Politics in China Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Politics in ChinaPolitics in China

Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Country Bio: China


The modern state analyzed? How easy or difficult is it for a state to make and

enforce policies?Strong vs. weak – depends on capacity AND

autonomy Capacity: ability of a state to use power in order to

carry out the basic tasks of a state.High capacity – able to develop and enact

fundamental policies to ensure stability, security, justice, political/civil rights, basic services, etc. Requires not just $; also organization, legitimacy & effective

leadership Roads get built/maintained, regulations are created and

followed, lawbreakers are punishedLow capacity = ???

The modern state analyzedAutonomy: the ability of the state to use its

power independently of the public or international actorsClosely related to sovereigntyIt’s the informal, practical ability to act on its

sovereigntyHigh autonomy: If an autonomous state wished

to carry out a policy or action, it can do so without having to consult the public or worry about strong public or international opposition that might force it to reverse its decision. China builds the Three Gorges Dam and the South-

North Water Diversion Project

High Autonomy Low Autonomy

High Capacity

State is able to fulfill basic tasks with a minimum of public interference; power highly centralized, strong state

State is able to fulfill basic tasks, but public plays a direct role in determining policy and is able to limit state power and scope of activity

Danger: Too high a level of capacity and autonomy may prevent or undermine democracy

Danger: State may be unable to develop new policies or respond to new challenges owing to the power of organized opposition

Low Capacity

State is able to function with a minimum of public interference or direct control, but its capacity to fulfill basic tasks is limited

State lacks the ability to fulfill basic tasks and is subject to direct public control and interference; power highly decentralized among state and nonstate actors; weak state

Danger: State is ineffectual, limiting development, and slow development may provoke public unrest

Danger: Too low a level of capacity and autonomy may lead to internal state failure

Similarities with RussiaBoth former communist countries attempting the

transition into a form of capitalismState capitalismSocialist Market Economy

Both have replaced communism as an ideology with nationalism

Currently, both have strong leaders who have consolidated political power

Both are attempting to regain/preserve their status as superpowersBoth have attempted to extend national power into their

spheres of influence Russia’s “Near Abroad” China’s South and East China Seas

A Nation of Contrasts World’s largest economy (by some measures)A regional superpower? A global one?A “middle income” nationA “developing” country?The Economist magazine has special sections

covering only three countries:UK (home country)USChina

One of the world’s oldest civilizations

China’s contributions to the worldFour Great Inventions

PaperPrintingGunpowderCompass

OthersPaper currency, belt drives, blast furnace,

entrance tests (for a merit-based civil service), kites, porcelain, rockets, seismometer, shipbuilding, and many others

Public Policy: Perestroika Without Glasnost Economic reform

Party has been pragmatic Reluctant to go too far, too fast Avoided reforms likely to threaten its power

Current Policy Challenges

Fostering economic growth and improvements in people’s material lives Economy has grown at rate of 10 percent per year

since 1980One of most dramatic periods of economic growth in

historyMore people out of poverty than ever beforeMore into a middle classSweeping reforms since ‘76

Private property useful Market forces should allocate goods and services and

determine prices Material incentives can boost productivity

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Public Policy: Perestroika Without Glasnost Agriculture

Earliest reforms Household responsibility system Production and household income

increased

Most peasants still very poor People leave countryside for urban

opportunities at every chance

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Contemporary policy challenges Change from ideological to pragmatic

program 1. Socialist market economy

Township & Village Enterprises 2. Rejection of political pluralism

Abandoned strictures of communist ideologyOpened up political processes to most diversified

inputsSuppressed challenges to Communist Party

Public Policy: Perestroika Without Glasnost Private Enterprise

Legal category of “private business” created in 1988

Special Economic Zones created to contain capitalism (1979)

Joint ventures allowed and encouraged State-owned enterprises (SOEs) lagging

behind and propped up by massive loans from state-owned banks

Looming ecological crises in wake of economic growth

China remains desperately poor

State Capitalism in ChinaCompany bosses are routinely moved to rival

companies.Company headquarters have space set aside for

representatives of the armed forces.The CPC/CCP has cells in most big companies

With their own offices and files on employeesShadow formal board meetings and can override

decisionsGet involved in business planning and HR issues

The bosses of largest companies have a “red machine”Provides an instant (and encrypted) link to high level

