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Population fluxes of commercially threatened sea cucumber species in Gulf of Mannar

Biosphere Reserve for sustainable harvesting strategies to regularizing sea cucumber fishery

RESEARCH REPORT

By

Dr. V.M. Sathish Kumar

MAB Young Scientists Awardee-2012

India

Submitted to:

Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, UNESCO

&

Zoological Survey of India

Ministry of Environment & Forests

Government of India

PREFACE

Sea cucumbers are attractive group of marine animals, which are over

exploited for commercial gain resulting in them being included in the

protected category. The present study was carried out in the Gulf of Mannar

Biosphere Reserve (GOMMBR) through July to September 2013 to assess the

Population fluxes of commercially threatened sea cucumber species for

sustainable harvesting strategies to regularizing sea cucumber fishery. The

work presented in this report is the outcome of support in various forms from

several sources and to each one of them I am grateful for enabling me to

complete this study, contributing to the measures of conservation of this fast

depleting species. . The current status of Sea cucumbers at 84 sites of

GOMMBR was established by using biological assessments spread over 30

days of in- depth field observations by systematically surveying 84 study sites

selected randomly and marked with a GPS on the map of GOMMBR. The

inputs derived based on fishers questionnaire also aided in the site selection

method. A preliminary investigation was conducted in order to assess how

and where environmental variability and fishing pressure have affected the

distribution and mean abundance of Sea cucumbers at the sites. For the 84

sites average abundances and densities were estimated and plotted

graphically. However, length and biomass calculations could not be

measured because specimen collections were not allowed the study areas

which all fall under the marine protected area. This study revealed that

though the ban on fishery and trade on Sea cucumbers are still in force,

fishermen continue illegal collections for their livelihood. Coastal zones are

further subjected to pollution and habitat loss. Hence, environmental

variability together with fishing pressure are seen to alter the population

diversity of sea cucumbers in the study area. It is inferred that conservation of

the species can be achieved only by assessment and close monitoring of the

population status. Continuous monitoring is urgently required to limit the

present depletion of most stocks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank:

S The Government of India, Zoological Survey of India and the Ministry

of Environment & Forests for nominating me for the MAB Young

Scientist Award (UNESCO) 2012.

S UNESCO (MAB) Young Scientist Award for financing this study.

S Tamil Nadu Forest department, The Principal Chief Conservator of

Forests, Wild Life Warden GOMNP, Ramanathapuram & Conservator

of Forests, Virudhunagar.

S Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust (GOMBRT).

^ Dr. K. Rema Devi, Sr. Scientist (Retd) & IUCN South-east Asian

member for supporting me all along!

S Dr. A. Gopalakrishnan, Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research

Institute, Cochin for his great support.

S Dr. P.S. Asha, Principal Scientist, Central Marine Fisheries Research

Institute, Cochin for species confirmation.

S Dr. Ram Boojh, National Programme Officer, UNESCO, India.

S Ms. Elizabeth Vasu, Programme Assistant, UNESCO, India.

S Aruna Basu Sarcar IFS. Chief Conservator of Forests, Trichy.

S Dr. J.D. Marcus Knight, ENVIS Coordinator, Department of

Environment, TN.

S Entire fisherman Community in GOMMBR, whose help cannot be

expressed in words, to name them all would require more pages

than this report!

S My family, Malini, Aadya & Aadish.

S Last but not the least, Dr. K. Venkataraman, Director and Dr. K.

Ilango, Officer-in-Charge (SRC), Zoological Survey of India for their

persistent unstinted support and encouragement throughout the

course of this project, without which it would have been impossible

for me to complete this study.

CHAPTER 1

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Sea Cucumbers 1

1.1.1. Sea cucumbers & ecological role 3

1.1.2. Sea cucumbers & "Beche-de-mer"

industry 3

1.1.3. Background and purpose

of this study 4

CHAPTER 2

2. Material and Methods 5

2.1. Study site 5

2.2. Study area 6

2.2.1. Survey area and site selection 6

2.3. The islands and study sites 7

2.3.1. Tuticorin group 7

2.3.2. Vembar group 9

2.3.4. Kilakarai group 11

2.3.5. Mandapam group 14

2.4. Survey Methodology 18

2.4.1. Data Management & Statistical

analyses 22

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Checklist of Sea Cucumbers

of G O M M B R 23

3.2. Main commercially exploited

holothurian species in the GOMMBR 26

CHAPTER 4

4. RESULTS 27

4.1. Sites and Species 27

4.2. Species Observed 27

4.3. Abundance Est imate 38

4.5. Conclusions and Recommendat ions 47

REFERENCES 51

CHAPTER 1 1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

Marine organisms worldwide are suffering from commercial misuse and habitat

destruction, and the combination of these issues may be driving some species to extinction

(Southward et al., 2005). Marine parks are national resources and are valuable for their food,

protection against waves, storms and also of scientific values (Bakus 1983). The coastal and

marine environment of the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and Biosphere Reserve

(GOMMBR) is one such unique ecosystems comprising of coral reefs, sea-grass beds,

mangroves etc. and their associated fauna which provide several benefits to mankind. Sea

cucumbers in the marine benthic communities are highly diverse, abundant and exclusively

marine invertebrates that play crucial roles in the recycling of nutrients and bioturbation

processes (Preston, 1993). They are of immense value as food and folk medicine and are

highly exploited. It is very important to periodically assess the population fluxes of these

commercially exploited beautiful creatures for its survival and management which formsthe

subject of this project.

1.1. SEA CUCUMBERS

Sea cucumbers (Class: Holothuroidea) are attractive group of marine animals and are

one of the six extant classes of the exclusively marine phylum Echinodermata. Holothuroids

(the more broadly used term - holothurian is here restricted for species belonging to the genus

Holothuria; holothuriids are likewise restricted for those species that belong to the family

Holothuriidae) are the second most diverse echinoderm class, with some 200 described

genera containing some 1600 extant species (Smiley 1994). Unique among echinoderms,

1

holothuroids can be holopelagic (Miller & Pawson, 1990). Their diversity is highest in the

tropical waters, where 20 species per hectare is common (Kerr, Stoffell & Yoon, 1993). This

highly successful class has a fossil record extending back some 460-500 million years to

Lower Ordovician (Gilliland 1993; Reich 1999) and has invaded every part of the marine

habitat, from the intertidal to the deep ocean trenches and from the polar to the tropical

regions. The earliest fossil evidence of the Holothuroidea, in the Upper Silurian, consists of

calcareous deposits from the body wall (Gilliland 1992; Pawson 1966).

