28.August 2014

Position paper on the use of fish and fish

products

Position paper on the use of fish and fish products

(February 2012)

The Federal Ministry of Health recommends at least 1 to 2 times fish per week in the

Austrian food pyramid. The ecological consequences of this recommendation when fish from

unsustainable fisheries is consumed are enormous. 32 % of the world’s fisheries are

irreversibly overexploited, another 53 % of the fish stocks are depleted and show decreasing

catch results. It is therefore especially important to prefer fish types whose population is not

endangered or whose catch or aquaculture does not cause damage to the environment.

From an ecological point of view the consumption of fish can therefore only be recommended

to a limited extent.

According to EU Regulation 2065/2001 the following information shall be given on the price

label or on the packaging for both fresh fish and packed frozen fish in order to enable the

consumers to choose the respective fish: specification of the type of fish (commercial

designation), method of production (aquaculture or wild caught) and the area in which it was

caught (or farmed). Convenience products, such as processed fish, cans and salads are,

however, exempted from this regulation.

Position on the use of fish and fish products:

Recommended fish of the greenlist shall be chosen. Fish types of the yellowlist are

accepted by “ÖkoKauf Wien” in cases of urgent need. Fish on the redlist are

endangered species and shall not be used.

Recommendation: Fish of the greenlist come from sustainable fisheries or organic

aquacultures, these fish stocks are classified as stable. “ÖkoKauf Wien” recommends the

use of fish of the greenlist such as fish from organic aquacultures, fish from domestic

production and sea fish from certified fisheries. Fish types of the yellowlist can only be

recommended to a limited extent, however, in cases of urgent need they may be used. Fish

types of the redlist are either bred in aquacultures with negative impacts on the environment

or are strongly endangered in nature. Catching them causes a big amount of unwanted

bycatch and hence also endangers other species. Therefore the use of fish from the redlist is

prohibited.

The same recommendation applies to convenience products; fish and fish products from the

green and the yellowlist shall preferably be used as far as this is indicated by their labelling. If

such ready-made products do not specify the type of fish or origin and hence the criteria of

the position paper cannot be applied these products may be used in cases of urgent need.

As an eco-friendly alternative to cover the dietical need of healthy and valuable omega-3

fatty acids which are mainly found in sea fish it is recommended to use vegetable oils,

linseed, rape, walnuts and domestic soya as an additional source of omega-3 fatty acids.

The environmental organisations Greenpeace and WWF investigated the endangerment of

the different fish species and graded them as acceptable, critical or calamitous. The following

types of fish coming from the stated region of origins are generally acceptable and can be

used in the kitchen. More information on acceptable fish, their fishing zones and fishing

methods can be found in the sources specified below.

RECOMMENDED FISH ORIGIN FISHING

METHOD SOURCE

ALL fish from organic aquaculture

Worldwide

Organic aquaculture

WWF

ALL fish with MSC certification

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod - MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Trout Austria Aquaculture, wild caught

Greenpeace

Trout - organic Austria, Europe Organic aquaculture

Greenpeace, WWF

Gilt-head sea bream - organic Mediterranean Sea Organic aquaculture

WWF

Halibut Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Halibut - MSC Worldwide MSC wild

caught WWF

Herring - MSC Worldwide MSC wild

caught WWF

Hoki – MSC New Zealand Wild caught WWF

Cod Eastern Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF

Cod - MSC Worldwide MSC wild

caught WWF

Carp Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Carp - organic Austria organic aquaculture

Greenpeace

Salmon Pacific salmon

Eastern Pacific (USA) Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Salmon - organic

Worldwide Organic aquaculture

WWF

Salmon, wild Alaskan salmon - MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Mackerel North Atlantic Sea Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Mackerel - MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Iridescent shark / shark catfish - organic

Vietnam Organic aquaculture

Greenpeace, WWF

Arctic cod/Alaska pollock – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Char/ brook trout Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace

Char/ brook trout - organic Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace

Anchovy France Bay of Biscay Wild caught WWF

Sardine – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Haddock Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF

Haddock – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Plaice – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Plaice / coalfish Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF

Plaice / coalfish – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Shrimps and prawns - organic Worldwide Organic aquaculture

WWF

Shrimps and prawns - MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Sprat North Sea & Baltic Sea

Wild caught WWF

Tilapia Honduras, Indonesia, Europe and USA

Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Tilapia – organic Worldwide Organic aquaculture

WWF

Tuna Bonito/Skipjack

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Tuna, white – MSC

Worldwide MSC wild caught

WWF

Tuna, Bonito/Skipjack Maldives Wild caught WWF

Victoria perch – organic Tanzania Organic aquaculture

WWF

Sea bass – organic Mediterranean Sea Organic aquaculture

WWF

Zander – organic Europe Organic aquaculture

Greenpeace

ACCEPTABLE FISH ORIGIN FISHING

METHOD SOURCE

Alaska pollock / Arctic cod Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF

Trout Northern Europe Aquaculture, wild caught

WWF

Prawns, crabs North Sea Wild caught WWF

Halibut Northeast Arctic, Norwegian Sea

Wild caught WWF

Herring Celtic Sea, Western Baltic Sea, Northeast Arctic

Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace

Cod Iceland, Northeast Arctic, Norwegian Sea, Western Baltic Sea

Wild caught WWF

Dab Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF

Salmon Ireland, Norway, Scotland

Wild caught / aquaculture

WWF

Common mussel North Sea Wild caught / aquaculture

WWF

Iridescent shark - GAP Vietnam Aquaculture, Global Gap certified

WWF Germany

Arctic cod/Alaska pollock Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF

Anchovy Iberian waters, Eastern Central Atlantic

Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace

Sardine Mediterranean Sea, Northeast Atlantic, Eastern Central Atlantic

Wild caught WWF

Haddock North Sea, Iceland, Norwegian Sea, Northeast Atlantic

Wild caught WWF

Plaice Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF

Saithe / coalfish Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF

Tuna true Bonito = Skipjack

Pacific Ocean Wild caught WWF

Zander Western Europe Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

NOT ACCEPTABLE

FISH ORIGIN

FISHING

METHOD SOURCE

Eel Europe Wild caught / aquaculture

WWF

Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace

Atlantic blue marlin Worldwide Wild caught WWF

Trout Turkey, Chile Aquaculture WWF

Gilt-head sea bream Mediterranean Sea, excluding organic aquaculture

Aquaculture WWF

Orange roughy Worldwide Wild caught WWF

Sharks and skates Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Halibut Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Atlantic

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Hoki, blue hake Pacific Wild caught Greenpeace

Scallop Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea

Wild caught WWF

Cod Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Salmon Chile, Northeast Atlantic, Western Pacific

Wild caught / aquaculture

Greenpeace, WWF

Ling Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF

Mackerel Eastern Central Atlantic

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Arctic cod / Alaska pollock Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace

Iridescent shark Vietnam, Thailand Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Red Snapper Worldwide Wild caught WWF

Redfish North Atlantic Wild caught WWF

St. Peters fish Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace

Anchovis Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace

Sardine Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace

Haddock Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Dogfish/Sea eel (spiny dogfish) Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Plaice Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Swordfish Worldwide Wild caught WWF

Hake Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Saithe/ coalfish Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace

Monkfish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Sole Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Spined loach/catfish/wolf fish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Shrimps and prawns Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught/ aquaculture

Greenpeace, WWF

Sprat Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace

Squid/Octopus Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace

Tilapia Worldwide, excluding see above

Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Tuna (in retail light tuna, bigeye tuna, bluefin tuna, red tuna or yellowfin, Albacore, Bonito del Norte)

Worldwide, excluding see above

Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

Tuna true Bonito = Skipjack

Indian Ocean Wild caught WWF

Victoria perch Tanzania Wild caught WWF

Whiting Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace

Sea bass/Branzino Mediterranean Sea Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Zander Eastern Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Sources:

WWF guide on purchasing fish and seafood (WWF-Einkaufsratgeber Fisch und

Meeresfrüchte, only available in German) 11/2011 www.wwf.at/de/fischfuehrer

Greenpeace guide on fish (Greenpeace Fisch-Ratgeber, only available in German) 2011,

http://marktcheck.greenpeace.at/fischratgeber.html

More information was researched by "die umweltberatung" Vienna and is summarised in the

following chapter: “Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish products”.

