Pollution from road traffic

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POLLUTION FROM ROAD TRAFFIC - focus on particles and nitrogen oxides

description

The publication focuses on air pollution with particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide from traffic, the significant health and socio-economic consequences of the pollution, the technical solutions, the existing regulation of the air pollution and the missing will of the Danish government to limit the air pollution and thereby fulfil the existing air quality limits, environmental zones and green taxation as cost-efficient solutions to the air pollution. The publication is well suited for teaching purposes. Author: Kåre Press-Kristensen The Danish Ecological Council, May 2011 (Danish and english version)

Transcript of Pollution from road traffic

Page 1: Pollution from road traffic

P O L L U T I O N F R O M R OA D T R A F F I C - focus on particles and nitrogen oxides

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TA B L E O F CO NTE NT

A significant health problem • 3Particles and nitrogen oxides • 5Technical solutions • 10Quit ineffective open filters • 13Violation the EU-legislation • 15Case study: Danish environmental zones • 17Environmental zones for the future • 18Suing the state • 19Chip tuning • 21Non-road diesel engines • 22Green taxation • 23

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ISBN: 978-87-92044-22-8Text: Kåre Press-Kristensen and Christian Ege Layout: Design Konsortiet, Hanne KochPhotos: Søren Dyck-Madsen, Kåre Press-Kristensen and DinexPrint: Økotryk, printed after the principles of the Nordic swan ecolabelEdition: 1. revised edition, 1. printing – May 2011The booklet can be downloaded from the homepage of the Danish Ecocouncil: www.ecocoulcil.dkThe booklet is free and can be ordered through the Danish Ecocouncil against payment of postage and costs ofexpedition.Citation, copying and other use of the booklet is permitted under citation of the source.This English version is funded by the Danish Ministry of Education's (Tips- and Lotto funding).Copyright: The Danish Ecocouncil

Published by:

The Danish Ecocouncil Blegdamsvej 4B2200 Copenhagen NDenmarkPhone: (+45) 3315 0977 E-mail:[email protected]

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Air pollution from traffic is an important cause ofdeath in larger cities. The pollution is known tocause cardiovascular diseases, blood clots, airwaydiseases and cancer.

A comprehensive Dutch study shows that there isapproximately 50 % excess mortality among peop-le living less than 50 meters from a road withheavy traffic. Heavy traffic is defined as roads withabove 10,000 vehicles a day. Approximately100,000 people in Copenhagen are in this group.This corresponds to additional 500 deaths everyyear. For comparison the average deaths caused bytraffic accidents is 10-15 people. Consequently,more than 30 times more people die from pollu-tion caused by traffic than by traffic accidents inCopenhagen. In addition, the air pollution is belie-ved to cause thousand of bronchitis cases, tenthousands of asthma attacks and other seriousdiseases. Finally, air pollution is suspected to bedamaging to foetuses and to contribute to seriousdiseases in the central nerve system likeParkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.

However, it is not only the citizens of Copenhagenthat suffers from air pollution. According to a2008-report from OECD about the state of theDanish environment approximately 1 million

Danes are daily exposed to dangerous air pollu-tion. And a new report from the NationalEnvironmental Research Institute of Denmarkunderlines that the health damages causesabroad from Danish air pollution are above fivetimes higher than the damages caused inDenmark.

All road users are exposed to the pollution. Carusers as well since the pollution is ventilated intothe car where the air only slowly replaces. Cyclistshave a faster breath and can thereby theoreticallyinhale more pollution. However, the exercise rela-ted health benefit from riding a bike are much lar-ger than the negative effect of the air pollution.Air pollution from traffic can as well be a seriouswork-related problem for drivers, carriers, roadworkers etc. Finally, air pollution can enter homesnext to roads with heavy traffic.

Today it is well documented that air pollutantsfrom traffic in terms of particles and the dama-ging gas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a threat to pub-lic health. Ultrafine particles from diesel vehiclesare of special concern in the newest research sincethe size of these particles allows them to penetra-te into the finest parts of the lungs and enter thebloodstream. Furthermore, ultrafine particles are

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A S I G N I F I C A N T H E A LT H P R O B L E M

There is approx. 50 % excess mortality among people living less than 50 meters from a road with heavy traffic

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believed to penetrate the nose mucous membraneand enter the brain. While ultrafine particlesmainly cause a local effect, the larger particles canbe transported above large distances and therebyexpose many people in Denmark and abroad.

Table 1 shows some estimated health effects inDenmark caused by ultrafine particles from diffe-rent vehicles categories. To these numbers shouldbe added health effects from the increasing num-ber of private diesel cars and the regional effectsfrom larger particles and nitrogen oxides causinggeneral damage in Denmark and abroad.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reduces the function ofthe lungs and lungs resistance towards infections.Furthermore, NO2 contributes to secondary partic-le formation in the atmosphere and thereby topollution far from the primary pollution source.Finally, NO2 contributes to eutrophication of oli-gothrophic ecosystems and acid rain (nitric acid)and thereby nature destruction.

Other sources of particle pollution exists e.g. woodstoves, non-road diesel engines and ships.However, in cities with moderate dilution combi-ned with high population density the traffic is thedominating source to pollution with ultrafine par-ticles and nitrogen dioxide. Especially, diesel vehic-les: Trucks, busses, vans, taxies, private diesel carsand non-road diesel engines.

Consequently, the main focus of this booklet is onhealth effects caused by diesel vehicles in citiesand methods to limit the pollution.

