Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends ...Port‑hinterland transport and...
25
Vol.:(0123456789) Maritime Economics & Logistics (2020) 22:1–25 https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-019-00137-3 EDITORIAL Port‑hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends and frontier research Behzad Behdani 1 · Bart Wiegmans 2 · Violeta Roso 3 · Hercules Haralambides 4,5,6 © Springer Nature Limited 2019 1 Introduction Cargo carried by liner shipping has come to be known as general cargo. 1 Up to the beginning of the 1960s, such cargo was transported, in various forms of unitiza- tion (packaging), such as pallets, slings, boxes, barrels and crates, by relatively small ships, known as general cargo ships, cargo freighters, multipurpose ships, twin- deckers or multi-deckers. Cargo handling was a very labour-intensive process and ships were known to spend most of their time in port, waiting to berth, load or dis- charge. Congestion was a chronic problem in most ports, raising the cost of trans- port and hindering the growth of trade. Equally importantly, such delays in ports made trade movements erratic and unpredictable, obliging manufacturers, wholesal- ers and retailers to keep large stock. As a result, warehousing and carrying (capital) costs were adding up to the cost of transport, making final goods more expensive and, again, hindering international trade and economic development 2 (Haralambides 2019). This situation started to change in the 1960s with the introduction of the ‘con- tainer’ and containerization in the trade between the United States and Europe and, * Behzad Behdani [email protected] 1 Operations Research and Logistics, Wageningen University and Research, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, The Netherlands 2 Department of Transport and Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands 3 Division of Service Management and Logistics, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden 4 Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China 5 Texas A&M University, College Station, USA 6 Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burg. Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands 1 This introduction leans heavily on Haralambides (2017, 2019). 2 Cases have also been known where inefficient ports were welcomed (if not deliberately pursued) by governments, as an effective tariff and barrier to foreign imports.
Transcript of Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends ...Port‑hinterland transport and...
Vol.:(0123456789)
Maritime Economics & Logistics (2020) 22:1–25https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-019-00137-3
EDITORIAL
Port‑hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends and frontier research
Behzad Behdani1 · Bart Wiegmans2 · Violeta Roso3 · Hercules Haralambides4,5,6
© Springer Nature Limited 2019
1 Introduction
Cargo carried by liner shipping has come to be known as general cargo.1 Up to the beginning of the 1960s, such cargo was transported, in various forms of unitiza-tion (packaging), such as pallets, slings, boxes, barrels and crates, by relatively small ships, known as general cargo ships, cargo freighters, multipurpose ships, twin-deckers or multi-deckers. Cargo handling was a very labour-intensive process and ships were known to spend most of their time in port, waiting to berth, load or dis-charge. Congestion was a chronic problem in most ports, raising the cost of trans-port and hindering the growth of trade. Equally importantly, such delays in ports made trade movements erratic and unpredictable, obliging manufacturers, wholesal-ers and retailers to keep large stock. As a result, warehousing and carrying (capital) costs were adding up to the cost of transport, making final goods more expensive and, again, hindering international trade and economic development2 (Haralambides 2019).
This situation started to change in the 1960s with the introduction of the ‘con-tainer’ and containerization in the trade between the United States and Europe and,
* Behzad Behdani [email protected]
1 Operations Research and Logistics, Wageningen University and Research, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, The Netherlands
2 Department of Transport and Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands3 Division of Service Management and Logistics, Chalmers University of Technology,
Gothenburg, Sweden4 Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China5 Texas A&M University, College Station, USA6 Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burg. Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
1 This introduction leans heavily on Haralambides (2017, 2019).2 Cases have also been known where inefficient ports were welcomed (if not deliberately pursued) by governments, as an effective tariff and barrier to foreign imports.
2 B. Behdani et al.
subsequently, in the rest of the world. Containerization is often described as a rev-olution in transport. The innovation entailed in the concept of containerization is credited to Malcolm Mclean, an American trucker who thought of separating the tractor from the trailer part of his trucks, standardizing (unitizing) the latter (trailer) so as to be able to be transported with its contents intact by various transport means, handled at ports by standardized cargohandling equipment (quay cranes), and stacked uniformly one on top of the other, both on ships and at terminals. This was the start of intermodality, as well as of mega-ships and mega-ports, inland termi-nals, distribution centers (dry ports) and global logistics, by and large (Van Klink and van Den Berg 1998; McCalla 1999).
However, in spite of the sustained growth of port throughput worldwide, as well as of the substantial infrastructure investments of ports and their efforts to reform and modernize, hinterland transport—representing 60% of the costs of the global maritime supply chain (Beresford et al. 2012)—has not kept pace; productivity in the maritime leg of the supply chain has not been followed by productivity in its hinterland part, apart from the introduction of double-stack trains in the US in the 1980s (DeBoer 1992), or the adoption of the dry port concept in the 2000s (Roso et al. 2009). Moreover, the gigantism in container shipping3 is straining port infra-structure and cargohandling capacity, causing significant diseconomies of scale, which propagate throughout the supply chain, given that increases in port throughput generate almost proportional increases in hinterland flows, and functional seaport hinterland access is essential for the efficiency of the whole intermodal transporta-tion chain. For many seaports, the weakest link in their transportation chains is hin-terland access, due to congested roads and inadequate or non-existent rail connec-tions, causing delays and increases in transport costs. The Transport Research Board (1993), as early as the 1990s, identified those infrastructure, land use, environmental and institutional impediments that reduce the efficiency of hinterland transport. To add to this, the quality of hinterland transport and inland access of ports depend on the behaviour of a large number of stakeholders involved in the seaport-transport system (de Langen and Chouly 2004; Paixão and Bernard Marlow 2003).
A reversal of trends can recently be seen. From the earlier days when ports were obliged to move downstream to find space, ports now look back at their hinterlands to find the additional space they require. Inland intermodal terminals (or dry ports) are thus mushrooming, connected to seaports by rail, road or inland waterways (Haralambides and Gujar 2011, 2012). As such, inland intermodal terminals are usually developed close to railway and motorway junctions to facilitate the transfer of containers between modes of transport, favoring, to the extent possible, the more environmentally friendly transport modes, such as rail and inland waterways (Rodri-gue et al. 2016; Haralambides 2020).
A digression might be in order here. Despite various policies proposing and encouraging an increasing use of rail and intermodal solutions, especially in the European Union, the modal share of rail transport has been decreasing, mostly
3 At the time of writing, the biggest containership was the MSC Gulsun, capable of carrying up to 23,756 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU).
3Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
due to the removal of trade barriers and the liberalization of markets, which have resulted in an increased market share of road transport, representing 76.4% of inland freight transport in 2016 (EEA 2009) (Fig. 1). In the European Union, a change in the geographic orientation of trade and economic activity from the west to the east has also contributed to this situation, since the new markets are not well connected by rail, so therefore road prevails due to its flexibility (EEA 2009).
Containerization and intermodality have extended the hinterland of seaports and redefined seaport competition in a way that seaports now have to strive for a position in intermodal corridors (Notteboom 1997, 2006; Haralambides 2019).
In all cases, the role of the Port Authority (PA)—the autonomous body which manages the seaport—is crucial. PAs are assuming an increasingly enterprising role as ‘stakeholder managers’, extending their ‘gates’ to the hinterland, as far out as pos-sible, to widen their catchment areas. To do this, the ‘smart port authority 4.0’ needs to smooth out supply chain bottlenecks among ships, terminals, customs authori-ties, and hinterland transport, storage and distribution. In its supply chain manager role, the seaport of today understands that it is now supply chains, not ports, that compete for custom (Haralambides 2020). Together with intra-port efficiency, there-fore, the focus of port management is now also drawn to hinterland access via more active involvement in innovative logistics. Often, the objective of such efforts entails a shift of container flows from road to Intermodal Freight Transport (IFT) networks (both rail and inland waterways).
Such a role for PAs requires modern management practices and the transforma-tion of the PA from a government dependency to an entity operating under increas-ingly commercial terms. Often, ‘stakeholder management’ is an extremely frustrat-ing exercise in view of conflicting interests, particularly when such ‘stakeholders’ sit in the governing or supervising boards of port authorities.
Fig. 1 Freight Transport in the EU-28: modal split of inland transport modes (EEA 2009)
4 B. Behdani et al.
A port’s hinterland is no longer static but dynamic. Thirty years ago, when port traffic was captive, one’s students could easily calculate the optimum size of a port, based on the country’s trade, population and growth data. Today, with expanding hinterlands and competition among ports, researchers would have to take a guess (i.e., forecast). The problem, however, is that someone will have to pay for this guess and this can no longer be the taxpayer. Rather, it has to be one whose role is to assume risk and be rewarded or punished for it; i.e. the private sector (Haralambides 2019).
From a competition economics and law point of view, the concept of ‘hin-terland’, which is of interest, is expressed by the relevant geographic market (Haralambides 2017). A market has a geographical attribute which is of relevance in determining concentration and competition. For instance, the market of the city where the port is located is fairly captive. But as the port tries to extend its hinterland towards the region, the country or the continent, the market becomes just a potentially targetable market, with more players and thus more competi-tion (Fig. 2). To give another example: The Shanghai-Rotterdam port-to-port market may be highly concentrated, with just a handful of carriers offering ser-vices, but if one were to consider that, actually, the market is the door-to-door importation of bicycles made in Wuhan, China to Paris, France, then the market is highly competitive with many players offering services, using not only those two ports but many others, at both ends of the trade. Simply put, if the market is
Fig. 2 Market definition. Source NetMBA.com
5Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
port-to-port, it could indeed be concentrated; if however the market is door-to-door, including a miscellany of add-on logistics services, it could well be consid-ered as not concentrated at all (Haralambides 2017).