8

Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish

products

On behalf of “ÖkoKauf Wien”

Working Group “Food“

Gabriele Wittner, dietitian

"die umweltberatung" Vienna

Vienna, February 2012

9

Contents

1. Dietical benefits of fish 11

2. Ecological impact of fish consumption 12

2.1. Issue “overfishing” ............................................................................. 12

2.2. Issue “fish industry” ........................................................................... 12

2.3. Issue “aquaculture” ............................................................................ 13

2.4. Issue “fishing methods” .................................................................... 14

2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing” .................................................................... 16

3. Alternatives from sustainable fisheries 17

3.1. Domestic fish ...................................................................................... 17

3.2. Organic fish ......................................................................................... 18

3.3. Marine Stewardship Council .............................................................. 19

3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council ..................................................... 20

3.5. Vegetable alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids .................................. 20

4. Literature 23

10

List of illustrations

Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010] ............... 13

Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004] ........................................................... 15

Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004] ..................... 15

Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006] ......................................................... 16

Figure 5: Development of total Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010] ....................... 17

Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch ..................................................................... 18

Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council ................................................. 19

Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates ................. 21

11

1. Dietical benefits of fish

Nutrition Societies, such as the German Nutrition Society DGE recommend to eat fish once or

twice a week [DGE, 2007]. The Austrian Federal Ministry of Health also recommends – based on

the food pyramid - to eat oily sea or domestic cold-water fish once or twice a week [Federal

Ministry of Health, BMfG, 2011]. The dietical benefits for our body provided by this healthy food

group is undisputable.

It is a natural source of supply of iodine and vitamins (A, D, E, K, niacin, pyridoxine and

cobalamin), it provides us with easily digestible protein and above all it has a unique range of fatty

acids all of which need to be emphasised inter alia.

Beside iodised table salt there is no other food containing so much iodine than sea fish. At the

moment 12 % of the daily iodine need is covered by fish dishes [KARL and MÜNKNER, 1999].

Supply with iodine could be improved in Austria, however since iodine has been added to table salt

the situation has significantly improved in the last years. Severe iodine deficiencies occur very

seldom.

Special benefits of eating fish are omega-3 fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid,

eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. They are needed for a variety of metabolic

functions in our body and also for forming cell membranes. Furthermore they are the original

substances for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which play an important role both in blood clotting and

in the immune system [ELMADFA, 2000].

Moreover, omega-3 fatty acids regularly consumed by eating oily sea fish significantly reduce the

risk of fatal heart attacks in primary prevention of coronary diseases [DAVIGLUS et al., 1997] and

in secondary prevention they inter alia significantly reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death [LEAF,

2002].

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2. Ecological impact of fish consumption

Despite all the positive properties of fish, important ecological aspects need to be considered when

fish is recommended due to its health benefits:

2.1. Issue “overfishing”

145.1 million tonnes of fish, including aquacultures, were officially caught and farmed in 2009. 90

million tonnes thereof were wild capture and 55.1 million tonnes originated in aquacultures [FAO,

2010]. Regarding the development of the stock of the 200 worldwide most important fisheries, the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 32 % are

overexploited, 53 % are overfished and show decreasing catch and only 15 % show more potential

[FAO, 2010].

Unwanted bycatch is one of the biggest unsolved problems in fishery. Bycatch is this share of a

catch which is either thrown back into the sea or is not scientifically managed. All kinds of fish,

ground animals, sea mammals, turtles and sea birds are affected. Cautious estimates say that

about 40 percent of worldwide catch is unwanted bycatch, which is thrown back into the sea, in

most cases dead [DAVIES, 2009].