Sea cucumber orders are distinguished on the basis of gross morphological characters

such as the morphology of the tentacles, the presence or absence of tentacular retractor

muscles, the presence or absence of an internal respiratory tree, and the presence and

distribution of podia on the trunk. At the familial level, taxonomic distinctions are dependent

on a finer level of characters such as the morphology of dermal ossicles, the form of the

esophageal calcareous ring, the distribution and morphology of the tube feet, etc. At the

species level, the differences in a defining morphological character can be quite subtle,

obscuring taxonomic distinctions. Like their closest relatives, the echinoids, the body lacks

arms, mouth and anus are almost invariantly located at opposite poles and the ambulacral and

interambulacral areas are arranged meridionally around the polar axis, which is lengthened to

give the typical elongated cucumber shape (Littlewood et al. 1997). The vermiform to

cylindrical shape of most holothuroids gives them a bilaterally symmetrical appearance, a

pattern especially visible in some members of the orders Aspidochirotida and

Dendrochirotida (Psolidae) which are modified dorso-ventrally with a more or less flattened

ventral side.

Sea cucumbers live chiefly among corals but are also found among rocks and in

muddy and sandy flats. They are distributed from the shore to the greatest depths. Most

holothuroids are under 20 cm in length, although some reach lengths of 5m (Mortensen,

2

1938) or weigh over 5 kg (Lane, 1992) and they occur in all colour combinations: white,

black, red, blue, green, yellow, violet etc.

1.1.1. SEA CUCUMBERS & ECOLOGICAL ROLE

In tropical countries, most of the cities have limited facilities to prevent pollution,

and urban waste waters are often discharged directly to waterways or to the sea (Pastorok and

Bilyard, 1985; Grigg, 1994). Therefore, eutrophication of coastal waters due to the discharge

of nutrients from nearby urban areas is becoming a major environmental problem in recent

years (Valiela et al., 1992; Bowen and Valiela, 2001). Sea cucumbers play important

ecological role as suspension feeders, detritivores and prey. They consume a combination of

bacteria, diatoms and detritus (Yingst 1976; Massin 1982; Moriarty 1982). Also as

suspension feeders, sea cucumbers regulate water quality by affecting carbonate content and

the pH of the water (Massin 1982). As stated by Bruckner et al. (2003), the local extinction

of holothurians has resulted in the hardening of the sea floor, thereby eliminating potential

habitat for other benthic organisms. Also Uthicke et al (1997) noted that the ammonium

excretion by holothurians enhances production and turnover of benthic diatom communities.

Most commercial species of sea cucumbers are deposit feeders, and their elimination is

harmful to the ecosystems in which they live (Conand and Byrne, 1993). Holothurians are

also important prey in coral reef and temperate food webs (Birkeland 1989; Francour 1997)

both in shallow and in deep water (Jones and Endean 1973; Massin 1982), where they are

consumed particularly by fishes, sea stars and crustaceans (Francour 1997). In addition to the

ecological importance of sea cucumbers, their fisheries are of great social and economic

importance to many coastal communities.

1.1.2. SEA CUCUMBERS & "BECHE-DE-MER" INDUSTRY

Beche-de-mer fisheries has a long history, as the Chinese have sought sea cucumbers

for a long time and there are many old stories about holothurians in the Japanese literature

3

(Lovatelli et al, 2004). Indo-Pacific regions have harvested and traded sea cucumbers for over

one thousand years, driven primarily by Chinese demand (Conand and Byrne 1993). The

status of the world holothurian fisheries has been presented and updated several times (FAO,

1990; Conand, 1998; Conand and Byrne, 1993). At present Sea cucumbers are harvested and

traded in more than 70 countries worldwide. They are exploited in industrialized, semi-

industrialized, and artisanal (small-scale) fisheries in polar regions, temperate zones and

throughout the tropics. Holothurian fisheries are mostly based on about thirty species (23

Holothuriidae; 6 Stichopodidae), amongst 1400 species of existing aspidochirote

holothurians for their dried product ("trepang" or "beche-de-mer") with commercial value

varying among species.

1.1.3. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

Sea cucumber fishery in India is an export oriented industry, and was generating

substantial income for the fishers, especially in Southeast coast of India (Gulf of Mannar)

and Andaman Nicobar Islands - until the ban on collection of sea cucumbers (Wildlife

Protection Act, 1972 - amended in 2001). There are nearly 200 known species in the seas

around India, most of them in deep waters. About 75 species have been shown to be present

in shallow waters while nearly 50 species can be collected from the intertidal region. There is

generally a lack of data abundance; catch, import and export statistics are often incomplete;

and the trade of sea cucumbers is complex (Baine 2004; FAO 2004, 2008). Imposition of the

ban was the last of the efforts by the Government - after size restrictions in harvest - to save

the heavily depleted resources. The heavier dependency for this fishery in Gulf of Mannar

Biosphere Reserve, however, witnessed continuous protests from fishers, along with illegal

harvests and clashes with law enforcement agencies. The continuing unsustainable illegal

harvesting of animals of all sizes, would lead to further depletion of stocks and eventual loss

of resources in this area.

