan gangguan gairah (misalnya, atomoxetine, 10

sampai 100 mg / hari; donepezil, 5 sampai 10 mg sehari ; modafinil, 100-400 mg setiap hari),

termasuk obat dopaminergik dan NMDA receptor blockers (misalnya, amantadine, 100-400 mg /

hari; memantine 5 sampai 20 mg / hari) mungkin berguna untuk mengurangi tingkat defisit

perhatian dan gairah yang menurun.30 Ketika sleep apnea berpengaruh terhadap atensi atau masalah

gairah, terapi positive airway pressure dianjurkan.

Psikologis

Jika gejalanya menetap beberapa bulan, konseling psikologis hampir selalu dianjurkan. Beberapa

individu mendapatkan keuntungan dari belajar teknik relaksasi dan kesehatan tidur. Pendidikan

pasien dan penjelasan yang lain harus terus menekankan interaksi antara gejala sisa kognitif,

psikologis, dan fisik. Adalah penting bahwa tim pengobatan berkomunikasi secara teratur untuk

perencanaan pengobatan dan untuk memastikan bahwa semua dokter mendekati masalah ini dari

kerangka umum sehingga pesan campuran tidak disampaikan kepada pasien. Kelompok dukungan

sering berguna juga dan menawarkan kesempatan untuk pendidikan lebih lanjut tentang berbagai

faktor kontribusi. Terapi kognitif-perilaku dapat membantu dalam paduan dengan teraipi lain31

bahkan ketika gejala tidak dapat dijelaskan dengan kondisi medis.32 Konseling keluarga harus

ditawarkan ketika ada bukti stres signifikan pada anggota keluarga atau dinamika keluarga

bermasalah.

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Depresi dan kecemasan juga dapat diatasi secara farmakologi, biasanya bersamaan dengan

intervensi konseling. Baiknya dimulai dengan nonsedasi, agen non-antikolinergik, seperti selective

serotonin reuptake inhibitors (misalnya, citalopram, 20 sampai 60 mg / hari) untuk menghindari

eksaserbasi lebih lanjut dari masalah neuropsikologi.30 Agen penenang seperti trazodone (50 sampai

300 mg pada waktu tidur), zolpidem (5 sampai 10 mg pada waktu tidur), atau eszopiclone (2 sampai

3 mg pada waktu tidur) mungkin diperlukan bagi mereka dengan insomnia yang signifikan20,30 jika

pengobatan depresi dan kecemasan dan kesehatan tidur tidak berguna.

Sakit kepala

Sakit kepala pasca-trauma dapat memiliki sejumlah penyebab yang berbeda dan mungkin

multifaktorial.17-23 Maka dari itu sebaiknya mereka diatasi dengan beberapa tingkatan, dengan

penekanan tergantung pada jenis sakit kepala. Pengobatan masalah dengan perhatian, gangguan

tidur, dan tekanan psikologis dapat mengurangi komponen ketegangan sakit kepala. Teknik

relaksasi, termasuk biofeedback elektromiografi, dapat diajarkan. Ketika muncul nyeri myofascial

yang berasal dari leher, punggung atas, atau sendi temporomandibular, terapi fisik termasuk

peregangan dan latihan penguatan, pelatihan ulang postural, modifikasi lingkungan, pijat pada titik

picu, modalitas, umpan balik elektromiografi, dan masase harus dicoba. Namun, sakit kepala sering

bertahan meskipun dengan intervensi ini. Injeksi trigger point dapat membantu, sama seperti

pendekatan farmakologis. Pasien dengan masalah sendi temporomandibular dapat diobati dengan

teknik myofascial, pelindung mulut, dan latihan. Sakit kepala dengan komponen vaskuler jelas

dapat merespon acetaminophen, obat nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, atau agen vasokonstriksi yang

biasa digunakan untuk mengatasi sakit kepala migrain (misalnya, sumatriptan). Terlalu sering

menggunakan obat ini dapat menyebabkan sakit kepala yang kambuh. Untuk profilaksis, beberapa β

blocker (misalnya, propranolol), calcium channel blockers (misalnya, verapamil), antidepresan

(misalnya, amitriptyline, nortriptyline, venlafaxine), dan antikonvulsan (terutama asam valproik)

dapat membantu. Ketegangan sakit kepala mungkin merespon beberapa agen ini juga, meskipun

tidak untuk calcium channel blockers. Injeksi anestesi lokal dan kortikosteroid dapat

dipertimbangkan untuk neuralgia oksipital besar atau lebih kecil yang tidak merespon pendekatan

yang lebih konservatif. Injeksi harus dilakukan di lokasi sepanjang saraf yang mereplikasi sakit

kepala ketika diraba.20,21,33

Vestibular

Ketika gejala vestibular bertahan melampaui 3 bulan, rehabilitasi vestibular dapat mendorong

sistem saraf pusat akomodasi dalam keadaan terkontrol dan membantu pasien dalam belajar strategi

kompensasi.34 Manuver reposisi canolith dapat mengatasi benign paroxysmal positional vertigo

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dengan memindahkan dan menyebarkan batu kalsium.35 Obat supresif (misalnya, clonazepam,

skopolamin, meclizine) harus digunakan dengan bijaksana, jika sama sekali, ketika pendekatan lain

gagal.23 Bukti keberhasilan mereka tidak kuat, dan mereka dapat menyebabkan memburuknya

masalah perhatian dan memori. Pusing cervicogenic dapat diobati dengan mengatasi masalah

muskuloskeletal cervical yang mendasarinya.