On a short-term basis it is possible to minimise overfishing of the sea by the introduction of

maximum permissible fishing quota (Total Allowable Catch - TAC) and annual fishing quota. On a

long-term basis thorough protection zones for young fish need to be created for sustainable fishing.

An increase of the minimum mesh size of the nets should also guarantee stock recovery, where

not yet sexually mature young fish are able to develop. Furthermore, the use of selective gear shall

help to prevent unwanted catch [Fischerei in Europa, 2004].

In 2002 at the European reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) the European Union has

therefore in principle adopted recovery plans of the most threatened types of fish. However, these

plans are inconsistent and their execution is not sufficiently controlled. The current fishing quota

are hence clearly beyond the scientific recommendations of the International Council for the

Exploration of the Sea as in the years before. The consequence is that too many fish are taken out

of the sea and sustainable fishery is hardly possible. [GREENPEACE, 2007].

2.2. Issue “fish industry”

13

Social consequences of fish industry are inter alia a high rate of unemployment of fishers caused

by “industrial” ships. Only 1 % of the fleet, about 35 000 units, are big industrial trawlers over 24 m

length. On these vessels work 10 % of the fishers and they catch about 50 % of the landings

[NEWTON and FITZPATRICK, 1998]. Their catching methods are basically oriented towards

maximum profit and do not consider ecological consequences such as destruction of coral reefs

and sea grounds, unwanted bycatch of seabirds, ground animals, sea mammals and fish. The lack

of legal regulation and control support this behaviour.

The differences in catch per fisher are also extreme: An EU-fisher in Denmark catches 293 t, a

German fisher 60 t and a fisher in Greece 4 t fish/year [SALZ, 1991]. In India a fisher catches 0.8 t

fish /year on average [ANON, 1998d].

2.3. Issue “aquaculture”

Since 1970 worldwide fish production in aquaculture has steadily increased. In 2009 55.1 million

tonnes of fish were already farmed in aquaculture. This is about more than a third of the overall

catch of 145.1 million tonnes. Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of

the sea has become one of the strongest growing economic sectors. In China the number of

aquacultures has especially been growing.

Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010]

Fish are differentiated into freshwater and seawater (maricultures) aquaculture depending on the

water the animals live in. A little bit more than half of worldwide aquaculture produce freshwater

fish.

14

The fish farmed in seawater are usually kept in cages or crates made of nets, metal or wood in

coastal areas. Fresh saltwater permanently flows through the cages or crates. Waster water,

excrements and drug residues leak uncontrolled into the surrounding waters. Escaped farmed fish

breed and become an unnatural competition to wild fish.

Furthermore, farmed fish may transmit diseases and parasites to wild fish. In Canada, for instance,

the stocks of wild salmon are heavily endangered through parasites [Krkosek et al., 2007]. Also the

salmon farms in Chile partially have devastating effects on the overall ecosystem – due also to the

fact that Atlantic salmon is a stranger in Chile, introduces diseases and hence puts even more

pressure on the endangered domestic species. Additionally the use of drugs and accumulated

waste are a hazard to the eco system.

Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of the sea has become one of the

strongest growing economic sectors. Conventional aquaculture brings about ecological problems

which are quite similar to intensive livestock farming onshore: The animals do not have enough

space and are hence prone to illness. Therefore drugs are used in big amounts, very often

precautionary. Energy feed and growth promoters replace natural diets. Chemicals are used to

protect the marine organisms against algae and unwanted creatures. [aid Infodienst, 2005].

Carnivorous fish are a special problem in aquaculture which only can survive with fish as fodder,

mostly in the form of fish meal or fish oil. Since these industrial fish are also taken from the sea, as

a consequence the sea dwellers miss out on fodder and the ecological balance is seriously

disrupted.

Ponds for e.g. prawns need enormous amounts of fresh water rich in oxygen. Hence fresh water

needs to be pumped into the pools. About 25 million litre water are necessary for the production of

1 tonne of prawns. The enormous need of freshwater heavily strains the ground water reserves of

the surrounding land. This damages the landscape and the population. [ÖKO-FAIR, 2006].