2 The contribution of MEL to port‑hinterland logistics and intermodal transport
This section presents an overview of papers published in MEL on port-hinter-land transportation. For this review, a structured and systematic approach in four phases was carried out. In the first phase, a pool of relevant papers was extracted from the MEL database in Scopus. The search was performed primarily using the more generic terms of “intermodal”, “hinterland”, and “intermodal freight trans-port” in the title, abstract, and keywords of published papers. The search was fur-ther extended with more specific key terms such as “inland shipping”, “inland
Table 1 Overview of article searching terms
Key term Number of articles found
intermodal 88hinterland 72“intermodal freight transport” 12“inland shipping” 2“inland waterways” 8“rail transport” 5“road transport” 9Total 196
Fig. 3 Approach for paper selection
6 B. Behdani et al.
waterways”, “rail transport”, and “road transport”. The search was limited to those articles published by the end of 2018. The number of articles with each search term is shown in Table 1.
Our search resulted in 196 articles (Fig. 3). In the second phase, articles were screened to identify duplicates. This narrowed the results to 131. These articles were reviewed in two phases to find the relevant ones. Firstly, the abstracts were reviewed, filtering 62 articles for the second phase, in which the articles were read in full, nar-rowing the list to 38 relevant articles. Those were the articles that either discuss only port-hinterland and intermodal freight transport, or articles in which a considerable part focuses on these topics. Papers with a focus on terminal operations, which only marginallydiscuss hinterland transport, or papers on port competitiveness where land transport or hinterland accessibility are just two among several factors were excluded from our analysis.
As Fig. 4 shows, the number of MEL articles on port-hinterland logistics and intermodal freight transport has been increasing steadily from 2005 to 2018. Selected papers were categorised into three groups, based on their main research area:
(i) Economic studies, focusing primarily on market mechanisms, market effi-ciency, as well as demand or cost analysis;
(ii) Operational studies, addressing the logistics and operational processes in hin-terland transport;
(iii) Organizational/regulatory studies, focused on ‘stakeholder management’ and the relationship between stakeholders, as well as on analysing the regulatory and policy interventions. This category also includes the innovative business models for port-hinterland logistics.
Fig. 4 Distribution of MEL articles on port-hinterland logistics and intermodal freight transport over time
7Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
Ove
rvie
w o
f arti
cles
, the
ir ai
m a
nd fi
ndin
gs
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Econ
omic
asp
ects
Wan
g et
al.
(201
8a)
Mod
ellin
g oc
ean,
rail,
an
d tru
ck tr
ansp
orta
tion
flow
s to
supp
ort p
olic
y an
alys
is
To d
evel
op a
mul
ti-m
odel
fr
eigh
t tra
nspo
rtatio
n to
es
timat
e th
e in
tern
a-tio
nal a
nd d
omes
tic
frei
ght fl
ows a
cros
s oc
ean,
rail,
and
truc
k m
odes
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
e pa
per i
nteg
rate
s a m
ultim
odal
use
r equ
ilibr
ium
mod
el o
f fre
ight
flo
ws w
ith a
syste
m-o
ptim
al re
pres
enta
tion
of th
e ra
il ne
twor
k. It
can
be
use
d to
stud
y th
e im
pact
s of i
nfra
struc
tura
l cha
nges
, or i
mpo
sing
ne
w u
ser f
ees (
e.g.
, con
gesti
on p
ricin
g) a
nd c
hang
es in
ope
ratin
g po
licie
s.Th
e m
odel
is il
lustr
ated
by
two
case
stud
ies:
(1) a
dis
rupt
ion
of th
e se
apor
ts o
f Los
Ang
eles
and
Lon
g B
each
; and
(2) i
mpl
emen
tatio
n of
ne
w p
ort u
ser f
ees i
n C
alifo
rnia
. W
ang
et a
l. (2
018b
)Th
e eff
ect o
f dist
ance
on
car
go fl
ows:
a
case
stud
y of
Chi
nese
im
ports
and
thei
r hin
ter-
land
des
tinat
ions
To a
naly
se th
e re
latio
n-sh
ip b
etw
een
carg
o flo
ws a
nd d
istan
ces f
or
63 C
hine
se p
orts
and
th
eir h
inte
rland
s
Spat
ial C
once
ntra
tion
Ana
lysi
s; D
istan
ce–
deca
y an
alys
is
This
pap
er d
iscu
sses
a g
eogr
aphi
c pe
rspe
ctiv
e (s
patia
l con
cent
ratio
n/de
cent
raliz
atio
n pa
ttern
s) o
f por
t hin
terla
nds i
n C
hina
.A
spat
ial c
once
ntra
tion
anal
ysis
of t
he to
p 63
Chi
nese
por
ts, t
o stu
dy
the
port-
hint
erla
nd c
argo
flow
s, re
sulte
d in
som
e in
sigh
tful r
esul
ts:
appr
oxim
atel
y 28
% o
f the
63
ports
dist
ribut
e ne
arly
all
impo
rted
carg
o to
loca
l pro
vinc
es, a
nd 6
5% o
f the
por
ts d
eliv
er 9
0% o
f im
porte
d ca
rgo
to lo
cal p
rovi
nces
.Th
e au
thor
s sho
w th
at h
inte
rland
car
go v
olum
es a
re st
ruct
ured
acc
ord-
ing
to th
e G
ompe
rtz g
row
th c
urve
. With
dist
ance
, ini
tially
, the
cum
u-la
tive
hint
erla
nd c
argo
vol
ume
of a
por
t inc
reas
es in
an
acce
lera
ted
grow
th p
hase
, rea
ches
an
infle
ctio
n po
int a
t a c
erta
in d
istan
ce, e
nter
s a
dece
lera
ted
grow
th p
hase
, and
fina
lly re
ache
s sat
urat
ion.
But
ton
et a
l. (2
017)
Econ
omic
impl
icat
ions
fo
r Adr
iatic
seap
ort
regi
ons o
f fur
ther
ope
n-in
g of
the
Nor
ther
n Se
a Ro
ute
To st
udy
the
geog
raph
ical
an
d ec
onom
ic im
plic
a-tio
ns o
f Nor
ther
n Se
a Ro
utes
(NSR
s) b
etw
een
Asi
a an
d Eu
rope
for t
he
Adr
iatic
regi
on
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
g an
d si
mul
atio
nTh
is p
aper
stud
ies t
he p
ossi
ble
geog
raph
ical
and
eco
nom
ic im
plic
a-tio
ns if
the
use
of th
e N
orth
ern
Sea
Rout
es (N
SRs)
bet
wee
n A
sia
and
Euro
pe b
ecom
es v
iabl
e.Th
e av
aila
bilit
y of
the
NSR
cha
nges
the
com
para
tive
attra
ctiv
enes
s of
por
ts, t
heir
abso
lute
cos
ts, a
nd a
ccor
ding
ly th
e si
zes o
f the
ir hi
nter
land
s.Th
e at
tract
iven
ess o
f the
sout
hern
por
ts o
f the
Adr
iatic
cou
ld d
eclin
e by
as m
uch
as n
ine
per c
ent.
In c
ontra
st, th
e im
porta
nce
of th
e in
land
tra
nspo
rt sy
stem
s ser
ving
the
Nor
th A
tlant
ic p
orts
is li
kely
to g
row
, an
d in
term
odal
hin
terla
nd n
etw
orks
bec
ome
mor
e im
porta
nt.
8 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Gar
cia-
Alo
nso
et a
l. (2
017)
Port
com
petit
ion
thro
ugh
hint
erla
nd a
cces
sibi
lity:
th
e ca
se o
f Spa
in
To st
udy
the
rela
tion
betw
een
the
mar
ket
shar
e of
por
ts in
con
-te
stab
le h
inte
rland
s and
th
e us
e of
rail
shut
tles
to k
ey in
land
term
inal
s
Ana
lysi
s of G
eo-
grap
hic
Info
rmat
ion
Syste
m (G
IS) d
ata
and
traffi
c flo
ws
Usi
ng a
n an
alys
is o
f com
petit
ion
betw
een
thre
e m
ajor
por
ts in
Spa
in
(i.e.
, Bar
celo
na, B
ilbao
and
Val
enci
a) in
the
perio
d of
200
8–20
13,
auth
ors fi
nd th
at ra
il tra
nspo
rt is
not
a n
eces
sary
con
ditio
n fo
r the
gr
owth
of h
inte
rland
s in
this
cas
e (s
ome
ports
like
Val
enci
a co
uld
capt
ure
a go
od sh
are
of d
istan
t hin
terla
nds e
ven
with
a lo
w u
se o
f ra
il). I
nste
ad, h
inte
rland
dist
ance
is st
ill th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtant
var
iabl
e fo
r inl
and
frei
ght t
rans
port
and
port
choi
ce.
Lu
and
Yan
(201
5)Th
e br
eak-
even
dist
ance
of
road
and
inla
nd
wat
erw
ay fr
eigh
t tra
ns-
porta
tion
syste
ms
To d
eter
min
e th
e br
eak-
even
dist
ance
of r
oad
and
inla
nd w
ater
way
tra
nspo
rtatio
n sy
stem
s
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gA
mod
el c
onsi
derin
g th
e in
tern
al a
nd e
xter
nal c
osts
of r
oad
and
inla
nd
wat
erw
ay tr
ansp
orta
tion
syste
ms i
s pre
sent
ed to
det
erm
ine
the
brea
k-ev
en d
istan
ce.