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Table 1Heavy vehicles Vans Taxies

Mortality 800 475 15Hospitalization 875 525 20Chronic bronchitis 800 475 15Acute bronchitis 2,800 1,650 60Asthma attack 30,600 22,950 650B-days1 435,000 260,000 9,250

Estimation of health effects caused by ultrafine particles from different vehicles categories in Denmark.1) B-days are days with decreased productivity due to illness. Ref: Samfundsøkonomisk vurdering af parti-kelfiltre (in Danish), Environmental Assessment Institute of Denmark, 2002.

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0.001

Nanoparticles (PM0.03)

Coarse particles(dust from road, tyres etc.)

Secondaryparticles(regional transport)

NumberMass

Ultrafine particles (PM0.1)Fine particles (PM2.5)

Particles in air (PM10)

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 µm

Condensates(traffic)

Soot (traffic)Brake dust(traffic)

Particles are solid matter with adiameter less than 10 micrometers.Further classification can be doneby size: Coarse, fine, ultrafine andnanoparticles (see Table 2).

Notice that the amount of PM10and PM2.5 is measured in masswhereas ultrafine particles andnanoparticles are measured innumbers. The larger particles constitute the majo-rity of the total particle mass but only a small partof the total particle number. On the other hand,ultrafine particles (PM0.1) and nanoparticles con-stitute the majority of the total particle numberbut an insignificant part of the total particle mass(see Figure 1).

Ultrafine particles and nanoparticles origins fromthe exhaust gas, while the majority of the largerparticles origins form regional transport (back-ground pollution), dust from tearing of road, tiresand brakes, road and salt dust etc. (Figure 1)

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PA RT I C L E S A N D N I T R O G E N OX I D E S

Table 2Size, PMXX Term and

(diameter, micrometer) measurement

Coarse particles < 10 PM10: MassFine particles < 2.5 PM2.5: MassUltrafine particles < 0.1 PM0.1: Number Nanoparticles < 0.03 PM0.03: Number

Characterization of the different types of particles.

Figure 1: Larger particles dominate the total particle mass, while the total number of particles is domina-ted by ultrafine particle and nanoparticles.Ref.: Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (In Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

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Ultrafine particles from traffic are considered asvery hazardous to health. Since these particlesdominate the total number of particles it is of vitalimportance to consider the number of particlesand not just the mass. However, there is no legisla-tion on measuring the number of particles or limitvalues for ultrafine particles. Therefore the know-ledge regarding the pollution sources are mainlyregarding PM10 and PM2.5 (see Figure 2).

Transport constitutes a smaller part of the Danishpollution with PM10 and PM2.5 (see figure 2).However, at the most polluted roads in Denmark(e.g. H.C. Andersens Boulevard in Copenhagen) roadtransport constitute about 50 % of the PM10 and25 % of the PM2.5 pollution. About 25 % of thePM10 and 50 % of the PM2.5 pollution originatefrom the car exhaust gas (see Figure 3).

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Other 7%Agriculture 1%

Households 61%

Households 65%

Agriculture 6%

Transport 16%

Transport 13%Other 13%

Figure 2: Emissions of PM10 and PM2.5 (measured as mass) from Danish anthropogenic sources.Particles from households are mainly from private wood burning.Ref: National Environmental Research Institute.

Figure 3: PM10- and PM2.5 pollution (in mass) from traffic at H. C. Andersens Boulevard in Copenhagen.Ref; Modified from Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (in Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

Danish emission of PM10 Danish emission of PM2.5

Exhaust 51%Exhaust 25%

Brakes 8%

Brakes 10%

Road dust 32%

Road dust 43%

Road salt 24%Road salt 7%

PM10 pollution from traffic at H.C. AndersenBoulevard

PM2.5 pollution from traffic at H.C. AndersenBoulevard

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Consequently, only about 12.5 % of the PM10 andPM2.5 pollution at H.C Andersens Boulevard is cau-sed by the exhaust from local traffic. However, theexhaust from traffic is the dominating source toultrafine particles. On roads with heavy trafficmore than 90 % of the ultrafine particles willoften originate from local traffic exhaust. Sinceultrafine particles are considered to be very harm-ful it should be a main focus to reduce the concen-tration (number) of ultrafine particles.

Heavy vehicles and delivery vans account for a sig-nificant part of pollution with PM2.5 (figure 4a).It is believed that these vehicle categories will con-tribute significantly to the pollution with ultrafineparticles as well due to their high emission factors(see figure 4b) even though heavy vehicles andvans in terms of numbers accounts for a smallportion of the overall traffic (Figure 7). The emis-sion factors vary significantly depending on age,motor maintenance, filter-equipped or not etc.

Gasoline engines create particles too but in muchlower concentrations compared to diesel cars. Atthe same time catalytic converters on gasolinecars remove most of the created particles.

Catalytic converters have been required on all newgasoline cars since 1993. However, mopeds do nothave catalytic converters and together with anineffective fuel burning they have a high pollutionper km.

The different types of particles have very differentproperties in terms of spreading thus contributingdifferently on regional and international scale ofthe air pollution. The largest particles (PM10) stayshortly in the air due to their high density and arethereby not transported far. Ultrafine particleshave a rather short lifetime in air and are therefo-re not transported far either. However, the fineparticles (PM2.5) have a long lifetime in theatmosphere and can be transported abroad.Furthermore, many fine particles are formed in theatmosphere as well from gasses.