4

CHAPTER 2

2 . MATERIAL A N D M E T H O D S

2.1. STUDY SITE

The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park (GoMNP) and Biosphere Reserve, located

along the south east coast of India, consists of a group of 21 small, uninhabited islands along

a 170 km stretch between Tuticorin and Rameshwaram (08° 35' N 78° 08' E to 09° 25' N 79°

30' E). The area of Gulf of Mannar (GoM) under the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

is about 15,000 sq. km, where commercial fishing takes place in about 5000 sq. km (up to 50

m depth). The depth of GoM beyond the island chain ranges from 3.5 - 15.0 m with a

precipitous drop. It is known to harbour marine biodiversity of global significance falling

within the Indo-Malayan realm, the world's richest region from a marine biodiversity

perspective (Gopalakrishnan et al, 2012). The biosphere reserve includes micro-ecosystems

such as coral reefs (fringing coral reefs and patch reefs), sea grass beds, seaweeds, rocks, vast

patches of mangroves, etc each supporting its own characteristic community structure and

zonation. These ecosystems support a wide spectrum of flora and fauna of taxonomic and

economic importance. Amongst them are coral reefs and associated tropical fish, sponges,

gorgonids, holothurians, pearl banks, chank beds, hemichordates, sea horses, marine turtles

and the unique endangered herbivorous marine mammal, the dugong. GoMMBR along with

the South East coast of India is internationally recognized under the Man and Biosphere

Programme of UNESCO for its rich and varied biodiversity of marine biota. The GoMMBR

was the first marine biosphere reserve in South and Southeast Asia. According to the

notification, the GoMMBR covers an area of 10,500 sq km, running parallel to the mainland

to a distance of about 170 nautical miles. It includes the GoMNP as the core area, in addition

5

to 21 small islands, between Pamban Island in the north and Tuticorin in the south. There are

about 125 villages along the coastal part of the biosphere reserve which support about

100,000 people, a local Community principally engaged in fishing.

2.2. STUDY AREA

2.2.1. SURVEY AREA AND SITE SELECTION

Information gathered through interviewing the fishermen in the (GOMMBR) area

were put to great use while choosing the sampling sites as they provided vital information

about the fishing ground and habitat types. The maps were given to the fishing community to

outline the sea cucumber fishing grounds and non fishing grounds. A Geographic

Information System (GIS) based digital database was formulated surrounding the 21 islands

(Fig.1, Also see study sites Figures 2-22), the coastline, reefs etc. with help of GPS and latest

version of Google Earth (Version: 7.1.1.1888, Build Date: 7/12/2013). Sampling sites were

randomly assigned throughout the study area with the help of the GIS database. However,

these sites were planned to be at least 1 km apart. This principally distributed the study area

up into 1 km x 1 km primary sampling units with one 50 x 2 m transect randomly taken from

84 randomly chosen primary sampling units. The 1 km minimum distance was used to more

uniformly distribute sampling work throughout the study area to avoid clumping and gaps

that could occur due to random sampling.

6

FIGURE.1. LOCATION OF THE 21 ISLANDS IN GOMNBR

2.3 . T H E I S L A N D S A N D S T U D Y S I T E S

2.3.1. T U T I C O R I N G R O U P

1. Vaan, 16.00 ha 8 .83639°N 78 .21047°E

FIGURE.4. VILANGUCHALLI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

7

2 Koswari, 19.50 ha 8.86879°N 78.22506°E

FIGURE.3. KOSWARI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

3. Vilanguchalli, 0.95 ha 8.93815°N 78.26969°E


8

http://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Gulf_of_Mannar_Marine_National_Park&params=8.86879_N_78.22506_E_


4. Kariyachalli, 16.46 ha 8.95409°N 78.25235°E

FIGURE.5. KARIYACHALLI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

2.3.2. VEMBAR GROUP

5. Uppu Thanni, 22.94 ha, elevation 4 m 9.08921°N 78.49148°E

FIGURE.10. VALI M U N A I ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

9



6 Puluvini Challi, 6.12 ha, elevation 5.5 m 9.10320°N 78.53688°E

7. Nalla Thanni, 101.00 ha, elevation 11.9 m 9.10667°N 78.57885°E


10



2.3.4. KILAKARAI GROUP

8. Anaipar, 11.00 ha, elevation 2.1 m 9.15294°N 78.69481°E

FIGURE.9. ANAIPAR ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

9. Vali Munai, 6.72 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9.15354°N 78.73052°E

FIGURE.10. VALI MUNAI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

11



10. Poovarasan Patti, 0.50 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9.15413°N 78.76695°E

1 0 / 2

tWa i 11

m 1 0 / 3

1 0 / 1

* " w i f

1 0 / 4

# 2004

Image © 2013 TerraMetncs

Image © 2013 DigitalGlobe Googleear th

9°09'12.35" N 78°46'11.97" E elev -1 m eye alt 1.05 km O

FIGURE. 1 1. POOVARASAN PATTI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

11. Appa, 28.63 ha, elevation 6.4 m 9.16582°N 78.82596°E


12



12. Talairi, 75.15 ha, elevation 2.7 m 9.18133°N 78.90673°E

FIGURE. 13. TALAIRI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

13. Valai 10.10 ha, elevation 3.0 m 9.18421°N 78.93866°E


13



14. Mulli, 10.20 ha, elevation 1.2 m 9.18641°N 78.96810°E

FIGURE. 1 5. MULLI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

2.3.5. MANDAPAM GROUP

15. Musal, 124.00 ha, elevation 0.9 m 9.19912°N 79.07530°E


14



16. Manoli, 25.90 ha 9.21564°N 79.12834°E

17. Manoli-Putti 2.34 ha 9.21581°N 79.12800°E

FIGURE. 18. MANOLI - PUTTI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

15



18. Poomarichan 16.58 ha 9.24538°N 79.17993°E

FIGURE.19.POOMARICHAN ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

19. Pullivasal, 29.95 ha 9.23699°N 79.19100°E

FIGURE.20.PULLIVASAL ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

16



20. Kurusadai, 65.80 ha 9.24690°N 79.20945°E

FIGURE.21. KURUSADAI ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

21. Shingle, 12.69 ha, elevation .6m 9.24174°N 79.23563°E.

FIGURE.22. SHINGLE ISLAND WITH STUDY SITES

Source: GPS data & Hyperlink for the islands - WikiMiniAtlas. Islands aerial view - Google earth 2013.