The
mod
el w
as a
pplie
d to
a c
ase
in th
e Ya
ngtz
e R
iver
Del
ta in
Chi
na.
Han
dlin
g ra
tes h
ave
a si
gnifi
cant
effe
ct o
n th
e br
eake
ven
dist
ance
. A
lso,
the
polic
y of
inte
rnal
isat
ion
of e
xter
nalit
ies c
lear
ly d
ecre
ases
th
e br
eak-
even
dist
ance
and
redu
ces t
he m
arke
t sha
re o
f roa
d tra
ns-
porta
tion.
Thi
ll an
d Ve
nki-
tasu
bram
ania
n (2
015)
Mul
ti-la
yere
d hi
nter
land
cl
assi
ficat
ion
of In
dian
po
rts o
f con
tain
eriz
ed
carg
oes u
sing
GIS
vis
u-al
izat
ion
and
deci
sion
tre
e an
alys
is
To a
naly
se th
e sp
a-tia
l stru
ctur
e of
the
hint
erla
nds o
f maj
or
Indi
an p
orts
and
stud
y th
e ex
tent
of i
nter
-por
t co
mpe
titio
n am
ong
them
GIS
-bas
ed o
rigin
-de
stina
tion
(OD
) vi
sual
izat
ions
, D
ecis
ion
Tree
M
odel
ling
The
resu
lts o
f thi
s stu
dy m
ake
expl
icit
com
paris
ons o
f mar
ket s
hare
of
eac
h of
the
11 m
ajor
Indi
an p
orts
at a
stat
e an
d re
gion
al le
vel t
hat
coul
d as
sist
strat
egic
pla
nnin
g of
logi
stica
l fac
ilitie
s and
infr
astru
c-tu
re.
The
resu
lts a
lso
dem
onstr
ate
the
utili
ty o
f thi
s dat
a m
inin
g m
etho
d to
un
ders
tand
the
dyna
mis
m o
f hin
terla
nds t
hat h
ave
long
bee
n re
gard
ed
as st
atic
spat
ial o
bjec
ts, b
y in
trodu
cing
com
mod
ity a
nd sh
ipm
ent
valu
e di
men
sion
s. Ia
nnon
e (2
012)
A m
odel
opt
imiz
ing
the
port-
hint
erla
nd lo
gisti
cs
of c
onta
iner
s: T
he c
ase
of th
e C
ampa
nia
regi
on
in S
outh
ern
Italy
To in
vesti
gate
the
eco-
nom
ics a
nd st
rate
gic
plan
ning
of p
ort-h
inte
r-la
nd c
onta
iner
logi
stics
of
the
Cam
pani
an
seap
ort c
luste
r (So
uth
Italy
)
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
g; c
ase
study
This
arti
cle
pres
ents
a m
ultim
odal
and
mul
ti-co
mm
odity
opt
imiz
atio
n m
odel
, cal
led
the
‘inte
r-por
t mod
el’,
for t
he e
cono
mic
ana
lysi
s and
str
ateg
ic p
lann
ing
of p
ort-h
inte
rland
con
tain
er lo
gisti
cs sy
stem
s.Th
e m
odel
is n
ext e
mpl
oyed
to st
udy
the
inla
nd d
istrib
utio
n of
impo
rt/ex
port
cont
aine
rs fr
om/to
the
Cam
pani
an se
apor
ts o
f Nap
les a
nd
Sale
rno.
9Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Pad
ilha
and
Ng
(201
2)Th
e sp
atia
l evo
lutio
n of
dr
y po
rts in
dev
elop
ing
econ
omie
s: T
he B
razi
l-ia
n ex
perie
nce
To a
naly
se h
ow p
ort
deve
lopm
ent c
an in
flu-
ence
the
spat
ial e
volu
-tio
n of
dry
por
ts in
de
velo
ping
eco
nom
ies
Sem
i-stru
ctur
ed in
-de
pth
inte
rvie
ws
The
findi
ngs o
f thi
s arti
cle
show
that
the
spat
ial p
atte
rn o
f por
t de
velo
pmen
t in
the
liter
atur
e—m
ainl
y ba
sed
on e
xper
ienc
es fr
om
deve
lope
d ec
onom
ies—
mig
ht v
ary
sign
ifica
ntly
in th
e co
ntex
t of
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ries.
In th
e la
tter c
ase
insti
tutio
nal b
arrie
rs a
re e
spec
ially
crit
ical
fact
ors.
As
a re
sult,
som
e ke
y st
ages
of p
ort d
evel
opm
ent m
ight
be
late
, poo
rly
deve
lope
d, o
r eve
n sk
ippe
d al
toge
ther
. For
inst
ance
, int
erm
odal
ity
has b
een
poor
ly d
evel
oped
and
ther
e ha
s bee
n al
mos
t no
use
of ra
il fo
r con
tain
er tr
ansp
orta
tion.
Als
o, h
igh-
capa
city
road
cor
ridor
s hav
e be
en in
suffi
cien
t.O
pera
tiona
l asp
ects
Wie
gman
s et a
l. (2
018)
Com
mun
icat
ion
betw
een
deep
sea
cont
aine
r te
rmin
als a
nd h
inte
rland
st
akeh
olde
rs: i
nfor
ma-
tion
need
s and
the
rele
vanc
e of
info
rma-
tion
exch
ange
To st
udy
the
info
rmat
ion
need
s of c
onta
iner
ter-
min
als a
nd h
inte
rland
ac
tors
and
hig
hlig
ht th
e im
porta
nce
of d
iffer
ent
info
rmat
ion
type
s for
di
ffere
nt st
akeh
olde
rs
Gat
e su
rvey
, int
er-
view
s and
que
stion
-na
ires
The
info
rmat
ion
need
s of p
artie
s in
the
hint
erla
nd tr
ansp
ort a
re d
ivid
ed
into
thre
e m
ain
cate
gorie
s: (1
) inf
orm
atio
n ab
out c
onta
iner
s, (2
) in
form
atio
n ab
out t
rans
port
mea
ns a
nd (3
) inf
orm
atio
n ab
out d
eep
sea
term
inal
s.Th
e im
porta
nce
of e
ach
info
rmat
ion
type
for e
ach
hint
erla
nd p
arty
is
disc
usse
d.
Tok
caer
and
Ö
zpey
nirc
i (2
018)
A b
i-obj
ectiv
e m
ulti-
mod
al tr
ansp
orta
tion
plan
ning
pro
blem
with
an
app
licat
ion
to a
pe
troch
emic
al e
thyl
ene
man
ufac
ture
r
To p
rese
nt a
mod
el to
su
ppor
t mul
timod
al
trans
porta
tion
plan
ning
by
a sh
ippe
r
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is p
aper
pre
sent
s a m
athe
mat
ical
mod
el fo
r mul
timod
al tr
ansp
orta
-tio
n pl
anni
ng, w
hich
incl
udes
the
sele
ctio
n of
tran
spor
tatio
n m
ode(
s)
and
the
assi
gnm
ent o
f dem
and
to th
em a
ccor
ding
to c
apac
ities
.Th
e m
odel
is il
lustr
ated
usi
ng a
cas
e of
a T
urki
sh p
etro
chem
ical
eth
yl-
ene
man
ufac
ture
r.
10 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Tra
n et
al.
(201
7)C
onta
iner
ship
ping
rout
e de
sign
inco
rpor
atin
g th
e co
sts o
f shi
ppin
g,
inla
nd/fe
eder
tran
spor
t, in
vent
ory
and
CO2
emis
sion
s
Pres
entin
g a
mod
el to
de
sign
the
optim
al sh
ip-
ping
serv
ice
netw
ork
cons
ider
ing
end-
to-e
nd
serv
ice
(inte
grat
ing
both
mar
itim
e an
d in
land
fact
ors)
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
e m
ariti
me
netw
ork
is o
nly
a pa
rt of
a b
igge
r sys
tem
. Opt
imis
ing
ship
ping
rout
es o
nly
may
not
gua
rant
ee th
e op
timis
atio
n of
the
who
le
netw
ork.
The
com
puta
tiona
l res
ults
of a
cas
e be
twee
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
and
Eu
rope
an c
ount
ries r
evea
l tha
t inl
and/
feed
er tr
ansp
ort c
osts
are
the
high
est a
mon
g su
pply
cha
in c
osts
and
they
are
influ
ence
d by
the
sele
ctio
n of
por
ts. T
he g
reat
er th
e nu
mbe
r of p
ort c
alls
, the
low
er
thes
e co
sts a
re.
Hig
h in
land
/feed
er tr
ansp
ort c
osts
favo
ur p
orts
clo
se to
fina
l mar
kets
(in
attr
actin
g sh
ippi
ng c
alls
), as
wel
l as r
oute
pat
tern
s with
mul
ti-po
rt ca
lls.