Danish pollution thereby contributes to pollutionand health effects abroad. And Denmark importsmost of the pollution with fine particles fromother countries. The European EnvironmentalAgency has calculated the number of lost years inEurope due to pollution with fine particles (figure5).

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Cars 21%

Heavy vehicles 33%

Delivery vans 44%

Mopeds 2%

Particles (PM2.5) from traffic

Figur 4a Figur 4b

Figure 4: Distribution of PM2.5 pollution (measured as mass) and emission factors in numbers distributedamong different vehicle categories without particulate filters.Ref: Modified from Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (in Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

Particle number (1014/km)

Diesel cars 1.1Delivery vans 4.4Smaller trucks 36Larger trucks 73Busses 18.3

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Transport 46%

Industry 11%

Energy production 21%

Other 22%Nitrogen oxides (NOX) mainly consist of the twogasses: Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide(NO2). The gasses are formed during burning inengines under high temperature when free nitro-gen (N2) from air is oxidized. Transport is the lar-gest source to NOX-pollution (Figure 6).NO2 is harmful in concentrations measured inmany cities. NO is harmless in normal concentra-tions. The traffic is the dominating source NOX-pollution in cities.

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Figure 5: Shortening of the average lifespan caused by pollution with fine particles (PM2.5) in Europe measu-red as lost years of living per 100 km2.Ref. The European Environmental Agency, 2010.

Figure 6: NOX-pollution from Danish sources in2009.Ref. National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark,2011

Years of life lost (YOLL)

Reference year: 2005Years

0-0.50.5-11-55-1010-2525-5050-100100-500500-5000> 5000

Poor data coverageOutside datacoverage

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Heavy vehicles cause about 30 % of the pollutioneven though they only make up about 4 % of thetraffic (Figure 7). Cars only contribute to a minorpart of the pollution because the majority of carsare private gasoline cars with catalytic convertersremoving 80-90 % of the NOX. The exhaust from atraditional diesel car contains about 90 % NO and10 % NO2. But some modern diesel cars are equip-ped with oxidizing catalytic converters. Therebythe share of harmful NO2 can be up to 40 % of theNOX in the exhaust gas causing serious air pollu-tion.

In the street air a part of the harmless NO reactswith ozone (O3) and thereby becomes oxidized toharmful NO2. Ozone is often the limiting reactant.In streets with heavy traffic in Copenhagen up to60 % of the NO2-pollution origins from trafficwhile the last 40 % are background pollution fromother pollution sources.

In the cities the diesel traffic thereby becomes animportant pollution source to harmful pollutionwith ultrafine particles and NO2.

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Cars 77%

Cars 49%Taxies 8%

Taxies 8%

Delivery vans 11%

Delivery vans 13%

Heavy vehicles 30%

Heavy vehicles 4%

NOx-pollution from traffic Traffic distribution

Figur 7: NOX-pollution from traffic and traffic distribution in Copenhagen in 2010.Ref. National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark, 2011

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The major part of particle pollution from theexhaust of diesel vehicles can be removed byusing closed particulate filters. However, it is ofgreat importance to distinguish between theeffective closed particulate filters and the ineffec-tive open particulate filters. Typically, the closedparticulate filters reduce the emission of particleswith efficiencies above 95 % for all particle sizes inthe exhaust (PM10, PM2.5, PM0.1). Only 10-15 % ofthe particle mass is reduced by open particulatefilters and the removal of ultrafine particles is notdocumented (see page 13).

Consequently, the particle pollution from trafficcan be removed efficiently by imple-

mentation of technology. Thesame goes for pollution

with NOX from heavy die-sel vehicles. Here a reduc-tion of 80 % can beachieved by installationof SCR-systems (SCR:Selective Catalytic

Reduction). Danish compa-

nies even succeeded in developing a combinationof a filter and SCR-system for heavy vehicles.

A closed particulate filter consists of a number ofclosed channels where only air can pass through thewalls. Consequently, particles of all sizes are retainedin the filter. To receive approval a closed filter mustretain at least 80 % of the particles. But the reduc-tion is often above 95 %. To avoid clogging of the fil-ter an automatic regeneration process is used. Theregenerative process typically oxidizes particles inthe filter to harmless CO2 and water vapour.

However, some particulate filters increases theemission of NO2 since NO can be oxidized to NO2in some filters. Consequently, it can be necessaryto combine particulate filters and SCR-systems. ASCR-system consists of a catalytic converter and apump with NOX sensors and a urea-container. Thesensor and pump dose just enough urea into thecatalytic converter to remove the produced NOX.The catalytic converter then uses ammonia relea-sed from urea to reduce the NOX to harmless freenitrogen (N2) and water vapour.

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T E C H N I C A L S O L UT I O N S

Danish cleantech companies are among the world leading suppliers of air pollution control technologies.

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The price of a combined solution (clo-sed particulate filter and SCR-system)for heavy vehicles is approx. 15,000EUR. The lifetime of the system is min.5 years i.e. the running costs are about3,000 EUR per year. This should becompared to the running costs of anaverage truck which is about 100,000EUR per year (depreciation, diesel, driver salary, main-tenance etc.). Consequently, the haulers costs areincreased by 3 %. The installation of a closed particu-late filter increases the haulers costs about 1 %.

Due to the cost increase no haulers will buy the airpollution control technologies voluntarily. Thus,there is need for legislative demands for the tech-nologies. The Euro-norms (see page 15) ensuresthat this gradually occurs for new vehicles.However, there is a need for subsequent retrofit-ting on all existing vehicles. As a minimum thereshould be demands in environmental zones in citi-es (see page 18).