CCP


Develop a “balanced” economyNow: heavily dependent on exports

Weaknesses?Similar to what happens to “rentier states”When world economy declines so do exports

Now: heavily dependant on government spending on infrastructure

Future: internal consumption / consumers


Effects of China’s Economic LiberalizationSociety is now more diverse and openUp through the 70s the goal was to unify

(homogenize) “the masses” by reducing gender and cultural differences

Now a “private, personal” life is recognizedExcept

Religion (see especially treatment of Falun Gong and Islamic communities of Uyghurs)

Some ethnic groups (Tibet)

Current Policy ChallengesSerious social problems

Crime, Drugs, ProstitutionOthers: unemployment, extraction, local

government, lack of a social net, rent-seeking officials

Growing wealth/income gap (“some get rich first”)Gini index: Official = 0.48; outside est. 0.61

CorruptionTI score = 80Mexico = 105; Russia = 133; Nigeria = 139;

UK = 17


Contemporary policy challenges Land seizures by local governments

Forced evictions w/ little, no compensation

Results in rural unrest“Black jails”

Uneven developmentUrban v. ruralCoast v. interiorTerritories inhabited by minorities

Policy Performance

Environmental DegradationEconomic growth = serious

environmental damageHealth, productivity costsEPBs: local environmental protection

bureausCurrent regulations not enforcedIncentives reward growth at environmental

expenseState Environmental Protection Agency

(first SEPA, then MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection)



Changes in China’s basic system of social welfareEnd of the “iron rice bowl”Income and employment are no longer

guaranteed – now more directly tied to individual effort

Sharp increase in urban unemploymentPoor-to-nonexistent safety netSome labor unrest

Opened China’s cities to a flood of rural migrants


Contemporary policy challenges Internal migration

Rural to urbanInterior to coast

Compare with MexicoEffects of the hukou system

Household registrationRights, entitlements and opportunities are

limited/restrictedUrban vs. rural

Rural migrants do not enjoy equal opportunities

Birthplace of parents determine status

Contemporary policy challenges Demands for inclusion in political

systemInternetDissidents

Dealing with protests and opposition

Contemporary policy challenges Expansion of China’s “sphere of

influence”Rebuild the Chinese empire?Rising levels of nationalismConflicts with neighbors

JapanUSA as partner or competitorTaiwan (China’s “23rd province”, Tibet,

et. al.)

Hong Kong1842, 1860: island of Hong Kong,

adjacent territory ceded by treaty to British in perpetuityResult of wars fought to impose trade on

ChinaSee “Opium Wars”

Communists: “one country, two systems” applicable to Hong Kong Hong Kong reverted to Chinese in 1997 Continues to enjoy autonomyAuthorities hope outcome will woo Taiwan

back


Policy performance

Family planning Partially successful in agreed-upon goal

Difficulty in implementation Population Control: one-child family policyPolicy implementation: incentives used

to encourage one child policyEducation & Health FundingExceptions: Rural areas & Ethnic minorities

Perverse outcomes: shortage of girls; “little emperors”; & inverse population pyramids

Fundamental ContradictionsPRC is a communist party-state that claims

an exclusive monopoly on political powerYet, there has been dramatic economic and social liberalization

From Mao and Marxist-Leninist communismTo, a “socialist market economy” (socialism with “Chinese characteristics”)

Fundamental ContradictionsEconomic growth has become the highest

priority for the nation and the CPC.Rejection of political pluralism

Tiananmen Square massacre (1989)Political “reform” = movement from

totalitarianism to authoritarianismThere is now a legitimate private sphere

andOfficial tolerance for political apathy

Fundamental ContradictionsFrom Class Struggle (Mao)

To “Harmonious Society” (Confucius rehabilitated)

From building community based on communist ideology (Mao)To an appeal to a shared community based

on the ideal of Chinese nationalismHong Kong; Taiwan; Tibet, et. al; Olympic

torch incident & bombing of embassy in Belgrade

Social Conditions

Huge populationMost live in countrysideRural collective industry is dynamic industrial

sectorGeography

Population concentrated in eastern thirdOnly ¼ of land is arable

Multiethnic state92 percent of Chinese are ethnically Han55 recognized ethnic minoritiesLanguageChinese share same written language,

unifyingCopyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinese society

A. Size: population of 1.34 billion (July 2009 est); 57% rural; down from 85% “We’re #1” population growth rate 0.655% (# 148 in world)