Ton
g an
d N
acht
-m
ann
(201
7)C
argo
prio
ritiz
atio
n an
d te
rmin
al a
lloca
tion
prob
lem
for i
nlan
d w
ater
way
dis
rupt
ions
To p
rese
nt a
dec
isio
n su
ppor
t too
l to
man
age
disr
uptio
ns in
inla
nd
wat
erw
ays
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is a
rticl
e pr
esen
ts a
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
ling
fram
ewor
k—ca
lled
the
carg
o pr
iorit
izat
ion
and
term
inal
allo
catio
n pr
oble
m (C
PTA
P)—
to
hand
le th
e po
tent
ial i
mpa
cts o
f inl
and
wat
erw
ay d
isru
ptio
ns. C
PTA
P he
lps i
n m
inim
izin
g to
tal v
alue
loss
by
optim
ally
prio
ritiz
ing
disr
upte
d ba
rges
con
side
ring
diffe
rent
prio
ritiz
atio
n fa
ctor
s suc
h as
co
mm
odity
type
, car
go v
alue
, ter
min
al c
apac
ity a
nd b
arge
dra
ft. O
dchi
mar
and
H
anao
ka
(201
7)
Inte
rmod
al fr
eigh
t net
-w
ork
inco
rpor
atin
g hu
b-an
d-sp
oke
and
dire
ct
calls
for t
he a
rchi
pe-
lagi
c Ph
ilipp
ines
To p
rese
nt a
frei
ght-
netw
ork
mod
el th
at
inte
grat
es in
term
odal
tra
nspo
rt in
a h
ub-a
nd-
spok
e sy
stem
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
e pr
esen
ted
mod
el h
elps
in lo
catin
g hu
b po
rts w
here
inte
rmod
al
road
-RoR
o an
d co
ntai
ner t
rans
port
coul
d tra
nshi
p an
d be
use
d co
m-
plem
enta
rily.
It is
show
n th
at c
onsi
dera
ble
savi
ngs i
n to
tal n
etw
ork
costs
cou
ld b
e re
aliz
ed in
a m
ixed
net
wor
k of
hub
-and
-spo
ke (H
S) a
nd p
oint
-to-
poin
t (PT
P) to
polo
gy, c
ompa
red
to a
pur
ely
PTP
one.
Moo
n an
d H
ong
(201
6)Re
posi
tioni
ng o
f em
pty
cont
aine
rs u
sing
bot
h st
anda
rd a
nd fo
ldab
le
cont
aine
rs
To p
rese
nt a
dec
isio
n m
odel
for t
he re
posi
-tio
ning
of s
tand
ard
and
fold
able
con
tain
ers a
t m
inim
um c
ost
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is is
a m
odel
to m
inim
ize
the
tota
l cos
t of t
rans
porta
tion,
inve
ntor
y,
hand
ling,
fold
ing
and
unfo
ldin
g pr
oces
ses,
cont
aine
r lea
sing
, and
in
stal
latio
n of
faci
litie
s for
fold
ing
and
unfo
ldin
g co
ntai
ners
.
11Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Hek
kenb
erg
(201
6)O
ptim
izat
ion
of th
e di
men
sion
s of d
ry b
ulk
ship
s: T
he c
ase
of th
e riv
er R
hine
To st
udy
the
optim
al sh
ip
dim
ensi
ons f
or d
ry b
ulk
ship
s tha
t ope
rate
on
the
river
Rhi
ne
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is p
aper
pre
sent
s met
hods
to fi
nd th
e op
timal
ship
dim
ensi
ons f
rom
tw
o di
ffere
nt p
ersp
ectiv
es: (
1) th
e m
inim
izat
ion
of sh
ip-r
elat
ed c
osts
in
det
erm
inin
g th
e br
eake
ven
frei
ght r
ate;
(2) t
he m
inim
izat
ion
of
tota
l log
istic
s cos
ts.
The
resu
lts a
re su
mm
ariz
ed in
a fl
ow c
hart
that
allo
ws t
he id
entifi
ca-
tion
of fa
vour
able
ship
dim
ensi
ons a
s a fu
nctio
n of
tran
spor
t dist
ance
, w
ater
dep
th in
por
ts a
nd a
nnua
l tra
nspo
rt de
man
d.O
ne fi
ndin
g in
the
artic
le fo
r the
cas
e of
bul
k ba
rges
in th
e R
hine
is
that
the
leng
th o
f dry
bul
k sh
ips w
ith d
imen
sion
s tha
t min
imiz
e th
e re
quire
d fr
eigh
t rat
e an
d to
tal l
ogist
ics c
osts
usu
ally
doe
s not
exc
eed
the
max
imum
allo
wed
leng
th o
f exi
sting
ship
s, th
at is
, 135
m. S
o, it
is
not
nec
essa
ry to
incr
ease
the
regu
lato
ry u
pper
lim
it of
ship
leng
th
on th
e R
hine
. How
ever
, the
bea
m o
f opt
imal
ship
s is t
ypic
ally
wid
er
than
the
com
mon
wid
ths o
f 11.
45 a
nd 1
5 m
, whi
le o
ptim
al sh
ips
have
a d
raft
that
mat
ches
or s
light
ly e
xcee
ds th
e m
axim
um d
raft
at
norm
al w
ater
leve
ls o
n th
e ro
ute.
Van
Rie
ssen
et
al.
(201
5)Im
pact
and
rele
vanc
e of
tra
nsit
distu
rban
ces o
n pl
anni
ng in
inte
rmod
al
cont
aine
r net
wor
ks
usin
g di
sturb
ance
cos
t an
alys
is
To st
udy
the
effec
ts o
f di
sturb
ance
s in
the
oper
atio
nal p
lann
ing
of
cont
aine
r tra
nspo
rta-
tion
in a
n in
term
odal
ne
twor
k
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gA
Lin
ear C
onta
iner
Allo
catio
n m
odel
with
Tim
e-re
stric
tions
(LCA
T) is
pr
opos
ed to
find
cos
t-effe
ctiv
e so
lutio
ns to
the
cont
aine
r tra
nspo
r-ta
tion
plan
ning
pro
blem
, and
ass
ess t
he e
ffect
of d
istur
banc
es o
n op
erat
iona
l pla
nnin
g.Th
e m
odel
is a
pplie
d to
the
Euro
pean
Gat
eway
Ser
vice
s (EG
S) n
et-
wor
k. Ö
zpey
nirc
i et a
l. (2
014)
Mul
timod
al fr
eigh
t tra
nspo
rtatio
n w
ith sh
ip
char
terin
g
To p
rese
nt a
mod
el fo
r su
ppor
ting
the
optim
al
ship
cha
rterin
g an
d m
ultim
odal
tran
spor
ta-
tion
deci
sion
s
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gA
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
for m
ultim
odal
tran
spor
tatio
n is
dis
cuss
ed a
nd
appl
ied
to a
real
-life
cas
e. T
he d
evel
oped
mod
el c
onsi
ders
mul
ti-m
odal
tran
spor
tatio
n, sh
ip a
ltern
ativ
es, p
orts
and
pos
sibl
e ro
utes
be
twee
n su
bset
s of p
orts
.
12 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Voj
dani
et a
l. (2
013)
Opt
imiz
ing
empt
y co
n-ta
iner
logi
stics
bas
ed o
n a
colla
bora
tive
netw
ork
appr
oach
To d
emon
strat
e th
e po
tent
ial f
or c
ost s
av-
ings
thro
ugh
the
use
of c
onta
iner
poo
ling
in c
olla
bora
tive
empt
y co
ntai
ner m
anag
emen
t
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is a
rticl
e pr
esen
ts a
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
to st
udy
the
cost
savi
ngs o
f co
ntai
ner p
oolin
g. C
alcu
latio
ns b
ased
on
mar
itim
e ne
twor
k sc
enar
ios
and
gene
rate
d or
der d
ata
dem
onstr
ate
sign
ifica
nt e
cono
mic
ben
efits
(u
p to
10%
cos
t red
uctio
n) fo
r shi
ppin
g lin
es a
nd m
ariti
me
stak
ehol
d-er
s.
Oliv
o et
al.
(201
3)A
n op
timiz
atio
n m
odel
fo
r the
inla
nd re
po-
sitio
ning
of e
mpt
y co
ntai
ners
To st
udy
the
inla
nd
repo
sitio
ning
of e
mpt
y co
ntai
ners
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
e pa
per p
rese
nts a
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
for i
nlan
d co
ntai
ner r
epos
i-tio
ning
con
side
ring
the
inve
ntor
y an
d tra
nspo
rtatio
n as
pect
s, as
wel
l as
the
subs
titut
ions
of c
ompa
ny-o
wne
d an
d le
ased
con
tain
ers.
The
prop
osed
mod
el c
an d
eter
min
e w
hen
and
whe
re c
onta
iner
s sho
uld
be
hire
d on
and
hire
d off
, tak
ing
into
acc
ount
cla
uses
impo
sed
by re
ntal
co
ntra
cts.
It al
so d
eter
min
es th
e flo
ws o
f em
pty
cont
aine
rs sh
ippe
d to
an
d fro
m p
orts
in a
cos
t-opt
imal
way
. A
mbr
osin
o et
al.
(201
3)A
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
to
eval
uate
diff
eren
t tra
in
load
ing
and
stac
king
po
licie
s in
a co
ntai
ner
term
inal
To e
valu
ate
the
impa
ct o
f di
ffere
nt st
orag
e str
ate-
gies
and
load
ing
plan
s fo
r tra
ins o
n im
port
cont
aine
rs in
mar
itim
e te
rmin
als
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gN
ine
diffe
rent
pol
icie
s, ob
tain
ed fr
om th
e va
rious
com
bina
tions
of t
rain
lo
adin
g po
licie
s (se
quen
tial,
non-
sequ
entia
l and
par
tially
sequ
entia
l) an
d st
acki
ng o
nes (
rand
om; b
ased
on
cont
aine
r wei
ght;
and
base
d bo
th o
n co
ntai
ner w
eigh
t and
on
its c
omm
erci
al p
riorit
y) h
ave
been
te
sted
and
eval
uate
d us
ing
a m
ixed
inte
ger l
inea
r pro
gram
min
g m
odel
.Th
e an
alys
is o
f the
resu
lts sh
ows t
hat t
he p
refe
rabl
e sto
rage
and
lo
adin
g po
licie
s can
be
diffe
rent
in d
iffer
ent c
ases
. The
bes
t pol
icy
depe
nds o
n th
e sp
ecifi
c te
rmin
al K
PI a
nd it
s ope
rativ
e co
ntex
t (in
te
rms o
f lay
out,
hand
ling
reso
urce
s, pr
oced
ures
, etc
.).
13Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Dan
g et
al.
(201
3)Re
plen
ishm
ent p
olic
ies
for e
mpt
y co
ntai
ners
in
an in
land
mul
ti-de
pot
syste
m
To p
rese
nt a
mod
el
to su
ppor
t shi
ppin
g co
mpa
nies
in a
lloca
t-in
g em
pty
cont
aine
rs
betw
een
mul
ti-de
pots
, an
d im
plem
ent a
n ap
prop
riate
leas
ing
polic
y
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is a
rticl
e co
nsid
ers t
he c
oord
inat
ion
of p
ositi
onin
g em
pty
cont
aine
rs
from
ove
rsea
s por
ts to
inla
nd d
epot
s. C
onta
iner
leas
ing
optio
ns a
re
also
dis
cuss
ed to
defi
ne th
e be
st in
tegr
ated
pol
icy
that
min
imiz
es th
e ex
pect
ed to
tal c
osts
(whi
ch in
clud
e th
e in
vent
ory
hold
ing,
ove
rsea
s po
sitio
ning
, inl
and
posi
tioni
ng a
nd le
asin
g co
sts).
Shi
ntan
i et a
l. (2
012)
The
effec
t of f
olda
ble
cont
aine
rs o
n th
e co
sts
of c
onta
iner
flee
t m
anag
emen
t in
liner
sh
ippi
ng n
etw
orks
To st
udy
the
prob
lem
of
cont
aine
r flee
t man
age-
men
t and
the
pote
ntia
l of
fold
able
con
tain
ers
(with
focu
s on
the
cost
of e
mpt
y re
posi
tioni
ng)
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gA
n in
tege
r pro
gram
min
g m
odel
is d
evel
oped
in th
is a
rticl
e to
stud
y th
e po
tent
ial s
avin
gs o
f usi
ng fo
ldab
le c
onta
iner
s in
a lin
er sh
ippi
ng
netw
ork.
With
num
eric
al st
udie
s, au
thor
s sho
w th
at u
sing
fold
able
con
tain
ers,
espe
cial
ly w
hen
ther
e is
a st
rong
trad
e im
bala
nce,
can
gen
erat
e su
b-st
antia
l sav
ings
in c
onta
iner
flee
t man
agem
ent c
osts
. Yet
, the
exp
loi-
tatio
n co
sts o
f a fo
ldab
le c
onta
iner
pla
y a
maj
or ro
le in
det
erm
inin
g th
e fe
asib
ility
of t
hese
savi
ngs.
A m
ixed
con
tain
er fl
eet c
onsi
sting
of b
oth
norm
al a
nd fo
ldab
le c
on-
tain
er ty
pes m
ight
be
a vi
able
opt
ion.
14 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Zha
o an
d G
ood-
child
(201
1)Tr
uck
trave
l tim
e re
liabi
l-ity
and
pre
dict
ion
in a
po
rt dr
ayag
e ne
twor
k
To e
xplo
re th
e tra
vel t
ime
relia
bilit
y of
a p
ort
dray
age
netw
ork
and
eval
uate
the
pred
ict-
abili
ty o
f dra
yage
truc
k tra
vel t
ime
Dat
a an
alyt
ics;
cas
e stu
dyTh
is re
sear
ch a
ddre
sses
the
ques
tion
of th
e co
nfide
nce
by w
hich
one
ca
n pr
edic
t tru
ck a
rriv
al ti
mes
at t
erm
inal
gat
es.
Aut
hors
use
stan
dard
dev
iatio
n an
d co
effici
ent o
f var
iatio
n fo
r “tri
p re
liabi
lity
anal
ysis
” an
d “n
etw
ork
relia
bilit
y an
alys
is”
acro
ss d
iffer
ent
OD
pai
rs, a
nd th
roug
hout
diff
eren
t tim
es o
f day
.Fr
om th
e re
sults
of a
cas
e stu
dy a
t the
Por
ts o
f Los
Ang
eles
and
Lon
g B
each
, aut
hors
con
clud
ed th
at ti
me
of d
ay h
as a
sign
ifica
nt im
pact
on
trav
el ti
me
relia
bilit
y, w
here
as tr
ip le
ngth
has
a lo
wer
impa
ct o
n re
liabi
lity.
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
rout
ing
choi
ce a
nd ro
ute
attri
bute
s is a
lso
exam
ined
. Fin
ally
, a si
mpl
e m
etho
d is
pro
pose
d to
pre
dict
the
confi
-de
nce
inte
rval
of t
ruck
trav
el ti
me
betw
een
the
give
n O
D p
air.
This
m
etho
d is
furth
er v
alid
ated
and
app
lied
to a
n en
tire
dray
age
netw
ork
to e
valu
ate
how
truc
k tra
vel t
ime
varie
s acr
oss t
he te
mpo
ral a
nd
spat
ial a
ttrib
utes
of a
net
wor
k. S
ong
and
Don
g (2
011)
Flow
bal
anci
ng-b
ased
em
pty
cont
aine
r rep
o-si
tioni
ng in
typi
cal s
hip-
ping
serv
ice
rout
es
To st
udy
and
mod
el th
e em
pty
cont
aine
r rep
o-si
tioni
ng p
robl
em fo
r ge
nera
l ser
vice
rout
es
base
d on
con
tain
er fl
ow
bala
ncin
g
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
gTh
is a
rticl
e di
scus
ses t
he e
mpt
y co
ntai
ner r
epos
ition
ing
prob
lem
in
ship
ping
serv
ices
bas
ed o
n co
ntai
ner fl
ow b
alan
cing
Two
type
s of fl
ow b
alan
cing
pol
icie
s are
form
ulat
ed a
nd a
naly
sed:
po
int-t
o-po
int r
epos
ition
ing
polic
y (P
2P) a
nd a
coo
rdin
ated
repo
si-
tioni
ng p
olic
y (C
RP)
. The
per
form
ance
of t
he tw
o po
licie
s and
thei
r se
nsiti
vity
to ro
ute
struc
ture
and
trad
e de
man
d pa
ttern
(for
exa
mpl
e,
degr
ee o
f tra
de im
bala
nce)
is a
lso
inve
stiga
ted.
Par
ola
and
Scio
mac
hen
(200
9)
Mod
al sp
lit e
valu
atio
n of
a
mar
itim
e co
ntai
ner
term
inal
To a
naly
se th
e pe
rfor-
man
ce o
f a m
ariti
me
cont
aine
r ter
min
al a
nd
its in
term
odal
con
nec-
tions
to th
e hi
nter
land
Dis
cret
e-ev
ent s
imu-
latio
n; c
ase
study
This
pap
er p
rese
nts a
sim
ulat
ion
study
aim
ing
to im
prov
e th
e m
odal
sp
lit o
f por
t-hin
terla
nd tr
ansp
ort (
focu
sing
on
road
and
rail
conn
ec-
tions
).D
iffer
ent s
cena
rios f
or im
prov
ing
the
perfo
rman
ce o
f rai
l con
nect
ions
(in
stead
of i
ncre
asin
g in
vestm
ents
in ra
il in
fras
truct
ure)
are
pre
sent
ed
and
studi
ed u
sing
the
sim
ulat
ion
mod
el.
The
mod
el is
app
lied
in th
e po
rt of
Gen
oa, ‘
Voltr
i Ter
min
al E
urop
a’
(VTE
).
15Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Rah
imi e
t al.
(200
8)A
n in
land
por
t loc
atio
n-al
loca
tion
mod
el fo
r a
regi
onal
inte
rmod
al
good
s mov
emen
t sy
stem
To p
rese
nt a
mod
el fo
r an
alys
ing
the
loca
tion
of in
land
por
ts in
a
hint
erla
nd n
etw
ork
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
g (lo
catio
n-al
lo-
catio
n m
odel
s)
The
pape
r pre
sent
s a m
athe
mat
ical
mod
el to
find
the
optim
al lo
catio
n of
“sa
telli
te in
land
por
ts”.
The
pres
ente
d ap
proa
ch is
illu
strat
ed u
sing
a c
ase
of a
n in
land
por
t sys
-te
m in
sout
hern
Cal
iforn
ia. T
he re
sults
impl
y re
duct
ions
in v
ehic
le-
mile
s tra
velle
d, w
hich
furth
er c
ontri
bute
s to
redu
cing
ext
erna
litie
s su
ch a
s con
gesti
on a
nd a
ir po
llutio
n. V
erni
mm
en
et a
l. (2
007)
Sche
dule
unr
elia
bilit
y in
lin
er sh
ippi
ng: O
rigin
s an
d co
nseq
uenc
es fo
r th
e hi
nter
land
supp
ly
chai
n
To in
vesti
gate
the
orig
ins
of li
ner s
ched
ule
unre
li-ab
ility
and
its i
mpa
ct
on th
e ac
tors
, esp
ecia
lly
of th
e hi
nter
land
supp
ly
chai
n
Mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
-lin
g; c
ase
study
This
pap
er d
iscu
sses
the
impa
ct o
f lin
er sh
ippi
ng sc
hedu
le in
tegr
ity o
n ch
ain
acto
rs, e
spec
ially
on
ship
pers
/con
sign
ees.