An obligatory demand for air cleaning technologywill - beside cleaner air - allow the businessowners to pass on the additional costs directly totheir customers that can pass them on to theircustomers and so on until the end user – the con-sumer – pays the costs when buying products.Consequently, the additional cost finally ends atthe consumer which at the same time benefitsfrom the cleaner air. Since transport charges oftenconstitutes a very little part of the product pricean observed increase in every day products willtypically be below 0.1 percent due to legislativedemands on air cleaning systems e.g. below 0.01eurocent for a liter of milk.

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The combination of a particulate filter and SCR-systems makes the exhaust from heavy diesel

vehicles much cleaner

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Socio-economic cost-benefit studies performed bydifferent authorities and independent institutesreveal that legislative standards on particulate fil-ters and SCR-systems are highly favorable. The rea-son is that the society costs due to illness anddeath are significantly higher than the costs ofcleaning the air (see Box).

A legislative enforcement of particulate filters andSCR-systems would be a favorable investment forsociety. It would make life better for many peopleand increase the life span. But still politicians refu-se to act. It is often claimed that subsequentinstallation of closed particulate filters on passen-ger cars and vans are impossible. However, this isnot true. Danish cleantech manufacturers andsuppliers are ready.

Today, there has not been developed a SCR-systemor similar for delivery vans because there is nodemand for the systems since nobody will buythem before they are forced to by regulation.Therefore there is an urgent need for political ini-tiatives to promote SCR-systems and subsequentlyinstalling SCR-systems or similar technologies.

Closed particulate filters are automatically atta-ched to new light diesel vehicles today due to theEuro-norms. Furthermore, SCR-systems or similarcleaning technology is automatically attached tonew heavy vehicles. However, there is still no req-uirements for particulate filters to new heavyvehicles and NOX-catalytic converters (SCR or simi-lar) on light vehicles.

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”The results underline that society most likely can achievean overall benefit by retrofitting closed particulate filterson heavy vehicles. The benefit can reach 12 billion EURduring the next 15 years (in Denmark). However, thisshould be seen as the largest benefit possible.”Ref. Samfundsøkonomisk vurdering af partikelfiltre (in Danish),Environmental Assessment Institute of Denmark, 2002.

”Retrofitting SCR on heavy vehicles would reduce NOX by3.279 tons in 2010 … SCR gives a net present value (benefit)of 30 million EUR.”Ref. Samfundsøkonomisk analyse af NOX reduction (in Danish), Danish EPA,2006

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As mentioned earlier it is very important to distin-guish between the effective closed particulate fil-ters which typically remove 95 % of the exhaustparticles (all particle sizes) and the ineffective openparticulate filters which are believed to remove 10-15 % of the particle mass (larger particles).

Particulate filters on new vehicles are closed filters.The same goes for retrofitting particulate filters onheavy vehicles. However, retrofitting particulate filters on light vehicles (passenger cars and vans) isvery often inefficient open filters.

A closed particulate filter consists of a number ofclosed channels where the particles are retained.An open filter consists of open channels where themajority of the particles pass directly through.

An open particulate filter can retain 30-50 % atoptimal conditions (freeway driving). However,when driving at lower speeds e.g. in cities the effi-ciency is much lower – down to 3-5 %. Open filtersare believed to have an average efficiency of 10-15% particle mass removal, but lower in cities wherethe particle pollution causes most damage. Afterurban driving non-combusted particles are pre-sent in the filter. When the speed is then suddenlyincreased the result is a cloud of particles releasedas black smoke from the exhaust.

An open particulate filter costs about 800 EURincl. installation, while a closed particulate filtercosts approx. 1,600 EUR incl. installation. However,since closed particulate filters reduce 7-10 timesmore than open filters the particle reduction perinvested EUR is significantly higher with closed fil-ters.

Q U I T I N E F F E C T I V E O P E N F I LT E R S

Almost all particles (above 95 %) is retained in theclosed particulate filters, while the major part ofparticles passes freely through the open particulate filters

Open filters remove less than 15 % of the particles

Closed filters remove more than 95 % of the particles.

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Closed filters SCR-systemsPurefi: www.purefi.dk Haldor Topsoe: www.topsoe.com Dinex: www.dinex.dk Emitec Denmark: www.emitec.com Notox: www.notoxcf.com LiqTech: www.liqtech.dkH. Daugbjerg: www.scan-filter.com

Danish manufacturers and suppliers of closed particulate filters and SCR-systems are world leading.

Still, the Danish government does not distinguishbetween open and closed particulate filters forlight vehicles. The 1st of April 2010 a tax of 130 EURwas introduced in Denmark for vans and dieselcars without particulate filters. Consequently, carowners can avoid paying the tax by installing anineffective open filter. And is it not even requiredthat the efficiency of the filter is documented atMOT tests.

A year after the enforcement 1,000 car owners hadinstalled open particulate filters to avoid the taxwhile about approx. 300,000 car owners paid thetax. This is due to the fact that even installation ofan open particulate filter would have a simplepayback time of 6 years which makes it unecono-mic. And the 0.3 % car owners which for “the sakeof the environment” installed open filters havebeen cheated since the environmental effect oftheir open filters is very poor.

There are two lessons to be learned. First, peopleshould only be allowed to be exempted from the

taxation if they install closed particulate filters( just like the legislation is for heavy vehicles in theenvironmental zones). Second, the taxation is toolow to ensure installation. The yearly taxationshould be 600 EUR instead. Then the simple pay-back time would be less than 3 years for closedparticulate filters which would make filter instal-lation profitable.