Chinese society

B. Population concentrated in eastern third of land 1. Lack of arable soil (< 15%)2. Agricultural demand growing 3. 4th largest country in the world

Bounded on all sides by imposing physical barriers

Chinese society

C. Multi-ethnic 1. 92% Han 2. Minorities control 60% of territory

D. Common language but many dialects

E. Serious environmental issues

Chinese History – Pre PRCDynasties

Confucianism – hierarchy of harmonious relationships Meritocratic-based civil service (bureaucracy)

Self-chosen isolationNever experiences Renaissance and Industrial

Revolution1793 British trade mission“I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and we

have no use for your country’s manufactures”First Opium War (1839) begins a “century of

humiliation” and control (“spheres of influence”) by other nations

Chinese History – Pre PRCEarly 20th century

Warlords & Civil War Communists vs. Kuomintang (KMT)

Japanese invasionPost- WWII

Civil War continuesKMT loses; retreats to Taiwan

Chinese History – PRCExperimentation and Chaos under Mao

Hundred Flowers CampaignGreat Leap Forward

Failure; millions diedMao strikes back

The cult of personality The “Little Red Book” “A Spiritual Atom Bomb” “The Telescope and Microscope of Our

Revolutionary Cause” The Cultural Revolution

Mao Tse Tung (Zedong) Thought“A revolution is not a dinner party, or writing an

essay, or painting a picture, or doing embroidery; it cannot be so refined, so leisurely and gentle, so temperate, kind, courteous, restrained and magnanimous. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another.”

“Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.”“But it is the party that controls the gun.”

“Politics is war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed.”

The significance of MaoismWhy was Mao’s message so powerful?

CCP offered discipline and “power to the people” as a way to unify China and defeat the Japanese.

Seen by many as a “better” choice than the weak, corrupt Nationalists (KMT)

Cult of personalityInspired people with a sense that they could

change the world; elevated self-sacrifice on behalf of the masses to a supreme virtue

The significance of MaoismVocabulary

Red GuardsGang of FourGreat Proletarian Cultural RevolutionMao Zedong Thought (posthumous judgment:

70% correct, 30% incorrect)

The Evolution of the Chinese State

Since Mao’s death Power in hands of moderates

Exception: Response to 1989 “Democracy Movement”

Deng Xiaoping set tone of Party control and economic reform

Less personalized leadership since Deng’s death

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Political history of the PRC

1. 1949–1957: “Lean to one side” strategy 2. 1958–1976: Chinese revolutionary

development under the leadership of Mao Zedong – Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution

3. 1977–1997: Economic reform under Deng Xiaoping

4. 1997–2002: Jiang Zemin 5. 2002–2012: Hu Jin Tao (“4th generation”)6. 2012 – 2022?: Xi Jinping (“5th

generation”)

Figure 1. China National-Level Political Power Structure as Described in Chapter 3 of the 1982 State Constitution

Figure 2. China’s Political Structure as ImplementedThe Communist Party sits atop China’s political power structure, controls all political institutions, and commands the military

The Party-StateThe CCP dominates state & society in ChinaIts power rests on

Its control of China’s 2.25 million person-strong military

Its control of personnel appointments across all political institutions, the military, SOEs, and public institutions

Its control of the mediaIts control of the judiciary and the internal

security apparatus

The Party-StateThe Party’s leadership role is referenced five times

in the preamble of to the PRC’s 1982 constitutionIt is not mentioned in any of the articles of the

constitutionLegal status = above and outside the law

The Party entrusts implementation of its policies & day-to-day administration of the country to the stateHeaded by the State CouncilThe top state officials at every level of administration

usually concurrently hold senior Party posts To ensure Party control

The Party-StateAccording to the Constitution, the National

People’s Congress (NPC)oversees:The PresidencyThe Supreme People’s CourtThe public prosecutors officeThe military

In practice,The NPC is controlled by the CCPNPC deputies are expected to approve all

budgets, agency reports, and personnel appointments

FEATURES OF CHINA’S POLITICAL CULTURECollective Leadership (3rd & 4th generation leaders)

Politburo Standing CommitteeMembers are rankedDesigned to guard against the excesses of a man like

MaoBack to the future: Xi Jinping seems more like Deng &

Mao – one man in control (new national security council, et. al.)