The
impa
cts a
re d
iscu
ssed
thro
ugh
a ca
se st
udy
of a
Sou
th A
fric
an
man
ufac
ture
r who
sour
ces s
pare
par
ts g
loba
lly.
The
impr
ovem
ent i
n sc
hedu
le re
liabi
lity
is sh
own
to h
ave
sign
ifica
nt
cost
savi
ngs f
or th
e co
mpa
ny.
Oliv
o et
al.
(200
5)A
n op
erat
iona
l mod
el
for e
mpt
y co
ntai
ner
man
agem
ent
To p
rese
nt a
mod
el
to su
ppor
t dec
i-si
ons r
egar
ding
the
man
agem
ent o
f em
pty
cont
aine
rs
Mat
hem
atic
al
prog
ram
min
g; c
ase
study
This
pap
er p
rese
nts a
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
for t
he o
pera
tiona
l man
age-
men
t of e
mpt
y co
ntai
ners
in a
det
erm
inist
ic d
ynam
ic m
ultim
odal
ne
twor
k.Th
e m
odel
use
s the
hou
r as t
he ti
me-
perio
d of
the
mul
ti-pe
riod
net-
wor
k pl
anni
ng, w
hich
hel
ps th
e re
al-ti
me
man
agem
ent o
f het
erog
ene-
ous fl
eets
(i.e
., di
ffere
nt si
zes)
of e
mpt
y co
ntai
ners
.Th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
the
mod
el to
a c
ase
of M
edite
rran
ean
basi
n ne
twor
k w
ith te
n po
rts a
nd m
ore
than
thirt
y de
man
d ar
eas i
llustr
ates
the
valu
e of
the
mod
el in
man
agin
g em
pty
cont
aine
rs in
real
-tim
e sc
enar
ios.
Org
aniz
atio
nal/r
egul
ator
y as
pect
s Je
evan
et a
l. (2
018)
Det
erm
inin
g th
e in
fluen
-tia
l fac
tors
of d
ry p
ort
oper
atio
ns: w
orld
-w
ide
expe
rienc
es a
nd
empi
rical
evi
denc
e fro
m
Mal
aysi
a
To st
udy
the
influ
entia
l fa
ctor
s in
dry
port
oper
atio
ns
Onl
ine
ques
tionn
aire
su
rvey
and
regr
es-
sion
ana
lysi
s
The
pape
r ide
ntifi
es fi
ve c
ateg
orie
s of i
nflue
ncin
g fa
ctor
s (i.e
., hi
nter
land
con
ditio
n, se
rvic
e fe
atur
es, c
apac
ity, g
over
nmen
t pol
icy,
an
d in
form
atio
n Sy
stem
s) o
n dr
y po
rt op
erat
ions
and
con
duct
s an
empi
rical
stud
y, th
roug
h a
web
-bas
ed su
rvey
of M
alay
sian
dry
por
t st
akeh
olde
rs, t
o an
alys
e th
e im
porta
nce
of th
ose
fact
ors.
Ana
lysi
s of r
esul
ts sh
ows t
hat a
n in
form
atio
n sy
stem
for c
olla
bora
-tio
n an
d co
ordi
natio
n, su
ch a
s a p
ort c
omm
unity
syste
m, i
s the
mos
t in
fluen
tial f
acto
r for
Mal
aysi
an d
ry p
orts’
ope
ratio
ns.
16 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Par
ola
and
Lam
(2
018)
An
empi
rical
inve
stiga
-tio
n of
logi
stics
infr
a-str
uctu
re p
roje
cts i
n em
ergi
ng e
cono
mie
s
To in
vesti
gate
the
impa
ct
of fi
nanc
ial/t
echn
ical
co
mpl
exity
of l
ogist
ics
infr
astru
ctur
e pr
ojec
ts
on th
e im
plem
enta
tion
of d
epen
denc
e-re
duci
ng
strat
egie
s in
publ
ic–
priv
ate
partn
ersh
ips
(PPP
s)
Reso
urce
Dep
end-
ence
The
ory;
mul
-tiv
aria
te m
ultip
le
regr
essi
on a
naly
sis
This
pap
er p
rese
nts a
n em
piric
al in
vesti
gatio
n on
a sa
mpl
e of
130
0 PP
P lo
gisti
cs in
fras
truct
ures
in o
rder
to a
sses
s the
impa
ct o
f fina
ncia
l an
d te
chni
cal c
ompl
exity
of P
PP p
roje
cts o
n th
e pu
rsui
t of (
mul
tiple
) de
pend
ence
-red
ucin
g str
ateg
ies.
The
resu
lts sh
ow th
at la
rge
finan
cial
scal
e an
d te
chni
cal c
ompl
exity
sti
mul
ate
inve
stors
to b
uild
wid
e PP
P co
nsor
tia a
nd to
sele
ct p
artn
ers
with
exp
erie
nce
in P
PP lo
gisti
cs in
fras
truct
ure
vent
ures
, as w
ell a
s fa
mili
arity
with
the
cultu
ral a
spec
ts o
f the
loca
l are
a. T
his i
s exp
ecte
d to
mod
erat
e th
e ris
k an
d un
certa
intie
s der
ivin
g fro
m P
PP p
roje
ct
com
plex
ity.
A g
reat
fina
ncia
l sca
le o
f PPP
logi
stics
infr
astru
ctur
es a
lso
stim
u-la
tes i
nves
tors
to se
lect
par
tner
s with
a h
omog
eneo
us e
ndow
men
t of
reso
urce
s and
org
aniz
atio
nal c
apab
ilitie
s, in
ord
er to
redu
ce
man
ager
ial a
nd o
rgan
izat
iona
l diffi
culti
es. A
lso,
a h
ighe
r tec
hnic
al
com
plex
ity d
rives
priv
ate
inve
stors
to jo
int c
ross
-bor
der P
PP p
roje
cts
in a
cul
tura
l are
a an
alog
ous t
o th
at o
f the
ir ow
n co
untri
es. I
n ot
her
wor
ds, c
ultu
ral fi
t in
busi
ness
pra
ctic
es, w
ork
ethi
c an
d pr
inci
ples
and
la
ngua
ge h
elp
in th
e eff
ectiv
e ex
chan
ge k
now
ledg
e w
ith lo
cal i
nstit
u-tio
ns a
nd p
rivat
e or
gani
zatio
ns, a
nd h
andl
e th
e te
chni
cal c
ompl
exity
.
17Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Van
Den
Ber
g an
d D
e La
n-ge
n (2
015)
Ass
essi
ng th
e in
term
odal
va
lue
prop
ositi
on o
f sh
ippi
ng li
nes:
Atti
-tu
des o
f shi
pper
s and
fo
rwar
ders
To st
udy
the
asse
ssm
ent
of th
e va
lue
prop
osi-
tions
of s
hipp
ing
lines
by
ship
pers
and
fo
rwar
ders
Surv
eySh
ippe
rs a
nd fo
rwar
ders
diff
er in
wha
t the
y co
nsid
er a
s im
porta
nt in
th
e off
er o
f shi
ppin
g lin
es. H
owev
er, b
oth
are
mai
nly
cost
driv
en.
Bot
h sh
ippe
rs a
nd fo
rwar
ders
hav
e a
rath
er li
mite
d in
tere
st in
sust
ain-
abili
ty. F
orw
arde
rs a
ttrib
ute
the
low
est i
mpo
rtanc
e to
sust
aina
ble
oper
atio
ns.
Ship
pers
and
forw
arde
rs a
lso
diffe
r in
thei
r boo
king
s. Fo
rwar
ders
m
ainl
y bo
ok o
n a
port-
to-p
ort b
asis
and
they
hav
e a
rela
tivel
y sm
all
shar
e in
doo
r-to-
door
boo
king
s. In
con
trast,
ship
pers
hav
e a
larg
er
shar
e of
doo
r-to-
door
boo
king
s.Th
eir fi
ndin
gs su
gges
t tha
t pro
vidi
ng d
oor-t
o-do
or b
ooki
ngs i
s not
(any
lo
nger
) a so
urce
of d
iffer
entia
tion
for s
hipp
ing
lines
. Doo
r-to-
door
tra
nspo
rt is
not
less
pric
e se
nsiti
ve th
an p
ort-t
o-po
rt tra
nspo
rt.Th
e fin
ding
s ind
icat
e th
at p
rice
is m
ost i
mpo
rtant
to c
usto
mer
s, re
gard
less
of t
he ty
pe o
f boo
king
(doo
r-to-
door
or p
ort-t
o-po
rt). B
oth
forw
arde
rs a
nd sh
ippe
rs a
re in
tere
sted
in a
n In
land
Ter
min
als (
ILT)
-ce
ntre
d pr
opos
ition
—sh
ippi
ng li
nes d
o no
t offe
r the
‘las
t mile
’ but
br
ing
cont
aine
rs to
ILT.
Esp
ecia
lly, c
usto
mer
s with
a la
rge
shar
e of
do
or-to
-doo
r boo
king
s are
mor
e in
tere
sted
in su
ch a
serv
ice.
Hae
zend
onck
et
al.