In German environmental zones there is (contraryto Danish environmental zones) a requirement forparticulate filters on light diesel vehicles. However,the requirements are met with ineffective open fil-ters. Consequently, there will only be observed alimited effect in the reduction of particle pollutiondue to the filters requirements for light vehicles.But the age requirements in the German environ-mental zones will limit the pollution significantly.

In Denmark exists some of the worlds leadingmanufacturers and suppliers of closed particulatefilters and SCR-systems.

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EU regulates the emission of air pollution frommember states through different directives. For thetransport sector the Euro-norms, the Air QualityDirective (AQD) and the NEC-directive are of parti-cular interest.

The pollution from vehicles in EU is regulated byEuro-norms (Table 3). This creates a motivation forthe industry to develop new and cheaper air cle-aning and transportation technologies. However,this is only true if the emission norms are strictenough to stimulate such a development. TheEuro-norms are totally harmonized thus the singlemember states cannot make stricter demands interms of e.g. particulate filters and SCR-systems.The pollution from diesel cars far exceeds the pol-lution from gasoline cars both in terms of particlesand NOX. Only diesel cars and vans sold later than2014-15 (Euro VI) will approach the pollution emit-

ted from gasoline cars. Even so, 10-15 years will passbefore the existing diesel cars and vans are repla-ced with newer models. Consequently, the futurefor clean air is pretty far sighted unless politiciansintervene by creating environmental zones or intro-ducing green taxes regulating consumer behavior(see page 18 and 23). Euro-norms for heavy vehiclesare in emission per kWh engine performanceunder different working cycles and are thus notdirectly comparable to the pollution emitted fromlight vehicles.

The Euro-norms only puts demands on the mass ofthe particles (Table 3). However, as mentioned thisis not a sound measurement for the health hazar-dous ultrafine particles. In doing so, the truck pro-ducers have no incentive to reduce the number ofultrafine particles. On the contrary, truck producersfocus on reducing larger particles.

V I O L AT I O N T H E E U - L E G I S L AT I O N

Euro III

Euro IV

Euro V

Euro VI

Vehicle

Gasoline carsDiesel carsDelivery vansTrucks/busesGasoline carsDiesel carsDelivery vansTrucks/busesGasoline carsDiesel carsDelivery vansTrucks/busesGasoline carsDiesel carsDelivery vansTrucks/buses

Year of enforcement

2000200020012001200520052006200520092009201020092014201420152013

Particle limits

---50 mg/km

100 mg/km100 mg/kWh

---25 mg/km

60 mg/km20 mg/kWh

5 mg/km 1)

5 mg/km5 mg/km

20 mg/kWh5 mg/km 1)

5 mg/km5 mg/km

7 mg/kWh

NOX-limits

150 mg/km500 mg/km780 mg/km

5 g/kWh80 mg/km

250 mg/km390 mg/km

3.5 g/kWh60 mg/km

180 mg/km280 mg/km

2 g/kWh60 mg/km80 mg/km125 mg/km0.4 g/kWh

Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_emission_standards1) Only for gasoline cars with direct injection

Table 3

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Instead EU should make standards for the numberof ultrafine particles emitted in the exhaust. It isexpected that closed particulate filters will be required to fulfill the Euro V for diesel cars andvans. However, the demand for closed particulatefilters on heavy vehicles is first introduced in 2013with the Euro VI norm. Consequently, this will putan effective end to the pollution with ultrafineparticles from new diesel vehicles.

Limit values The Air Quality Directive (AQD) determines concre-te limit values for a number of pollutants in cityair including particles and NO2 which are of parti-cular interest for the transport sector (see table 4).It should be noted that there is no limit values forthe hazardous ultrafine particles (PM0.1) yet.Thereby there is no limit value for the key pollu-tant from diesel exhaust.

The limit value for PM10 (enforced in 2005) wasexceeded in Denmark from 2005 to 2009 withoutany serious action from the authorities to reducethe air pollution. First when the Danish Ecocounciland other Danish NGOs was ready to sue the statesomething happened (see page 19).

Denmark is not able to fulfill the limit value forNO2 (yearly average) which was enforced in 2010.Instead of trying to reduce the air pollution theminister of environment has applied the

Commission for a dispensation allowing Denmarkfirst to fulfill the limit value in 2015. However,according to the National Environmental ResearchInstitute Denmark will not even be able to fulfillthe limit value in 2015 unless political actions aretaken to limit the air pollution. The limit value plusthe so called margin of tolerance have been excee-ded in Copenhagen since it was enforced in 2002.The Danish government has failed to act. Eventhough, more ambitious environmental zones (seepage 18) and smaller traffic reductions would makeDenmark able to fulfill all limit values in the AQD.

But the conservative-liberal government has decli-ned all suggestions for traffic reductions and moreambitious environmental zones in Danish cities.Consequently, with the present government thereis no sign of will to fulfillment of the limit valuesin the AQD or to limit the pollution with healthhazardous ultrafine particles.

The upper limit of air pollution emissions frommember states is controlled by the NEC-directive(National Emission Ceilings). In relation to thetransport sector the NEC-directive is of particularinterest, as road traffic is responsible for about 46% of the Danish NOX-emission (See Figure 6).Denmark barely fulfilled the NOX-requirements inthe NEC-directive by 2010 and is required toaccomplish additional reductions to fulfill futureemission limits under the directive.