Since permanently new aquacultures are built in the sensitive coastal regions, mangrove forests

are deforested which brings about uncontrolled flooding of the coastal regions. Mangroves, tropical

coastal forests take up less than 0.1 % of the global land area, however, they are one of the most

productive eco-systems and most efficient CO2 stores of our planet. In the last decades more than

a third of the mangrove areas have been disturbed, mainly through urban development, agricultural

activities and prawn farming. [DITTMAR et al, 2006].

2.4. Issue “fishing methods”

There are enormous differences regarding fishing methods. Plaices and soles are caught by e.g.

beam trawls. Heavy iron chains are dragged across the sea bed, digging and ploughing up the

15

ground in order to catch bottom-dwelling fish. This fishing method destroys plants and animals of

the sea bed. Catching fish with beam trawls produces a very high amount of bycatch: for 1 kg sole

about 10 kg bycatch are caught!

Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004]

Another fishing method are drag nets whose openings are 23,000 square metres wide and

therefore as big as five football pitches, they are dragged by one or two trawlers. Such fleets have

a significant impact, especially on species swimming in shoals.

Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004]

For fishing demersal species (cod, hake, etc.) and

bottom dwellers (prawns, deep-sea lobster, flat fish)

bottom trawlers and bottom otter trawlers are used.

The net which has a length of up to 200 m can be

used in the deep sea (80m to 1500m). The otter or

trawl board made of timber or steel stir up the sea

bed to scare up the fish. The sea bed is ploughed

up, the plants and animals living in the sediments

are exposed, others are covered, destroying entire eco systems. The otter boards leave grooves

up to 30 cm deep depending on the nature of the sea floor, and destroy habitats such as deep sea

coral reefs. [GREENPEACE, 2010].

Sustainable fishery requires fishing methods which raise selectivity, keep bycatch as low as

possible and maintain the ecological balance stable. Large mesh, escape opportunities for

unwanted animals or special hooks on longlines are positive examples for sustainable and above

all selective fishing methods.

16

2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing”

Due to the reduction of classic, offshore fishing and the growing pressure on the stock of fish in the

sea, fishers looked for alternatives. The ideal solution seemed to be to exploit the grounds of the

deep sea down to 2000 m where up to then no fishing had taken place. Best known deep sea

species are orange roughy, blue ling, redfish and halibut. Deep sea sharks are also caught.

Since the water is very cold in the deep sea and there is not much food, animals living in the deep

sea have a clearly slower vital rhythm and reproduce only sporadically. However, many species

verifiably become very old – the orange roughy is an extreme example with its 150 years – sexual

maturity starts only with 30. When big fleets catch adult fish, it can take decades until the stock

recovers, if at all possible.

Furthermore, bottom trawls are mainly used, stirring up the seabed and destroying many sedentary

organisms such as coral and sponges.

In 2000 a report of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stated that most

of the deep sea species are caught beyond their safe biological limit. The ICES recommended an

immediate reduction of catch to an immediate stop of deep sea fishing. However, deep sea fish are

still very popular, even on Austrian plates.

Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006]

= overfished stock of deep sea fish

17

3. Alternatives are sustainable fisheries

Which fish can be recommended considering the ecological aspect? Alternatives are domestic fish

such as carps and trout. Furthermore, certified fish like organic fish, “Alpenlachs arctic char” and

MSC fish are recommendable.

3.1. Domestic fish

There are three different fishing methods used in Austria. In former times, lake fishing was

economically significant, today it is only profitable for a few. Full-time professional fishers exist only

at Lake Constance and the biggest customer of fish caught in lakes is gastronomy. Pole-and-line

fishing is the fishing method for flowing waters. The fish caught this way are usually not sold on a

market but are eaten by the families and friends of the fishers. [STAUDIGL, 2005]. The third

method has a long tradition in Austria: pond fish culture. The species farmed most are carps, trout,

chars, perches, catfish, etc.