The Military is an Armed Wing of the Communist PartyThe PLA is not a national army belonging to the stateThe Party exercises “absolute leadership” The importance of being Chairman of the State Central

Military Commission

FEATURES OF CHINA’S POLITICAL CULTUREThe Legislature: Strong on paper, Weak in Practice

The “highest organ of state power” (Constitution)Actual role is to ratify decisions of the CCP

The CCP nominates all candidates No separation of powers

Heads of the constitutional branches of government are all deputies (resembles the “fusion” of a parliament)

The Power of Provincial GovernmentsChina is a unitary system6 provincial leaders set on the PolitburoFiscal decentralization is a feature of the systemMuch freedom of action, but ultimately Beijing is in

charge

FEATURES OF CHINA’S POLITICAL CULTUREA Document-Based Culture

The written document is more important than statements

The Importance of IdeologyA “revolutionary” party promised to help

farmers and workers overthrow their “exploiters” & abolish private property

Now, as a “ruling” party, the CCP represents “the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people” and protects private property

FEATURES OF CHINA’S POLITICAL CULTUREThe Ideal and Reality of Meritocracy

The CCP manages virtually all personnel appointments

The CCP states that people rise within the Party or State hierarchy based on “their moral integrity and their professional competence,” and “on their merits without regard to their origins.”

The Party does award promotions based on factional ties, familial ties to senior leaders, and educational qualifications The rise of the “princelings”

FEATURES OF CHINA’S POLITICAL CULTUREAge and Term Limits for Official Positions

two 5-year terms67 for politburo members

Long-term PlanningTypically 5-years

Emphasis on Political StabilityMinistry of Public Security; People’s Armed Police;

PLAPropaganda Department; Ministry of State Security;

Ministry of Justice2012 budget

$111.4 billion on internal security $106.4 billion on defense

Communist Party-State

The CCP and PRC are parallel institutionsFor every People’s Congress there is a Party

CongressFor every government ministry, there is a party

office to oversee itOften the supervising CCP official and the

supervised government official is the same person “wearing two hats”

The Party–Government relationshipVertical supervision of the next level of

governmentHorizontal supervision of the CCP at their own

levelsMechanisms of party leadership

Overlapping directorships, “party core groups”, party membership penetration, and the nomenklatura system


Communist Party-StateParty leadership in political structures

1. Nomenklatura system 2. Government positions generally filled by party

loyalists 3. Elite recruitment

Party controls access and also controls the mechanism to recruit and promote elitesAppointed and elected leaders are vetted for

office, level by level, such that a party committee at some level is the real constituent for leaders below

Structure of the Party StateParty Dominance

Nomenklatura System: mechanism by which Communist Party exerts control over officials

Party MembershipParty Core GroupsOverlapping DirectorshipsElite RecruitmentParty units exist in all official and semi-official

organizations & institutions, including SOEs & universities

Party units exist in nearly a million private businesses and foreign-owned enterprises and in nearly every officially registered civil society organization.


The CCP

Organization of the CCPMembership

From peasants to entrepreneurs Mid-1950s: 70% of party members were peasants In 2002: “industrial workers, laborers in township

enterprises, farmers, herdsmen, and fishermen” = 45%

Majority are government officials, office workers, enterprise managers, military personnel, and professionals including scientists, technical experts and academics

Organization of the CCPMembership

70 million in Communist Youth League (ages 14-28)

Enrolls 2 million new members per yearProvides access to influence and resources and

remains a prerequisite for advancement in many careers in China, particularly in government

The Party State A New Kind of Party?