Kejuruan

Sejauh mana atasan atau lembaga akademik mendukung setelah cedera otak traumatis ringan

menjadi sangat penting untuk keberhasilan kembali bekerja bagi mereka dengan gangguan pasca-

gegar otak persisten. Konselor kejuruan dapat memfasilitasi komunikasi antara pasien dan tempat

kerja. Terapi harus berusaha untuk mensimulasikan tugas kerja. Kembali bekerja secara bertahap

dapat meringankan perubahannya.16

Prosedur

Prosedur dibahas di bagian sebelumnya.

Operasi

Hanya sedikit yang bisa dilakukan pembedahan untuk mengelola gangguan pasca-gegar otak.

Namun, ketika fistula perilymph diduga sebagai penyebab vertigo parah atau ketidakseimbangan,

dan tidak selesai dengan pembatasan aktivitas yang panjang, eksplorasi dan operasi perbaikan harus

dipertimbangkan. Diagnosis sulit untuk dibuat dan sebagian besar tergantung pada riwayat. Vertigo

yang disebabkan tekanan atau ketidakseimbangan harus meningkatkan kecurigaan. Gangguan

pendengaran sensorineural sering hadir juga. Bedah terdiri dari graft dari fasia, perichondrium, atau

lemak tetap untuk pembukaan di jendela bulat dan / atau jendela oval dengan lem fibrin. Berbagai

bahan dan solusio kadang-kadang digunakan untuk meningkatkan dan menopang operasi.

Membatasi aktivitas dan menghindari mengangkat, membungkuk, dan tegang direkomendasikan

untuk beberapa minggu setelah prosedur. Literatur tentang hasil masih terbatas pada case series,

dengan tingkat keberhasilan berkisar 82% sampai 95% untuk gejala vestibular dan dari 20% ke 49%

untuk gangguan pendengaran. Tingkat kekambuhan dilaporkan sebesar 8% sampai 27%, tetapi yang

lain percaya bahwa tingkat kekambuhan jauh lebih tinggi, sebanyak 67% ,36-40

KOMPLIKASI PENYAKIT POTENSIAL

Gangguan pasca-gegar otak yang menetap melampaui beberapa bulan adalah hasil yang mungkin.

Pasien tersebut dapat muncul terutama dengan memiliki masalah sakit kronis atau depresi kronis.

Individu yang mengalami gegar otak kedua sementara masih ada gejala dari gegar otak baru-baru

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ini dapat mengalami edema serebral dan peningkatan berbahaya tekanan intrakranial ("sindrom

benturan kedua"). Gegar otak multipel, bahkan setelah pemulihan klinis jelas dari episode

sebelumnya, dapat mengakibatkan cedera otak kumulatif. Jadi, kehati-hatian harus dilatih oleh

mereka yang bertanggung jawab untuk mengembalikan atlet untuk bermain.41

KOMPLIKASI PENGOBATAN POTENSIAL

Memperlakukan pasien dengan gangguan pasca-gegar otak dapat berkontribusi pada munculnya

gejala baik dengan terlalu menekankan peran cedera otak dalam menyebabkan gejala karena faktor

etiologi lainnya atau, sebaliknya, dengan terlalu menekankan faktor psikologis ketika cedera otak

dan variabel fisiologis lainnya yang menonjol.16,18 Selalu ada jalan mulus yang dapat dilalui, dan

setiap pasien harus didekati secara individual dalam hal ini, meskipun hanya sedikit data yang

tersedia untuk memandu dokter.

Beberapa komplikasi yang berhubungan dengan obat dapat muncul secara paradoks. Penggunaan

analgesik (obat anti-inflamasi non-steroid, asetaminofen, dan narkotika) yang sering dapat

menyebabkan sakit kepala yang kambuhan, demikian juga terlalu sering menggunakan ergotamine

dan "triptans." Meskipun mereka umumnya ditoleransi dengan baik, psikostimulan, agen

dopaminergik, dan antidepresan dapat menyebabkan sedasi, memburuknya perhatian, agitasi, atau

psikosis. Ada segudang komplikasi lain yang mungkin dari penggunaan obat yang disebutkan.

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