Year of enforcement Target Limit

Partikler 2005 PM10 Daily average value 1) 0.05 mg/m3

Annual average value 0.04 mg/m3

2010 PM2.5 Annual average value 0.025 mg/m3

NO2 2010 NO2 Hourly average value 2) 0.2 mg/m3

Annual average value 0.04 mg/m3

Table 4: Limit values for particles and NO2 according to the air quality directive.1) Not to be exceeded more than 35 times each calendar year.2) Not to be exceeded more than 18 times each calendar year.

Table 4

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Environmental zones with strict emission stan-dards for vehicles in big cities are an effective wayto reduce air pollution in places with high popula-tion density, much traffic and limited dilution. Butthe story of the environmental zones in Denmarkunderlines that it is not necessarily an easy way.

The Danish Road Traffic Act was adjusted in 2000exclusively with the purpose of introducing envi-ronmental zones. However, environmental zonesshould be approved by the Danish Ministry ofJustice before they could come into force.

In 2002 and 2003 a large Danish governmentalreport about health effects of particle pollutionwas published together with the first socio-econo-mical cost-benefit analysis and a number of tech-nical articles on the hazardous health effects ofparticle pollution in the Weekly Journal forPhysicians. All these studies supported thedemand for closed particulate filters and herebysupported the demand proposed by The DanishEcocouncil back in 1997. The municipality ofCopenhagen applied for an environmental zone.However, the application was denied by theMinistry of Justice after two years. The reason wasthat the environmental zone would be expropria-tion of the heavy vehicles right to pollute.

However, a lawyer investigation rejected theexpropriation argument from the Ministry ofJustice. Then all environmental regulations wouldbe expropriation. The Danish Ecocouncil started anactive media campaign for environmental zones.An amendment of the law of environmental pro-tection by the end of 2006 improved the possibili-ties for environmental zones since the capabilitywas moved from the Ministry of Justice to theMinistry of Environment.

But the final environmental zones had very strictlimitations. The environmental zones could only beimplemented in four cities: Copenhagen, Århus,Aalborg and Odense. And the municipalities couldonly require closed filters on heavy vehicles. Thusthe environmental zones were far from ambitiousfrom a health perspective

Copenhagen was first to introduce environmentalzones. First stage included filter requirements forheavy vehicles older than Euro III and came intoforce in September 2008. But the first stage didnot cover the complete municipality ofCopenhagen. This was changed after intensive lob-byism from the Danish Ecocouncil. In 2009 almostall parts of Copenhagen was included in the envi-ronmental zone. Second stage included filter req-uirements for heavy vehicles older than Euro IVand came into force in July 2010. Aalborg, Odenseand Århus have established environmental zonesas well.

The environmental zones will not reduce the pol-lution with PM10 and PM2.5 significantly sinceonly a small share of these pollutants origins fromthe exhaust. However, the environmental zoneswill have an effect on the pollution with ultrafineparticles and NO2 due to the filter requirementsand the fact that some old heavy vehicles arereplaced with newer models fitted with SCR-systems.

C A S E ST U DY: DA N I S H E N V I R O N M E N TA L ZO N E S

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The Danish Ecocouncil proposes the followingbasic requirements for environmental zones:

1) Closed particulate filters for all diesel vehicles and diesel engines.

2) Catalytic converters for diesel vehicles (SCR) and all gasoline cars.

3) Emission- and noise demands to two-wheeled vehicles (mopeds etc.).

Furthermore, it should be allowed for all mediumto large size cities to implement environmentalzones and to limit traffic by road pricing.

Particulate filter demandsAn investigation done by the Danish EPA on newheavy Euro IV and Euro V vehicles showed thatthese vehicles pollute above 100 times more interms of ultrafine particles compared to olderheavy vehicles with closed particulate filters.Consequently, new Euro IV and Euro V vehicles aswell as all light diesel vehicles and non road dieselengines (see page 22) should be included in envi-ronmental zones. The requirements should be clo-sed particulate filters.

Catalytic converters Since heavy vehicles is responsible for about 30 %of the NOX pollution from traffic SCR-systems (orjust as efficient technologies) should be requiredin the environmental zones. A demand for vans tohave SCR-systems or similar should be enforced assoon as the technology is available. Demands togasoline cars should be made since 7-10 % of gaso-line cars in Danish cities are cars from before therequirement for catalytic converters thereby pollu-ting 7-8 times as much as newer cars per km.

MopedsMopeds with a combustion engine pollute with adisproportionate large amount of particles andunburnt hydrocarbons since their engines are inef-ficient and most mopeds are without catalyticconverters. Moreover, mopeds contribute signifi-cantly to noise pollution. In cities, where there aregood alternative ways of transport environmentalzones should prevent polluting mopeds. Thiswould promote sales of electric mopeds, electricbicycles and less polluting mopeds.

More environmental zonesToday there are only implemented environmentalzones in larger cities (In Denmark: Copenhagen,Århus, Aalborg and Odense). However, manymiddle sized cities suffer from air pollution aswell. Therefore middle sized cities (e.g. above25.000 citizens) should implement environmentalzones.

Traffic limitationsIn Copenhagen and many other European cities it isnecessary to limit traffic (on top of environmentalzones) to fulfill the EU limit values. Consequently,road pricing seems to be a promising solution –underlined by the successes from London andStockholm. This would lower traffic jam as well (inCopenhagen above 130.000 hours is wasted everyday due to traffic jam. That corresponds to morethan 17.000 people employed full time to be stuckin traffic). And traffic jam is strongly increasing.The prices in road pricing systems should be diffe-rentiated depending on the pollution from thevehicles.