Recruiting university graduates, engineers, and technical experts

Capitalists invited to join Party Party membership required for political

career The Road to Power

CCP Nomenklatura controls Party and Government appointments

Power remains concentrated in Politburo and its Standing Committee

How the CCP OperatesDesign Features

GuardianshipDescribes main relationship between

Communist Party and societyParty Organization

Democratic centralism – Leninist principle

Refers to consultation: opportunities for discussion, criticism, proposals

Two Hierarchies, with Party LeadershipDivision of labor between party and

government structuresCopyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Communist Party-State Guardianship

Relationship between CCP and societyParty bases its claim to legitimacy NOT on

representation of the “expressed preferences” of a majority, but on representation of the “historical best interests” of all the people

Most people do not know their best interests, soSociety is best led by an elite vanguard party with a

superior understanding of the historical laws of development (from Lenin, based on the “science” of Marx’s dialectical materialism)

As the CCP is the only organization with the politically correct knowledge to lead society, it is the authoritative arbiter of the interests of the people.


HierarchyThe internal organization of the CCP is

organized as a hierarchyLower party organizations are

subordinate to higher party organizations; individual party members are subordinate to the party as an organization

Communist Party-State Mass line

The party leads, but its leadership is not isolated from the opinions and preferences of the mass public

Party leaders at all levels (but especially at the grassroots) are supposed to maintain a close relationship with ordinary citizens

The Party organization is supposed to transform the “scattered and unsystematic ideas” of the masses into “correct ideas” and

Then propagate them “until the masses embrace them as their own”.

Policy flows “from the masses to the masses” (in theory)

Official Truths – The Mass LineMarxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought-

Deng Xiaoping TheoryFour Modernizations (Deng Xiaoping)

Reform & Opening“The 5th Modernization” = democracyDemocracy Movement, 1989Tiananmen Square Massacre

The Three Represents (Jiang Zemin)The Three Supremes (Hu Jintao)The Four Comprehensives (Xi Jinping)

Mao Tse Tung (Zedong) ThoughtCollectivism – valuing the good of the community

above that of the individualStruggle and activism – “never forget class struggle”Mass line – line of communication between party

leaders, members and peasants (see vocabulary sheet)EgalitarianismSelf relianceThe Cult of Personality

“A Spiritual Atom Bomb”“The Telescope and Microscope of Our Revolutionary

Cause”

Deng Xiaoping TheoryFour modernizations: industry,

agriculture, science, militaryPragmatism: “It doesn’t matter if a cat is

black or white, as long as it catches mice.” (1962)Non-ideological approach to economic

developmentSocialist market economyOpen Door trade policy

Deng Xiaoping TheoryInstitutionalization of the Revolution

Restore the legal system & bureaucracyDismantled during Cultural Revolution

Decentralize the government (somewhat)Encourage the “harmonious society”

Rehabilitate ConfuciusReforms in education

Higher education & research encouraged

Higher standards


Democratic centralismInner-party rules for decision-making Democracy = “consultation”

Making decisions in the “best interests” of the people.Opportunities for discussion, criticism, and proposals in

party organizationsCentralism requires unified discipline throughout the

party Top-level official party decisions are binding on party

organizations and membersCentralism is never sacrificed to democracy

Party members are allowed to hold personal views contrary to party decisions and to voice them through proper party channels, but they are not free to act in ways that promote these views

Structure of the Party StateParty Structures

Centralized hierarchyNational Party CongressCentral Committee

Exercises powers of congress between sessions

Chinese political elitesPolitburo

Politburo Standing CommitteeTop Leader and Succession Problem

Top party leader is general secretary, currently Xi Jinping

Party Bureaucracy


Organization of the CCPHierarchy of party congresses and committees

from top of system down to the grassrootsNational Party Congress (NPC)

2000+ delegates (2114)Indirectly chosen from below by regional CCP groupsMeets every 5 yearsAn important symbol of party unityRubberstamps decisions made by party leadersApproves candidates proposed by the Party

leadership to be members of the Central Committee

Organization of the CCPCentral Committee

197 full members, 154 alternates (WSJ, 1/22/07)Meets annually for about a weekCarries on the business of the NPC between sessionsDoes not initiate policy but discusses and approves