17



2.4. SURVEY METHODOLOGY

Specimens were not collected as the study area falls within the protected zone. No

special gear or net was used to collect sea-cucumbers because ban on specimen collections

since the study area falls under the marine protected area. (Permission Ref: Permit for

entering in to Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park for carrying out Research. Proceedings

of the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wild Life Warden, Chennai-15, File

No. C. No.WL5/26654/2013 Dated 26.07.2013. Tamil Nadu Forest Department). Two teams

of divers (scuba or skin) surveyed a 50m long transect, recording information from 1 m on

either side of the transect (i.e. 2 m total width). When the visibility was poor, the total width

of the observation was also reduced. The transect was placed perpendicular to or, sometimes

parallel to the beach depending on the local topography. The study was carried out from the

reef flat to a maximum depth depending upon the visibility of the site. The study area

extended from the south east coast of India, encompassing a group of 21 small, uninhabited

islands along a 170 km stretch between Tuticorin and Rameshwaram (08° 35' N 78° 08' E to

09° 25' N 79° 30' E). Randomly selected eighty four sampling sites were surveyed within the

study area, (Fig. 2-22). The survey was carried out every month from July 2013 to September

2013 with an average two weeks survey period (Table.1). Fieldwork was carried out by

operating from small boats (Fig.23-28). The boats leave around 6.30 a.m. - 7.30 a.m. and

return around 4.30 p.m. during day time. Night field work was randomly done by leaving

around 6.30 p.m. to 4.00 a.m.

18

Sample sites were located by using a portable global positioning system (GPS) and

also based on local species specific information derived from the local fisher man

questionnaire data. At each site, a diver (or divers) swam along a 50m transect to observe and

count sea cucumbers by taking photographs and reporting habitat information on 1m either

side of the transect line. At each site, the substrate was described in terms of the percentage

cover of sand, rubble, limestone platform, coral or terrestrial rock and mud. The percentage

cover of other conspicuous biota (e.g.seagrass and algae) was also recorded. The surveys

were carried out in the Tuticorin group of Islands (Van, Koswari, Vilanguchalli and

Kariyachalli); Vembar group of Islands (Upputhanni, Puluvinichalli and Nallathanni);

Kilakarai (Anaipar, Vali Munai, Poovarasan Patti, Appa, Talairi, Valai, Mulli) and

Mandapam group of Islands (Musal, Manoli, Manoli-Putti, Poomarichan, Pullivasal,

Kurusadai) in GoMMBR (Table. 1, Also see Fig. 2-22). The patchy reef area other than the

island periphery was also surveyed; locally known to be Mainland. Organisms were observed

and photographed underwater (Sony Digital Still Camera Model No: DSC-HX 200V with

DICAPAC underwater housing).

TABLE. 1. TIME FRAME FOR THE SURVEYS WITH STUDY SITES & GPS DATA

Study Area Study Sites with GPS data Survey time Fisher man questionnaire (Survey 1) & data collection 15.07.2013 to

26.07.2013 Tuticorin group islands: 1/1 8°50'11.30"N 78°12'35.17"E 1. Vaan 1/2

1/3 1/4

8°50'30.36"N 78°12'36.56"E 8°50'25.81"N 78°12'18.95"E 8°50'34.61"N 78°12'0.62"E

2. Koswari 2/1 2/2

8°52'5.41"N 78°13'3.54"E 8°52'25.45"N 78°13'29.76"E

2/3 8°52'12.99"N 78°13'27.69"E (Survey 2) 12.08.2013 to

16.08.2013

2/4 8°52'33.69"N 78°13'4.46"E (Survey 2) 12.08.2013 to

16.08.2013 3. Vilanguchalli 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4

8°56'26.46"N 78°15'55.24"E 8°55'50.12"N 78°17'10.75"E 8°56'41.03"N 78°17'15.30"E 8°56'15.78"N 78°16'10.53"E

(Survey 2) 12.08.2013 to

16.08.2013

4. Kariyachalli 4/1 8°57'25.06"N 78°14'58.68"E 4/2 8°57'43.92"N 78°15'4.00"E 4/3 8°57'24.02"N 78°15'8.77"E 4/4 8°57'27.69"N 78°15'34.69"E

20

Vembar group islands: 5/1: 9° 5'22.91"N 78°30'4.48"E 5. Uppu Thanni 5/2: 9°

5/3: 9° 5/4: 9°

5'37.45"N 78°29'31.02"E 5'3.75"N 78°29'18.51"E 5'16.91"N 78°29'35.56"E

6. Puluvini Challi 6/1: 9° 6'17.97"N 78°32'11.76"E (Survey 2) 17.08. 2013 to

20.08.2013

6/2: 9° 6'11.85"N 78°32'0.91"E (Survey 2) 17.08. 2013 to

20.08.2013 6/3: 9° 6'15.09"N 78°32'13.90"E

(Survey 2) 17.08. 2013 to

20.08.2013 6/4: 9° 6'15.09"N 78°32'13.90"E

(Survey 2) 17.08. 2013 to

20.08.2013

7. Nalla Thanni 7/1: 9 7/2: 9 7/3: 9 7/4: 9

3 6'27.98"N 78°34'41.19"E 3 6'27.98"N 78°34'41.19"E ° 6'1.23"N 78°34'54.80"E ° 6'0.50"N 78°33'53.61"E

Kilakarai group islands: 8/1: 9° 8'55.42"N 78°41'55.70"E 8. Anaipar 8/2: 9° 9'16.34"N 78°41'15.76"E

8/3: 9° 9'23.38"N 78°41'55.36"E 8/4: 9° 9'5.03"N 78°41'31.71"E

9. Vali Munai 9/1: 9° 9/2: 9° 9/3: 9° 9/4: 9

9'17.27"N 78°43'37.45"E 9'24.25"N 78°44'1.77"E 9'31.55"N 78°43'33.23"E

3 8'59.60"N 78°44'2.02"E 10. Poovarasan Patti 10/1: 9

10/2: 9 10/3: 9

° 9'16.71"N 78°46'6.09"E ° 9'22.11"N 78°45'57.33"E ° 9'15.33"N 78°45'57.48"E

10/4: 9 ° 9'11.31"N 78°46'2.99"E 10/4: 9 ° 9'11.31"N 78°46'2.99"E (Survey 3)