(201
4)A
new
gov
erna
nce
per-
spec
tive
on p
ort-h
inte
r-la
nd re
latio
nshi
ps: T
he
Port
Hin
terla
nd Im
pact
(P
HI)
mat
rix
To d
evel
op a
tool
for
gove
rnan
ce-b
ased
an
alys
is o
f con
tract
ual
rela
tions
hips
in p
ort-
hint
erla
nd
Inte
rvie
w a
nd d
ata
anal
ysis
The
pape
r int
rodu
ces t
he P
HI m
atrix
as a
n an
alyt
ical
tool
, pro
vidi
ng
insi
ghts
into
the
hint
erla
nd im
pact
of a
por
t and
con
sequ
ently
sup-
ports
‘opt
imal
’ con
tract
ing
with
hin
terla
nd a
ctor
s.Th
e PH
I mat
rix h
as tw
o di
men
sion
s: fi
rst,
“a p
ort’s
geo
grap
hic
reac
h”
(how
muc
h of
the
port
traffi
c tra
vels
a sp
ecifi
c di
stan
ce, f
or e
xam
ple
100
or m
ore
kilo
met
res,
from
and
into
the
hint
erla
nd) a
nd se
cond
, th
e “d
ifficu
lty o
f por
t sub
stitu
tion/
dedi
cate
dnes
s of l
ogist
ic c
hain
” (h
ow d
ifficu
lt is
por
t sub
stitu
tion
or h
ow d
edic
ated
is th
e lo
gisti
cs
chai
n in
volv
ed).
The
fram
ewor
k is
app
lied
to tw
o ca
ses (
port
of Z
eebr
ugge
and
por
t of
Ant
wer
p).
18 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Min
and
Jun
(201
4)Pu
blic
-priv
ate
partn
er-
ship
s for
the
deve
lop-
men
t of p
ort h
inte
rland
s an
d th
eir r
amifi
catio
ns
for g
loba
l sup
ply
chai
n m
anag
emen
t
To id
entif
y th
e ch
al-
leng
es, o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
polic
ies a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith p
ort h
inte
rland
de
velo
pmen
t thr
ough
pu
blic
–priv
ate
partn
er-
ship
s (PP
P)
Cas
e stu
dyTh
e ar
ticle
dev
elop
s a c
once
ptua
l fra
mew
ork
for s
yste
mat
ical
ly m
anag
-in
g PP
Ps in
hin
terla
nd d
evel
opm
ent p
roje
cts a
nd in
trodu
ces b
est
prac
tices
thro
ugh
the
illus
trativ
e ca
se st
udy
of a
hin
terla
nd p
roje
ct
unde
rtake
n by
the
Port
of B
usan
.So
me
of th
e m
ain
findi
ngs o
f thi
s res
earc
h in
clud
e:Th
e go
als o
f hin
terla
nd d
evel
opm
ent s
houl
d be
con
siste
nt w
ith th
e sp
ecifi
c ro
les o
f por
ts a
nd th
eir h
inte
rland
s.To
boo
st PP
P op
portu
nitie
s for
hin
terla
nd d
evel
opm
ent,
the
‘rig
ht’
com
bina
tions
of i
ncen
tives
, whi
ch a
re m
ore
incl
usiv
e th
an e
xclu
sive
, sh
ould
be
iden
tified
. V
eens
tra e
t al.
(201
2)Th
e ex
tend
ed g
ate
conc
ept f
or c
onta
iner
te
rmin
als:
Exp
andi
ng
the
notio
n of
dry
por
ts
To st
udy
and
to p
ositi
on
the
exte
nded
gat
e co
ncep
t as a
bus
ines
s ne
twor
k in
nova
tion
Con
cept
ual a
nd c
ase
study
The
exte
nded
gat
e co
ncep
t is a
n in
nova
tive
busi
ness
mod
el in
whi
ch
sea
term
inal
s and
inla
nd te
rmin
als a
re in
volv
ed in
a p
artia
l int
egra
-tio
n of
thei
r pro
cess
es a
t the
tran
spor
t lev
el. T
he c
entra
l ide
a is
to
ext
end
the
deliv
ery
poin
t, fro
m th
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e of
the
ship
per/
rece
iver
, fro
m th
e se
apor
t ter
min
al, a
long
a c
orrid
or to
an
inla
nd
mul
timod
al te
rmin
al.
19Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Ber
esfo
rd e
t al.
(201
2)A
stud
y of
dry
por
t dev
el-
opm
ent i
n C
hina
To in
vesti
gate
the
exist
ing
dry
port
deve
lopm
ents
in C
hina
an
d ho
w th
e ex
ist-
ing
insti
tutio
nal a
nd
regu
lato
ry fr
amew
ork
has i
nflue
nced
dry
por
t de
velo
pmen
t in
Chi
na
Cas
e stu
dyTh
is a
rticl
e stu
dies
how
the
exist
ing
insti
tutio
nal a
nd re
gula
tory
fram
e-w
ork
has i
nflue
nced
dry
por
t dev
elop
men
t in
Chi
na.
The
lack
of a
uni
fied
top-
leve
l ins
titut
iona
l coo
rdin
atio
n bo
dy is
foun
d as
a c
halle
nge
to th
is d
evel
opm
ent.
Thre
e m
inist
ries o
pera
te in
de-
pend
ently
with
diff
eren
t rol
es in
pla
nnin
g, o
pera
ting
and
regu
latin
g in
land
inte
rmod
al tr
ansp
ort s
yste
ms,
and
this
has
hin
dere
d dr
y po
rt de
velo
pmen
t. Se
cond
, loc
al g
over
nmen
t has
con
side
rabl
e au
tono
my
in in
terp
retin
g C
entra
l gov
ernm
ent p
olic
y ac
cord
ing
to lo
cal n
eeds
. Th
ird, a
com
preh
ensi
ve re
gula
tory
fram
ewor
k fo
r dry
por
t dev
elop
-m
ent i
s stil
l abs
ent.
Aut
hors
als
o fo
und
that
diff
eren
t dry
por
ts in
Chi
na a
re a
t diff
er-
ent s
tage
s of d
evel
opm
ent.
Und
er a
loos
e in
stitu
tiona
l stru
ctur
e,
gove
rnm
ent i
nter
vent
ion
has b
ecom
e ne
cess
ary
to so
lve
the
finan
cial
pr
oble
ms a
nd le
vera
ge p
ublic
rela
tions
. Als
o, a
syste
mat
ic p
olic
y fr
amew
ork
and
a st
anda
rd d
ry p
ort d
efini
tion
are
need
ed.
Ros
o an
d Lu
ms-
den
(201
0)A
revi
ew o
f dry
por
tsTo
giv
e an
ove
rvie
w o
f th
e ex
istin
g re
sear
ch o
n th
e dr
y po
rt co
ncep
t as
wel
l as o
f the
wor
ld’s
ex
istin
g dr
y po
rts
Revi
ewTh
is a
rticl
e re
view
s the
exi
sting
lite
ratu
re o
n dr
y po
rts. I
t als
o re
view
s th
e ex
istin
g dr
y po
rts a
roun
d th
e w
orld
. Acc
ordi
ngly
, the
pap
er h
elps
to
cla
rify
the
conc
ept a
nd u
nder
stan
d th
e po
tent
ial d
iscr
epan
cies
be
twee
n th
eory
and
pra
ctic
e.Th
e pa
per a
lso
disc
usse
s the
mai
n ad
vant
ages
of d
ry p
orts
, inc
ludi
ng
impr
oved
cus
tom
er se
rvic
e an
d cr
eatio
n of
new
jobs
in th
e ar
ea,
as w
ell a
s sup
porti
ng re
gion
al g
row
th, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
case
of
land
lock
ed c
ount
ries.
20 B. Behdani et al.
Tabl
e 2
(con
tinue
d)
Sour
ceTi
tleA
im o
f res
earc
hM
etho
dolo
gyFi
ndin
gs
Van
Der
Hor
st an
d D
e La
n-ge
n (2
008)
Coo
rdin
atio
n in
hin
ter-
land
tran
spor
t cha
ins:
A
maj
or c
halle
nge
for t
he
seap
ort c
omm
unity
To a
naly
se th
e co
ordi
na-
tion
sche
mes
and
pro
b-le
ms i
n th
e hi
nter
land
ch
ains
of s
eapo
rts
Insti
tutio
nal e
cono
m-
ics a
naly
sis;
cas
e stu
dy; e
xper
t in
terv
iew
s
Som
e m
ain
findi
ngs o
f the
pap
er in
clud
e:C
oord
inat
ion
in th
e hi
nter
land
is im
porta
nt, a
s hin
terla
nd tr
ansp
ort
costs
are
gen
eral
ly h
ighe
r tha
n m
ariti
me
trans
port
costs
. Mos
t bot
-tle
neck
s of t
he d
oor-t
o-do
or c
onta
iner
tran
spor
t cha
in o
ccur
in th
e hi
nter
land
net
wor
k (e
.g.,
cong
estio
n, in
suffi
cien
t inf
rastr
uctu
re, e
tc.).
The
mai
n ar
eas o
f hin
terla
nd c
oord
inat
ion
requ
irem
ents
are
iden
tified
an
d di
scus
sed.
The
se in
clud
e co
ntai
ner b
argi
ng, t
ruck
ing,
and
con
-ta
iner
rail
trans
port
syste
ms.
Exam
ples
incl
ude
the
limite
d ex
chan
ge
of c
argo
and
tran
spor
t cap
acity
, unu
sed
and
over
used
rail
and
road
in
fras
truct
ure,
and
lim
ited
info
rmat
ion
exch
ange
with
cus
tom
s and
in
spec
tion
auth
oriti
es.