E N V I R O N M E N TA L ZO N E S F O R T H E F UT U R E

Page 19: Pollution from road traffic

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The Danish state is sued for air pollution.

In the fall 2008 the Danish Ecocouncil, Agenda 21Green Noerrebro, NOAH Traffic and the DanishSociety for Nature Conservation chose to prepare alawsuit against the Danish state to force the stateto reduce air pollution. A lawsuit seemed to be theonly way to get the attention of the government.

The inspiration for the lawsuit was achievedthrough a court ruling from the EF-court (verdictof 25/7 2008 in case C-237/07) where a Germancitizen won a similar lawsuit against the federalstate of Bayern. The verdict was a prejudicial rulingi.e. it commits the member states. The verdict wasabout the exceeding of the AQD limit value forparticles (PM10) and it stated that the federalstate of Bayern was obligated to compose andlaunch an action plan to reduce air pollution.

As mentioned above had Denmark (as Bayern)been exceeding the limit value for particle pollu-tion (PM10) for years. This has been demonstratedby measurements in both Copenhagen andOdense. The first exceeding of the PM10-limitvalue was back in 2005. In the following years themajority of the Danish parliament consisting ofthe liberal-conservative government outvotedseveral proposals on stricter environmental zonesand traffic limitations in major cities. Not even anaction plan to reduce air pollution was made. Theminister of environment just referred to a smallreport on air pollution called “Clean air for everyo-ne” published by the government which shouldaddress the issue. However, this report containedno actions and it contains no new initiatives toreduce air pollution.

S U I N G T H E STAT E

Page 20: Pollution from road traffic

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After massive press coverage of the organizationsplans to sue the state highly ranked governmentofficers from the EPA quickly guaranteed to com-pose all necessary action plans immediately. TheNGOs thereby avoided going through a resourcedemanding lawsuit against the state.

Meanwhile, the minister of environment asked EUfor dispensation from fulfilling the limit value forPM10. However, such dispensation can only be

given if a member state documents that it alreadyhas taken all appropriate actions to fulfill the limitvalue. Since the liberal-conservative governmenthad outvoted all serious suggestions to improveair quality it was quite easy for the NGOs to com-plain to the Commission by documenting that theDanish state had certainly not taken appropriateactions.

In 2009 the NGOs won since Denmark did notreceive dispensation from the limit value as appli-ed. On the contrary, the Commission sent an ope-ning letter to the state of Denmark for violatingthe air quality directive. Afterwards, the environ-mental agency swiftly composed the action planto reduce air pollution with PM10.

As mentioned earlier Denmark can not complywith the limit value for the harmful NO2 pollution.Consequently, the environmental agency appliedfor another dispensation trying to push fulfillingthe NO2 limit value until 2015 instead of takingaction to reduce the pollution. The limit valuecould be fulfilled by a simple combination of stric-ter environmental zones and minor traffic reduc-tions. But both these actions had been outvotedby the Danish government. Consequently, theDanish Ecocouncil and other NGOs need to prepa-re a new complaint to the Commission to avoidthe dispensation and thereby forcing the Danishstate to reduce air pollution with NO2.

Denmark has with the liberal-conservative govern-ment developed into a land of dispensation inregards to environmental aspects. Nothing seriousis done to reduce the pollution. Instead the limitvalues of the EU directives are exceeded with pre-meditation and applications for dispensationdirectly follows. This is not the Danish spirit. Thestrategy of dispensation should be replaced with astrategy of action. Denmark should not continuewatering down the environmental policy of EU.

Page 21: Pollution from road traffic

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Chip tuning of diesel cars constitute a significantpollution problem. Diesel cars are chip tuned toincrease the car owners “Cool” factor e.g. fasteracceleration, more noise and higher speed. This isdone by buying and installing a chip tuning devicebetween the steering unit and the diesel pump.Thereby too much fuel is pumped into the engineand hereby the pollution increases. Sometime theengine can no longer sustain the Euro-norm it wasapproved for. However, this is not the impressionyou get from the retailer of the chip tuning devices(see Box).

Notice the sentence “and optimizes the fuel supplywith chip tuning”. It is the total opposite of what isthe case. Of course the cars are made with the mostoptimal fuel supply from the producer’s hand. Alsonotice the sentence “when the box is removed thecar will be as it was before”. Chip tuning whichincreases the pollution was banned in Denmark the

1st of August 2006. This is why the chip tuning devi-ce should be easy to detach when the car is up forinspection. Concurrently, the device needs to be ableto detach swiftly and without a trace in case of traf-fic accidents due to insurance policies. The retailerknows this and they do not even hesitate to use itas a tool when marketing the chip tuning devices.According to the Danish Technological Institutewere up to half of all diesel cars in Denmark chiptuned prior to the legislation enforced in 2006 andthe particle pollution was increased up to 300 % bychip tuning.

The main issue is that it is impossible to control ifthe rules are violated. Chip tuning devices can bebought online through Danish and foreign retailerswith an easy do-it-yourself installation guide.Furthermore, it is doubtful that buyers of the devi-ces pay for a car inspection (pollution control) afterinstalling the chip tuning device. Consequently,

there should be set aside resources tocontrol and make information cam-paigns to limit the chip tuning pro-blem.