Figure 5: Development of overall Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010]

Carp and trout are in particular the most important freshwater fish regarding quantity. Carp ponds

are characterised by large areas with low water intake. Near-natural farming provides plankton and

insects as fodder for the fish, grain (e.g. barley, ray, etc.) or oilcake can additionally be added

[REIMOSER, 2005]. These conditions are also beneficial for other fish such as tench, zanders,

pikes or catfish, therefore they are very often farmed together with carps in extensive carp ponds

[STAUDIGL, 2005].

Trout are salmonids (salmon-like) living in cold water (about 14°C). Contrary to carps they need a

lot of oxygen which gets into the water via the water supply [REIMOSER, 2005]. Trout are

18

predators and live mainly on water insects, crabs and small fish. Hence fish farming depends on

fish meal.

The demand for salmonids such as trout and chars has strongly increased whereby only 25 % of

the demand can be produced in Austria.

Supply sources: e.g.: www.alpenlachs.at, www.biofisch.at, www.wildfang-naturfisch.at,

www.genuss-region.at/article/archive/25801 (fish of the Lake Neusiedl region)

3.2. Organic fish

The aim of organic aquacultures is environmentally friendly and species appropriate fish farming.

Since 2009 farming of organic fish is regulated in a uniform way by the EU regulation on organic

farming. The new regulations for organic aquacultures comprise the production of fish, crustaceans

and seaweed/algae in fresh and salt water. Organic fish kept and certified according to the criteria

of organic associations such as Arge Biofisch, Naturland or Demeter are subject to even stricter

criteria than the EU regulation.

Stocking density is in general significantly lower in organic aquacultures and domestic species

should be farmed, if possible. Austria accepts only near-natural earth ponds as surroundings for

breeding, however, in other countries plastic ponds or plastic basins are used.

Preventional measures such as more space for the fish and clean water avoid the break out of

diseases in advance. The fodder for the herbivorous fish shall originate from certified organic

farming. Feeding carnivorous fish such as trout or char is more complicated: The share of animal

components in the fodder shall be reduced to a minimum or replaced by plant-based components.

The feedstuff must not be from conventionally produced land animals (mammals, birds). Organic

fish products from certified enterprises, made of residues of processing of fish for human

consumption and of bycatch of fish for human consumption are permissible [NATURLAND, 2007].

ARGE Biofisch is an initiative of Austrian pond farmers breeding fish according to the regulations of

Bio-Austria (Richtlinien von Bio-Austria) and providing carps, trout, chars, roaches and tench. At

the moment there are 16 organic carp farms and 10 organic trout farms which use 550 hectare of

ponds, i.e. 20 % of the total pond area, for breeding organic fish. Organic fish products from

Austria bear the the trademark [www.biofisch.at]. Moreover organic fish bred according to

regulations of other European associations (Naturland, Soil-Association, AB-Agriculture Biologique

France, etc.) are also available in Austria, e.g. salmon and gilt-head sea bream (sea bass).

Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch

19

Supply sources for organic fish: www.biofisch.at, www.naturland.de

3.3. Marine Stewardship Council

It is very difficult for consumers in the supermarket to find out which fish filet comes from well-

regulated, environmentally safe and sustainable fisheries. This was the reason why the

environmental organisation WWF and the food producer Unilever founded the global organisation

“Marine Stewardship Council” (MSC) in 1997, which became totally independent from both

founders already in 1999. At the beginning stakeholders of fishers, retailers, fish processors, non-

governmental organisations, consumers and scientists together worked out regulations according

to which environmentally friendly fisheries can be assessed [HUBOLD, 2004].

About 12 % of worldwide catch and 64 fish species are already MSC certified. Almost 5,000

different products worldwide have the MSC blue label. By now 15 different and certified types of

fish are available in Austrian supermarkets and gastronomical wholesale [MSC Annual Report,

2010].

Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council

Every fishery, independent of size and fishing zone can apply to an assessment according to MSC

standards and consequently for the blue MSC label. They need to undergo a strict assessment

procedure and continuous controls. All fisheries of a sea region fishing a certain fish type are

certified, not individual fishers or vessels.