21.08.2013 to 23.08.2013

10.09.2013 to 18.09.2013

11. Appa 11/1: 9 °10'12.18"N 78°50'13.69"E (Survey 3) 21.08.2013 to

23.08.2013 10.09.2013 to

18.09.2013

11/2: 9 °10'27.02"N 78°49'29.45"E

(Survey 3) 21.08.2013 to

23.08.2013 10.09.2013 to

18.09.2013

11/3: 9 ° 9'29.10"N 78°50'19.17"E

(Survey 3) 21.08.2013 to

23.08.2013 10.09.2013 to

18.09.2013 11/4: 9 °10'2.36"N 78°49'22.13"E

(Survey 3) 21.08.2013 to

23.08.2013 10.09.2013 to

18.09.2013 12. Talairi 12/1:

12/2: 9°10'38.40"N 78°55'13.54"E 9°10'28.30"N 78°53'53.51"E

(Survey 3) 21.08.2013 to

23.08.2013 10.09.2013 to

18.09.2013 12. Talairi 12/1:

12/2: 9°10'38.40"N 78°55'13.54"E 9°10'28.30"N 78°53'53.51"E

12/3: 9°11'23.38"N 78°54'13.40"E 12/4: 9°11'6.38"N 78°55'16.41"E

13. Valai 13/1: 13/2: 13/3: 13/4:

9°11'11.65"N 78°56'17.96"E 9°10'59.32"N 78°56'32.70"E 9°11'6.46"N 78°56'27.85"E 9°10'53.09"N 78°56'9.60"E

14. Mulli 14/1: 9°11'10.54"N 78°58'19.07"E 14/2: 9°11'25.01"N 78°58'3.23"E 14/3: 9°11'14.75"N 78°57'52.70"E 14/4: 9°11'1.19"N 78°58'8.40"E

Mandapam group islands: 15. Musal

15/1: 15/2: 15/3:

9°12'30.35"N 79° 4'18.47"E 9°11'40.61"N 79° 4'36.94"E 9°12'20.01"N 79° 3'23.99"E

(Survey 4)

15/4: 16/1:

9°11'50.40"N 79° 5'40.05"E 9°13'4.38"N 79° 8'3.31"E

16. Manoli 15/4: 16/1:

9°11'50.40"N 79° 5'40.05"E 9°13'4.38"N 79° 8'3.31"E 19.09.2013 to 15/4:

16/1: 9°11'50.40"N 79° 5'40.05"E 9°13'4.38"N 79° 8'3.31"E 27.09.2013 16/2: 9°13'4.54"N 79° 7'17.72"E 27.09.2013

16/3: 9°12'43.20"N 79° 7'33.93"E 16/4: 9°12'44.96"N 79° 8'9.26"E

21

17. Manoli-Putti 17/1: 9°12'46.97"N 79° 8'31.95"E 17/2: 9°12'53.15"N 79° 8'27.42"E 17/3: 9°12'44.38"N 79° 8'20.00"E 17/4: 9°12'52.66"N 79° 8'18.36"E

18. Poomarichan 18/1: 9°14'42.33"N 79°10'56.03"E 18/2: 9°14'56.20"N 79°11'7.36"E 18/3: 9°14'51.17"N 79°10'39.14"E 18/4: 9°14'26.10"N 79°10'47.73"E

19. Pullivasal 19/1: 9°14'20.07"N 79°11'35.57"E 19/2: 9°14'7.80" N 79°11'54.60"E 19/3: 9°14'12.92"N 79°10'57.49"E 19/4: 9°14'0.05"N 79°11'41.82"E

20. Kurusadai 20/1 : 9°14'41.61"N 79°13'5.97"E 20/2 : 9°15'4.22"N 79°12'43.81"E 20/3 : 9°14'42.66"N 79°12'9.39"E 20/4 : 9°14'34.17"N 79°12'33.63"E

21. Shingle 21/1 : 9°14'31.81"N 79°13'47.83"E 21/2 : 9°14'38.41"N 79°14'11.77"E 21/3 : 9°14'30.40"N 79°14'27.73"E 21/4 : 9°14'23.80"N 79°14'7.26"E

2.4.1. DATA MANAGEMENT & STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Sampling sites were located using the handheld GPS and were transferred on

navigation software and associated to the data in MS-Excel tables. Data manipulations, e.g.,

to calculate average abundances, densities and error estimates, were made in MS-Excel and

plotted graphically. The data obtained through the study were analysed with several

biological indexes such as species richness (SR, the total number of species observed),

abundance (the number of individuals of each species), the Shannon index (H, indicating the

species diversity), the evenness index (J', indicating how the abundances are separated across

the species) and the Simpson's index (D). The value of D ranges from 0 to 1. With this index,

0 represents infinite diversity and, 1, no diversity. That is, the bigger the value the lower the

diversity. Density measurements (animal numbers/m2) were obtained by estimating a surface

area of about 100m for each transect, which was calculated considering the width of the belt

of observation (2m) and the length of the transect of about 50 m.

22

CHAPTER 3

3 . 1 . CHECKLIST OF SEA CUCUMBERS OF GOMMBR*

Order : Apodida Family : Chiridotidae

1. Polycheira rufescens (Brandt, 1835)

Family : Synaptidae

2. Opheodesoma grisea (Semper, 1867)

3. Protankyrapseudodigitata (Semper, 1867)

4. Synapta maculata (Chamisso & Eysenhardt, 1821)

5. Synaptula media Cherbonnier & Feral, 1984

6. Synaptula recta (Semper, 1867)

7. Synaptula striata (Sluiter, 1887)

Family : Holothuriidae

8. A ctinopyga echinites (Jaeger, 1833)

9. Actinopyga lecanora (Jaeger, 1833)

10. Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)

11. Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)

12. Actinopyga serratidens Pearson, 1903

13. Bohadschia argus Jaeger, 1833

14. Bohadschia marmorata Jaeger, 1833

15. Bohadschia tenuissima (Semper, 1868)

16. Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper, 1868)