Bas
ed o
n in
sigh
ts fr
om in
stitu
tiona
l eco
nom
ics,
a fr
amew
ork
for t
he
anal
ysis
of c
oord
inat
ion
prob
lem
s and
the
eval
uatio
n of
mec
hani
sms
to e
nhan
ce c
oord
inat
ion
is p
rese
nted
. Thi
s fra
mew
ork
feat
ures
fo
ur k
ey m
echa
nism
s to
enha
nce
coor
dina
tion:
the
intro
duct
ion
of
ince
ntiv
es, t
he c
reat
ion
of in
ter-fi
rm a
llian
ces,
chan
ging
the
scop
e of
an
orga
niza
tion
(e.g
., ve
rtica
l int
egra
tion)
, and
the
unde
rtaki
ng o
f co
llect
ive
actio
n. F
or e
ach
coor
dina
tion
prob
lem
, arr
ange
men
ts to
en
hanc
e co
ordi
natio
n ar
e id
entifi
ed a
nd c
lass
ified
into
one
of t
he fo
ur
mec
hani
sms o
f coo
rdin
atio
n.Th
e pr
oble
ms a
nd so
lutio
ns a
re fu
rther
ela
bora
ted
in th
e ca
se o
f the
Po
rt of
Rot
terd
am.
Isla
m e
t al.
(200
5)To
war
ds su
pply
cha
in
inte
grat
ion
thro
ugh
mul
timod
al tr
ansp
ort i
n de
velo
ping
eco
nom
ies:
Th
e ca
se o
f Ban
glad
esh
To p
rese
nt a
nor
mat
ive
mod
el fo
r sup
ply
chai
n in
tegr
atio
n in
dev
elop
-in
g co
untri
es a
nd th
e ro
les o
f mul
timod
al
frei
ght t
rans
port
Cas
e stu
dyTh
e pa
per p
rese
nts a
hol
istic
mod
el o
f a m
ultim
odal
tran
spor
t sys
tem
ai
min
g at
supp
ly c
hain
inte
grat
ion.
Usi
ng a
cas
e stu
dy in
Ban
glad
esh,
aut
hors
dis
cuss
the
barr
iers
to su
p-pl
y ch
ain
inte
grat
ion
in d
evel
opin
g ec
onom
ies w
ithin
the
scop
e of
m
ultim
odal
tran
spor
t.
21Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
The details of the aim and contribution of the articles in these three groups are presented in Table 2. Although the categorization in Table 2 is not intended to be definitive (since some articles may discuss more than one topic), the main topic has been used in the categorization of Table 2. Thus, the table provides a general overview of problems addressed by different researchers and their key findings. For operational and economic aspects, the dominant methodology is mathematical mod-elling. For organizational aspects, the survey and case study methods are the most widely used methods. It is interesting to observe that as many as 85 percent of the papers discuss a case—as the main research method, or to illustrate their models or frameworks—which demonstrates the highly practical relevance of the findings in these articles.
3 Contents of this special issue
This special issue brings together five papers representing cutting edge research cur-rently pursued in the area of port-hinterland transportation. In the first paper (The geography of container port choice: modelling impacts of changes in hinterland var-iables on port choice), Mueller, Wiegmans and van Duin study the position of port hinterlands in the modelling of port choice. Their model discusses how container-ized imports could be affected by changes in the hinterland strategies of ports and hinterland corridors, as well as by changes in inland port operations. They further model the impact of fuel prices on port hinterlands. They find that although a rise in fuel prices might reduce road transport, this is influencing the competitive position of ports at a European level.
The role of the hinterland in port choice is also studied by Caballe-Valls, de Lan-gen, Garcia-Alonso, and Vallejo-Pinto (Understanding port choice determinants and port hinterlands; findings from an empirical analysis of Spain). Based on detailed Spanish customs data, the authors show that intermodal connectivity is a deter-minant of the market share of a port in a certain hinterland region. Additionally, the authors show that, in the case of Spanish ports, there are no clear ‘boundaries’ between the hinterlands of different ports, which thus have market shares in ‘con-testable hinterlands’. Finally, it is also shown that hinterlands may actually differ, depending on overseas destination.
In their paper, The impact of foldable containers on cost savings in empty con-tainer relocation by trucks in the hinterland of seaports, Shintani, Konings, Nishimura, and Imai focus on the empty container relocation problem in hinterland transport. Empty container re-positioning is an important operational issue in mari-time logistics. Foldable containers may present a potential solution, since when an empty container is folded, it needs less space on transport means. The authors pre-sent a model to address the integrated problem of truck routing and empty container relocation by using foldable containers.
In Involvement of port authorities in inland logistics markets: the cases of Rot-terdam, Le Havre, and Marseille, Magnan and van der Horst discuss an important organizational and governance aspect of port-hinterland logistics, i.e., the role of port authorities in the development of inland logistics markets. The authors discuss
22 B. Behdani et al.
the typology of different roles, actions and instruments that port authorities can adopt within inland logistics markets. They further study three cases: Port of Rot-terdam (the Netherlands), Le Havre (France) and Marseille-Fos (France). The case studies rely on in-depth interviews with port authorities and public administrations and illustrate the different paths followed by the three port authorities. In Rotterdam, there has been a shift from a conservator to a facilitator model and later to an entre-preneurial role. However, the port authority has recently withdrawn from its entre-preneurial role, presently functioning more like a facilitator. The port authorities of Le Havre and Marseille-Fos mix the conservator and facilitator models.4
In the last paper of this issue, a framework for modelling and analysing coordi-nation challenges in hinterland transport systems, Gumuskaya, van Jaarsveld, Dijk-man, Grefen, and Veenstra focus on an important organizational issue in port-hinter-land logistics. They present a framework for exploring the coordination challenges in hinterland transport within three layers of transportation processes: contracting, planning and physical processes. The framework can help in formalizing coordina-tion models and in gaining insights into the dynamics of coordination challenges. Their effort is illustrated through a case study of barge congestion in the Port of Rotterdam.
4 Further research and agenda for action
Based on the contributions in this special issue and on our own research overview, we have, subjectively of course, identified the following areas for further research on maritime transport, ports and hinterlands: coping with increasing volumes; synchro-modality; sustainability of intermodal freight transport; the value of information in intermodal transport; formalization of relations among stakeholders; intermodal freight transport policy making; and cooperation versus control.
Gigantism in container shipping (Haralambides 2019) creates challenges both for seaports and their hinterland. In a number of cases, capacities of inland modes and inland terminals have not kept pace with the growth in ocean transportation. These shortages manifest themselves in congestion and also in sustainability issues (UNC-TAD 2017). In terms of further research, this leads to capacity optimization efforts, performance modelling, and also research into system breakthroughs in order to reduce emissions and the environmental footprint of the transport system.
4 In terms of position and activities, a port authority can take different functional roles (De Langen 2006; Verhoeven 2010). The landlord function aims at maintenance and development of the port estate, as well as the provision of infrastructure. The regulator function is generally about controlling and polic-ing functions (for example in terms of safety and security of ships and cargo, or port sustainability and labor regulations). The operator function aims at providing port services, including the physical transfer of cargo between sea and land or the provision of technical services (such as fleet maintenance). A port authority can also function as community manager or cluster manager by facilitating interactions, e.g., by investing in IT communication platforms. Finally, entrepreneurial function aims at fostering innovation by direct investment or supporting innovative companies that provide the logistics services at the port or its hinterland.
23Port-hinterland transport and logistics: emerging trends…
Another important issue for further research is synchromodality. Synchromodality looks into the (integrated) combination of hinterland transport modes (rail, IWT, road). The concept of synchromodality especially attempts to integrate the planning of the dif-ferent modes, and it therefore calls for the development of planning models optimizing hinterland transport (Behdani et al. 2016). Also, from an organizational point of view, we need some new and innovative contract types for synchromodality, both between cus-tomers and transport operators and between transport operators themselves, if the latter aim to share capacity. From an economics point of view, synchromodal pricing and the modelling of synchromodal demand are some of the areas calling for further research.
Sustainability efforts of existing intermodal modes is another research challenge. Road freight transport quickly improves its environmental performance while inter-modal freight transport clearly lags behind. Efforts are needed in the development of new and cleaner technologies for intermodal freight transport. The effects of such technologies need to be studied in a way that should encourage the shift to a more sustainable freight transport system.
Efficiency improvements are often attributed to the increasing use of information in freight transport chains (e.g. Blockchain). We feel that further research is needed into the role, effects and impacts of the increasing use of information for, so far, the actual business cases of such efficiency improvements are missing.
An interesting issue for further research is the formalization of relations between stakeholders (e.g. between maritime terminals and transport operators) in freight trans-port chains. A notable example is the handling of barges by deep-sea terminals. The lat-ter provide a service to the barge operator, being paid, however, by a freight forwarder or a logistics service provider. Because of this indirect relation (which is not formalized by a contact between barge and terminal operator), barges are often given lower priority compared to ocean shipping. More organizational research is needed into efficient solu-tions that can change this type of relationships, making them more formal. Modelling might be able to measure the efficiency impacts on freight transport chains.
Revisiting intermodal transport policy is another practical as well as academic area. In the last 30 years, this policy has had no effect and the market share of road transport increased from 75.1 in 2011 to 76.4% in 2016 (EEA 2009). Further research is needed into policy options that are able to increase the market share of intermodal freight transport versus single-mode road transport.
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