Finally, chip tuning of mopeds havebecome a significant problem. Chiptuning is significantly harder to detectthan “old fashion re-boring”. None theless, chip tuning increase the pollution,the noise and the risk of accidents.

C H I P T U N I N G

With DTK Chip tuning the effect of a BMW 118d isincreased. DTK effect box for chip tuning is installedbetween the steering unit and the diesel pump andoptimizes the fuel supply with chip tuning. All DTK-products is delivered with original switches whichgives a very easy and swift installation. This is anadvanced digital box which fits to every single carmodel. Some cars are more demanding than othersand this box satisfies the demands of the mostdemanding. There is no intervention of the enginesystem and when the box is removed the car willagain be as it originally was. This is an incredible safeway of chip tuning. Installation manual with picturesis included.

Page 22: Pollution from road traffic

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N O N - R OA D D I E S E L E N G I N E S

Particle pollution from non-road diesel engines willincrease to a much highershare of the total particleand NOX-pollution if no further action is taken.

The emission of particles from non-road dieselengines and diesel locomotives will within thenext years contribute with a fast increasing shareof the particle emission since these engines areregulated after their own directive which allowsmuch higher emissions than the Euro-norms.These engines are often used in cities e.g. roadsweepers, various contractor equipment etc. Non-road diesel engines are both an issue of publichealth and in relation to working environment. Inindoor stations in larger cities diesel locomotivesare a key issue of concern.

In 2004 an EU-directive was adopted which wouldset higher standards for non-road diesel enginesin terms of emissions. However, the high emissionallowed in the directive was defended by sayingthat the market for non-road diesel engines is glo-bal and that the emission standards could not be

any stricter due to a high content of sulfur in theUS and other countries. The US introduced low sul-fur diesel for road traffic in 2007 but the fuel willonly be introduced gradually for diesel enginesfrom 2011-14. It is difficult to understand why theEU must wait for this. Retrofitting closed parti-culate filters and SCR-systems on non-road dieselengines seems like an urgent requirement.

There have been tests with combining a dieselengine and an electric motor on locomotives. Theelectric motor will be used around stations inlarge cities. The diesel engine will only be startedat a certain distance from the stations. If theseexperiments succeed it will reduce the local pollu-tion significantly. The experiments with particu-late filters for locomotives have not yet beensuccessful.

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G R E E N TA X AT I O N

Economic instruments in the form of green taxa-tion and subsidies are some of the most effectiveinstruments in terms of reducing pollution. Thiscounts for the transport sectior as well. Greentaxes are a national affair i.e. the different mem-ber states can freely decide to introduce greentaxes. Consequently, it is not true when politiciansclaim that they cannot do anything in regards toair pollution because of EU legislation. EU regula-tes emission standards of new vehicles while themember states can regulate the pollution fromthe existing fleet through green taxes as long asthe taxes are not anti-competitive

In a number of cases green taxation is even a req-uirement to obtain an optimal socio-economicenvironmental regulation because the tax canintroduce the polluter pays principle. Furthermoregreen taxes motivate companies to produce, mar-ket and use more environmentally friendly vehic-les.

By introducing a tax on trucks without particulatefilters and SCR-systems it is possible to redirectthe bill for the pollution (sickness and death) tothe haulier. By doing so, the haulier gets an econo-mic incentive to install filters and SCR-systems –and hereby reduce pollution.

Green taxes within the transport sector arerecommended both by EU and OECD. The principleis to implement higher taxes on pollution and useof resources, and to use the yield to reduce e.g. thetax on income. This mean that the activities (pol-lution and use of limited resources) that societywants to reduce get the highest taxes while thetax is lowered for activities which the societywants to promote (employment). In regards toparticle- and NOx-pollution the yield could beused for financial support for filters and SCR-systems.

The Danish Ecocouncil supports the use of intelli-gent green taxations as a cost-efficient instru-ment to reduce pollution. Already within the sec-tor of transport there should be introduced a sig-nificantly more environmentally differentiatedtaxation on vehicles that pollutes with CO2, NOX,particles and noise. In the long term should aswell be introduced a road-pricing systems basedon GPS.

Page 24: Pollution from road traffic

A comprehensive Dutch study shows that there is approximately 50% excess mortality among people living less than 50 meters from aroad with heavy traffic. Approximately 100,000 people inCopenhagen are in this group. This corresponds to additional 500deaths every year. For comparison the average deaths caused bytraffic accidents is 10-15 peoples in Copenhagen. In addition, the airpollution is believed to cause thousand of bronchitis cases, tenthousands of asthma attacks and other serious diseases. Finally, airpollution is suspected to be damaging to foetuses and to contributeto serious diseases in the central nerve system like Parkinson’s andAlzheimer’s.

Especially, ultrafine particles and the health hazardous gas nitrogendioxide are serious problems. The most significant source of partic-les is diesel vehicles: Trucks, busses, delivery vans, private diesel carsand taxies. But the share of pollution from non-road vehicles isincreasing. Consequently, this booklets main priority is the pollutioncaused by diesel vehicles, the technical solutions – closed particulatefilters and SCR-systems - along with the instruments used to intro-duce the solutions.

However, it is only through political action that air pollution can bereduced. Consequently, it is our hope that especially politicians willbe inspired by this booklet – but it is also suitable for teaching andfor interested citizens, who wish to know more about air pollutantsfrom traffic and the technical solutions.

P O L L U T I O N F R O M R OA DT R A F F I C – focus on particles and nitrogen oxides