17. Holothuria arenicola Semper, 1868

18. Holothuria atra Jaeger, 1833

19. Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt, 1835)

23

20. Holothuria difficilis Semper, 1868

21. Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830

22. Holothuria erinaceus Semper, 1868

23. Holothuria fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1833

24. Holothuria hilla Lesson, 1830

25. Holothuria imitans Ludwig, 1875

26. Holothuria impatiens (Forskal, 1775)

27. Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt, 1835)

28. Holothuria moebii Ludwig, 1883

29. Holothuria nobilis (Selenka, 1867)

30. Holothuria ocellata Jaeger, 1833

31. Holothuriapervicax Selenka, 1867

32. Holothuria scabra Jaeger, 1833

33. Holothuria spinifera Theel, 1886

34. Lessonothuriapardalis Selenka, 1867

Family : Stichopodidae

34. Stichopus chloronotus Brandt,1835

35. Stichopus herrmanni Semper, 1868

36. Stichopus horrens Semper, 1867

37. Stichopus naso Semper,1868

Order : Dendrochirotida

Family : Cucumariidae

38. Actinocucumis donnani Pearson, 1903

39. Actinocucumis typica Ludwig, 1875

40. Colochirus cylindricus Semper, 1867

41. Leptopentacta imbricata (Semper, 1867)

24

42. Ocnus javanicus Sluiter, 1880

43. Plesiocholochirus armatus (von Marenzeller, 1881)

44. Pseudocolochirus violaceus fTheel,1886)

45. Staurothyone rosacea (Semper, 1869)

Family : Heterothyonidae

46. Hemithyone semperi (Bell, 1884)

Family : Phyllophoridae

47. Havelockia versicolor (Semper, 1867)

48. Phyllophorus brocki Ludwig 1888

49. Phyllophorus cebuensis (Semper, 1867)

50. Phyllophorus spiculata Chang, 1935

51. Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1855)

52. Stolus conjugens (Semper, 1868)

53. Thyone fusca Pearson, 1903

54. Thyone papuensis Theel, 1886

Family : Psolidae

55. Psolidium complanatum Cherbonnier, 1969

Family : Sclerodactylidae

56. Ohshimella ehrenbergii (Selenka, 1868)

Order : Molpadiida

Family : Caudinidae

57. Acaudina australis (Semper, 1868)

58. Acaudina leucoprocta (H. L. Clark, 1938)

59. Acaudina molpadioides (Semper, 1867)

* Source derived from: Gopalakrishnan. A et al 2012 & Yogesh Kumar, J.S. & Geetha S.2013.

25

3.2. MAIN COMMERCIALLY EXPLOITED HOLOTHURIAN SPECIES IN THE GOMMBR. (VALUE: 1= HIGH COMMERCIAL VALUE; 2= MEDIUM COMMERCIAL VALUE; AND 3= LOW COMMERCIAL VALUE*)

Family Genus Species Common name Value Actinopyga echinites Deep water redfish 2

lecanora Stonefish 3 mauritiana Surf redfish 2 miliaris Blackfish 2

Bohadschia argus - -marmorata Brownfish 3 vitiensis Brownfish 3

Holothuria atra Black lollyfish 3 cinerascens - 3 edulis Pink lollyfish 3 impatiens - 4 leucospilota - 3 nobilis Black teatfish 1 scabra Sandfish 1 spinifera - 3

Stichopus chloronotus Greenfish 2 herrmanni Curryfish 2 horrens - 3

*Source derived from: Conand andMuthiga, 2007a. & James and James, 1994.

26

CHAPTER 4

4 . RESULTS

4.1. SITES AND SPECIES

Eighty four 4 sites have been surveyed: 16 sites in the Tuticorin group of islands, 12

sites in the Vembar, 28 sites in the Kilakarai and 28 sites in the Mandapam group of islands.

From the present study, 15 commercially important sea cucumber species have been

identified and reported here. Abundance and species diversity among the different group of

islands vary considerably. The highest diversity was recorded in the Mandapam group of

islands with the recording of eight commercial sea cucumber species.

4.2. SPECIES OBSERVED

So far 15 species of commercially important sea cucumbers could be recorded

during all the surveys and these species are summarized in Table 2 including Scientific name,

English name and their commercial importance. Several other varieties observed during the

survey require further identification or confirmation for their specific identity and hence not

reported here. All the commercially important sea cucumber species come recorded during

the surveys are given in Figure 29-43.

27

TABLE.2. SEA CUCUMBER SPECIES OBSERVED DURING THE STUDY*(VALUE: 1= HIGH COMMERCIAL VALUE; 2= MEDIUM COMMERCIAL VALUE; AND 3= LOW COMMERCIAL VALUE*)

Genus Species Common name Value 1. Actinopyga echinites Deep water redfish 2

2. Actinopyga lecanora Stonefish 3 3. Actinopyga miliaris Blackfish 2 4. Bohadschia marmorata Brownfish 3 5. Bohadschia vitiensis Brownfish 3 6. Holothuria atra Black lollyfish 3 7. Holothuria edulis Pink lollyfish 3 8. Holothuria impatiens - 4 9. Holothuria leucospilota — 3 10. Holothuria nobilis Black teatfish 1 11. Holothuria scabra Sandfish 1 12. Holothuria spinifera - 3 13. Stichopus chloronotus Greenfish 2 14. Stichopus herrmanni Curryfish 2 15. Stichopus horrens - 3

*The above species identifications were confirmed by Dr. P.S. Asha, Principal Scientist at the research centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Tuticorin.

28

FIGURE. 31. Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)

FIGURE.34. Holothuria atra Jaeger, 1833

31

FIGURE.35. Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830

FIGURE.36. Holothuria impatiens (Forskal, 1775)

32

FIGURE.37. Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt, 1835)

FIGURE.38.Holothuria nobilis (Selenka, 1867)

33

FIGURE.39. Holothuria scabra Jaeger, 1833

FIGURE.40. Holothuria spinifera Theel, 1886

34

J

FIGURE.41. Stichopus chloronotus Brandt,1835

I

FIGURE.42. Stichopus herrmanni Semper, 1868

35

FIGURE.43.Stichopus horrens Semper, 1867

The above figured 15 species of commercially recognised sea cucumbers coming

under 4 genera and 2 families were identified from the study location. The percentage cover

of sea cucumbers recorded is presented in figures. 44 & 45. The underwater photographs

taken from the study sites during the study period are presented as plates numbered 29-43.