MSC does not do the assessments themselves, they take on the role of the “accreditor” assessing

certification companies and approving them. The objectives are the “principles” according to which

the fishing shall be conducted, and the “criteria” are the ways how they should be achieved.

The 3 principles of the Marine Stewardship Council

Principle 1: Protection of stocks

Fishery shall not lead to overfishing or exploitation of the respective fish stock. Fishery of exploited

fish population shall be designed in such a way that the stocks verifiably recover.

20

Principle 2: Minimum impact on the eco-system

Fishery shall not have a negative impact on the structure, diversity and productivity of the

respective eco-system and all species involved (including sea birds and sea mammals).

Principle 3: Effective and responsible management of fishery

Fishery shall be subject to an effective management system respecting the local, national and

international laws and standards, and whose institutional and operational provisions require

sustainable and responsible use of resources [HUBOLD, 2004].

Supply sources of MSC certified fish – the following link provides you with current brands and

retailers:

www.msc.org/where-to-buy/msc-labelled-seafood-in-shops-and-restaurants/austria

3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council

Similar to the MSC blue label for wild capture there will be a new quality label for farmed fishes in

the future: the ASC label (Aquaculture Stewardship Council). The certification programme was

initiated by WWF and labels only fish originating from sustainable aquacultures, i.e. from farms.

The programme still is in development, the first fish will be available in 2012. (Anm.: wenn Satz

angepasst werden soll, nämlich insofern, dass die ersten Fische 2012 bereits verkauft wurden,

würde der Satz so lauten: The first fish were sold in 2012.

12 types of fish are already planned for the certification: inter alia different types of mussels,

salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011]. (Anm: Auch hier gilt:

wenn der Satz angepasst werden soll, dann müsste er so lauten, vorausgesetzt die Zahl 12 und

die Fischarten stimmen: 12 types of fish are already certified: inter alia different types of mussels,

salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011].

3.5. Plant-based alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids

Despite eating ecologically sound fish, the need of omega-3 fatty acids which are important for the

human body can partially be covered by plant-based food. Linseed, rape, walnuts and soya contain

high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Lower levels can also be found in green vegetables such as

savoy cabbage, spinach and sprouts [DITTRICH, 2000]. The most important dietically sources for

the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) are vegetable oils, especially linseed oil, nut and

rape oil and dairy products of organic origin.

21

Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates in g/100g [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]

18:1 (n-9) 18:2 (n-6) 18:3 (n-3) 20:5 (n-3) 22:6 (n-3)

Olive oil 70 10 - - -

Sunflower oil 15 75 1 - -

Corn oil 30 60 1 - -

Soybean oil 21 54 9 - -

Rapeseed oil 58 22 9 - -

Walnut oil 15 59 13 - -

Perilla oil 10 15 64 - -

Linseed oil 20 20 60 - -

Codliver oil 25 2 1 12 8

Fish oil concentrate 15 2 1 18 12

Highly concentrated fish oil - - - 46 38

Both omega-3 acids, Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are especially dietically

valuable, but as a natural source they are only contained in fish and fish products. The human

body, however, is able to produce them by conversion of alpha-linolenic acid.

22

It generally is assumed that only 10 % of alpha-linolenic acid can be converted into

eicosapentaenoic acid. This factor 10 varies and is defined by an enzyme which depends on

different variables, e.g. concurrent share of carbohydrates, saturated acids, linolenic acid, age,

hunger or diabetes mellitus [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]. This conversion factor can be increased

up to 40 %, if at the same time only a low level of omega-6 fatty acids (e.g. in sunflower or

safflower oil) is taken in. The reason is the fact that both groups of fatty acids need the same

enzymes for conversion in the body.

It can definitely be concluded that there are good, plant-based alternatives to fish. Especially

linseed oil and rape oil are excellent additions to sustainable fish consumption.

23

4. Literature

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24

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