Out of the 15 species observed during the study no single species was recorded in all the

study sites. However Holothuria atra was observed from most of the study sites except in

Nalla Thanni, Valai and Mulli.

36

<1 o SPECIES • Act inopyga echini tes

• Act inopyga lecanora

• Act inopyga miliaris

• Bohadschia marmorata

• Bohadschia vit iensis

• Holothuria atra

• Holothuria edul is

• Holothuria impat iens

Holothuria leucospi lota

• Holothuria nobil is

Holothuria scabra

Holothuria spini fera

St ichopus chloronotus

St ichopus herrmanni

• St ichopus horrens

1 n

SPECIES • Act inopyga echini tes





• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra










• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra










• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra





A






• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra





9 | I , J






• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra





n I II \ I I






• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra





Vaan

u i

Kos

war

i 0

1

Vi

lang

ucha

lli

_»

Kar

iyac

halli

<

Upp

u Th

anni

e b

Pulu

vini

Cha

lli

SD

Nal

la T

hann

i

Anai

par

Vali

Mun

ai

n a u P M n li a al s V a r a v o o P

Kil

a p p

A

aka

Tala

iri

Vala

i

Mul

li

Mus

al

Man

oli

u P oli n a M

Man a Po

omar

icha

n p m

Pul

livas

al

Kur

usad

ai

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ngle






• Holothuria atra





Holothuria scabra





F IGURE.44 . C O M M E R C I A L L Y I M P O R T A N T SEA C U C U M B E R S R E C O R D E D AT ALL S I TES B O R D E R I N G 21 G R O U P OF ISLANDS, G O M M B R .

3 % 4 %

3%

7%

7%

9%

• Actinopyga echinites

• Actinopyga lecanora

• Actinopyga miliaris


4 % • Bohadschia vitiensis

6% 4%

• Holothuria atra

3 %

4% Holothuria edulis

Holothuria impatiens

• Holothuria leucospilota

• Holothuria nobilis

• Holothuria scabra

8% 10%

Holothuria edulis

Holothuria impatiens

• Holothuria leucospilota

• Holothuria nobilis

• Holothuria scabra

7%

9%

16%

• Holothuria spinifera

• Stichopus chloronotus

• Stichopus herrmanni

• Stichopus horrens

F IGURE.45 . P E R C E N T A G E OF C O M M E R C I A L L Y I M P O R T A N T SEA C U C U M B E R S R E C O R D E D AT ALL S I TES B O R D E R I N G 21 G R O U P OF ISLANDS, G O M M B R .

37

4.3. ABUNDANCE ESTIMATE

The data on density estimates are presented for each species separately, for each

islands (Figures.48-68) and also combined for all the sites. The density measures presented

are mean values from either stations or transects summed up per hectare (number of

animals/ha). The mathematical nature of extrapolating the recorded number to a per hectare

figure, evaluates the data according to deviation in length (i.e. area) from transect to transect.

The recorded number of individuals is multiplied with the fraction of the transect area

compared to the total area of a hectare. The mean abundance per hectare is summarized in

Figure. 46 and it indicates that the highest abundance was contributed by Holothuria atra

followed by Holothuria edulis.

14.00

12.00

10.00

8.00

•= 6 . 0 0

4.00

2.00

0.00

| I . • , • I I • I I

op <3> *3> & <&> <& *3> .<&> <!&• xs? <cy xs <gy x? J? & o° # A<r

^ * * f S j r j r j r s

FIGURE.46. DATA PRESENTED AS NUMBER OF ANIMALS PER HECTARE.

Species diversity index studies were plotted (Figure. 47) for all the islands in the

Thoothukudi, Vembar, Kilakarai and Mandapam groups of islands in GoMMBR. Higher

Pielou's Evenness (J) was observed in Nalla Thanni island (0.988) and minimum was in

Puluvini Challi (0.848). Maximum Shannon - Wiener's diversity (H) was observed in

38

Poovarasan Patti Island (2.265) and minimum in Nallathanni Island (1.085). Simpson species

index (D) was highest in Poovarasan Patti Island (0.884) and the lowest in Nallathanni Island

(0.658)

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

r T T T T r r t r r T T T T T m i T T T n T T H T T

n a a V a a a

h C

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n a

a ll ur S

le lg n

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Pielou's Evenness (J)

Shannon - Wiener's Diversity (H)

Simpson's Index (D)

FIGURE.47. DIVERSITY INDEX CALCULATION OF HOLOTHURIAN SPECIES AT 21 GROUP OF ISLANDS, GOMMBR.

39

FIGURE.48-68. (ASFOLLOWS) COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT SEA CUCUMBERS RECORDED AT ALL 21 ISLANDS, GOMMBR. * B A C K G R O U N D I M A G E OF THE C O R R E S P O N D I N G I S L A N D S ARE P R O J E C T E D I IN THE F O L L O W I N G F I G U R E S I N T E N D E D FOR I N S T A N T I N F O R M A T I O N A B O U T T H E L O C A L I T Y & S T U D Y S I TES .

40

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44

4.5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

Sea cucumber diversity in India is mostly reported from the Lakshadweep Islands,

Gulf of Kutch of the Arabian Sea, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk

Bay in the Bay of Bengal Sea. Intense sea cucumber fishing activities begin in GOMMBR at

the end of Southwest monsoon (May - September). Fishing here is both by artisanal means

(fishers usually skin-dive up to 12 m for the collection of sea cucumbers) and by trawl

catches using modified prawn nets. The holothurians were fished almost throughout the year.

In Palk Bay, the fishing was conducted from March to October, the peak being in April and

May and in the Gulf of Mannar from October to March with a peak in December and

January. The available stocks are usually depleted by the end of December, or may extend up

to January next year depending on the availability of ideal fishing days in this season. The

left-over stocks may or may not aide replenishment of stocks. Sea cucumber fisheries are a

multi-species fishery and thus present more complex management problems than a single-

species fishery. Also it is very difficult to study the varied range of benthic habitats in which

different species occur and the differing demographic traits among the species. Similarly

many species appear to be slow-growing and are more vulnerable and the stocks are therefore

more fragile.

The Indian sea cucumber industry includes fishermen who collect sea cucumbers, the

processors who are the middlemen engaged in processing, and the exporters who grab the

lion's share of the profits from the industry. The processed sea cucumbers are chiefly

exported to Singapore, from where they were re-exported to Hong Kong and Chinese

markets. Though the fishery and trade of sea cucumbers are banned by the Government of

India by including all sea cucumber species under Schedule 1 of the Wild Life Protection Act

of 1972, the fishery and trade of many commercially valuable holothurians still exist in parts

of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay of the southeast coast of India. Additionally in 1982, The

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, took a further step to conserve

47

holothurians by imposing a ban on export of beche-de-mer of less than 75 mm in length.

However, it is impossible to regulate the catch of under sized sea cucumbers effectively.

Reports show sea cucumber landings to be mainly from 15 major centres at Gulf of Mannar

and from 25 centres at Palk Bay as sea cucumber fishing and trade serves as an important

source of income for the livelihoods of almost 200000 fishermen in this area. All species,

available on reef flats or in shallow waters, regardless of size or commercial interest, are

collected and exploited. The main direct threat to sea cucumber fisheries in the GOMMBR is

over-harvesting. As high value species become overexploited the attention changes to lower-

value species. Another tendency observed is the fishers exploiting fresh grounds once they

have removed all animals from one location. Various studies have indicated that

overexploited populations of sea cucumbers may require as much as 50 years in the absence

of fishing pressure to rebuild (Bruckner, Johnson and Field, 2003; Uthicke, 2004). Continued

over-harvesting of sea cucumbers can lead to reduced densities, and this can lead to

disproportionally reduced larval production (Uthicke, 2004), a form of Allee effect (Allee et

al., 1949). Global climate change also has a major potential to disturb sea cucumber

populations which could result in the extinction of some species, the modification of species

distributions, and alterations in the flow of energy and cycling of materials within

ecosystems.

The present study indicates that the current status of commercial sea cucumber

diversity amongst the 84 sites in GOMMBR varies according to the environmental

variability, animal responses and fishing activity. Accordingly it is evident that the existence

of seagrass beds and the greater permeability of sediment contribute to the increase in

Dissolved Oxygen in water which influences the sea cucumber density as well as their

survival. Fishing is also a very significant factor that influences the abundance of sea

cucumbers among the study area. The consequence of fishing pressure on the sea cucumbers

population distribution along these sites is reflected in the sites that are nearer to heavily

populated villages. Thus, the environmental variability together with fishing pressure could

have impacted on the population diversity of sea cucumbers in the study area. The scarcity of

48

data on catches, as well as on biomass, is the main cause why management laws fail and are

not sustainable. In many countries, regulations or bans are announced when overexploitation

has already occurred and the revival of the stock is therefore long and problematic when there

are several illegal fishing activities.

Currently, both fishery and trade of sea cucumbers are banned by the Government of

India by including all sea cucumber species under Schedule 1 of the Wild Life Protection Act

of 1972. Stringent implementation of this law was effected from 2003. Hefty fines and

detention were charged against those violating this law. The major difficulties met in the

enforcement of the current management plan are poaching and illegal trade of both raw and

dried sea cucumbers to adjoining countries. Despite the awareness about the ban and

punishment, fishermen are still involved in these illegal practices for their livelihood. The ban

on fishery and trade are still in force. Representations from fishermen welfare agencies and

political parties have been made to authorities, highlighting the adverse impacts of ban on the

livelihood of poor coastal fishing communities, urging the need for lifting the ban. In

conclusion, I would like to opine that despite significant increase in interest during the last

decade by the scientific community, the managers and the users, sustainable harvesting

remains a far-fetched dream since much studies on various issues still remain to be addressed

viz. alternate livelihood sources for the vast fishing community, creating awareness among

them on the ecology of the fishing ground and impact of over harvesting and pollution on the

health of the ecosystem for a sustainable exploitation of sea cucumbers. Much research

needs to be done to understand the biology of the species for culture and growth of the

commercially important species. Purcell (2004) has stressed the need to focus on biology and

ecology of the species, economics and management and protection of the stocks by

alternative solutions. Stock assessments based on seasonal variation are necessary in most

regions and must take into account the variety of habitats and the different commercial

species. Therefore close monitoring on population status assessment and continuous

assessment is urgently required to contain the present depletion of most stocks. The picture

that emerges from the analyses of the population data from the present study area is rather

49

dismal. It is seen that the Sea Cucumber populations in GOMMBR are under severe stress

and would require immediate attention from Biodiversity managers and regulators.

Consequently, I would like to make the following recommendations for the conservation and

management of these commercially exploited animal groups:

> Allocate species-specific and island-specific harvest/export quotas; establish

closed areas and/or support the existing; introduce short harvest periods; limit

the number of exporters; regulations with limitations of catches (by quotas or

zone rotation or period of closure), or the access to the fishery by permits.

> It is urgent that the Government in association with the stakeholders protect

and manage this marine resource in ecological ways before it becomes

decimated /extinct.

> Therefore, both the Government and the stakeholders would form a national

committee to monitor the overall management and exploitation of Sea

Cucumbers. The committee must carefully cover the distributional areas with

strict implementation and regulations comprising the seasonal closures, area

closures, size limits, gear restrictions, licensing, restocking, education and

extension, and research.

> Also, it is essential to develop more land-based hatcheries or mariculture where

more Sea Cucumbers could be made commercially which can be also utilized

for restocking purposes. Additionally, training programmes to educate the

stakeholders and local fishersman about harvesting, processing and selling as

"beche-de-mer" industry would be a great help.

50

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