changes in policy or leadersMembers include top officials from central

government ministries, the military, and provincial governments

Approves membership of the Politburo and its Standing Committee

Organization of the CCPPolitburo / Standing Committee

Chosen by Central Committee24 members in Politburo

Along with the Standing Committee, the Party’s most important group

Members meet often, in secret, to work out national policy

9 members in Standing Committee The Party’s equivalent of a board of directors,

where policy decisions are set by consensus of the members

Organization of the CCPGeneral Secretary

Currently Xi Jinoing (2012) Formerly Hu Jintao

China’s most powerful figureControls the Party’s day-to-day administrative

bodyLeads other key party groups like the Central

Military CommissionHis power also depends on the cooperation of

other officials

Organization of the CCPSecretariat

Staff support for PolitburoTransforms Politburo decisions into instructions

for subordinate party departmentsDiscipline Committee

Enforce standards of conduct for party membersIdeological, political, organizational and other

sorts of “inappropriate practices”Can issue anything from warnings to expulsions

from the party

The Chinese State

Structure of the Party StateState Council: Premier, cabinet of vice-

premiers, state councillors, ministers, auditor general, secretary general

Standing Committee, meets twice weeklyLegislation drafted by specialized

ministries under direction of cabinetPresident, Head of State: ceremonial

officeCommunist Party Leadership: Party leaders

have veto power over legislationJudiciary: Supreme People’s Court

Supreme People’s Procuratorate


PRC - GovernanceNational People’s Congress (NPC)

Highest organization according to the constitution

State CouncilExercises the executive functionsSupervises the bureaucracy

Representative HierarchyNPC is the top of a 5-tier hierarchyProvincial people’s congresses (31)Municipal people’s congresses (330+)Counties (2900)Townships (45,000)Villages (900,000+)Position by appointment or managed election

Structure of the Party State

Government StructuresNational People’s Congress (NPC) – legislature

Elected for 5-year terms by delegates in provincial congresses and armed forces

Assemble annually for a plenary session of 2 weeks Extensive powers: amendment of constitution,

passage and amendment of legislation, approval of economic plans

Too large, meets infrequently, Lawmaking role of less cumbersome NPC Standing

Committee gaining


NPCUnicameral 5 year terms (indirectly elected)Meets once a year for about 2 weeks3000 delegatesFormal powers

Amend constitutionPass/amend legislationApprove economic plans, etc.Appointment of top state & government

leaders

NPCStanding Committee of NPC150 members that meet regularly

Serves as a working legislative assemblyNPC: “weak”NPC: “rubberstamp”

Yes, butRecent increase in delegate motions and

dissenting votes

Executive BranchResembles that of Russia

Hybrid, President & Prime MinisterPresident and Vice-president

Elected by NPCOne candidate per office chosen by the Party5-year term concurrent with term of NPC; two-

term limitHead of state; holds little constitutional power Recently, president is also the General

Secretary

The Presidency’s Place in the Political Power Structure as Described in theState ConstitutionIn reality, the President has greater authority than the Congress Chairman or the State Council Premier because he serves concurrently as General Secretary of the Communist Party

Executive BranchPremier (Prime Minister)

Appointed by presidentHead of Government5-year term concurrent with term of NPCDirects the State Council, which is

composed of ministers who direct the many ministries and commissions of the bureaucracy Resembles a cabinet

The State Council

Political Structures - ReviewImportance of standing committees Lawmaking at State Council with premier,

who is head of government President of National People’s Congress is

head of state Recently the office goes to the General

Secretary of the CCP (Xi Jingping)

Governance Challenges“Stove-Piping” and Bureaucratic Competition

Information shared “up & down”, but not horizontally

Weak coordinating bodiesDistorting Influence of Bureaucratic Rank

Systems of ranks that identify the relative importance of people, official agencies, public institutions, SOEs, and geographic units.

Affects the ways that officials and their agencies interact with each other

Governance ChallengesWeak rule of law

CCP advocates rule by law – law as a tool for governance

Party holds itself above the law Judicial authorities cannot investigate Party

members w/o the Party’s consent No concept of judicial independence

“1st imperative” = economic development “1st responsibility” = preserving stability Ruling lawfully = 2nd/3rd level consideration

Corruption

Governance ChallengesFactionalism

Multiple coalitions, factions, and constituencies exist within the political system (and the CCP)

Based on political mentorship, place of birth, the affiliations of one’s parents, and common educational or work history

Jockeying among leaders and institutions representing different sets of interests is common at every level of the system.

Between members of the PolitburoBetween ministries & provincial governmentsThe military and the Foreign Ministry are often on

different pages

Guanxi & FactionsGuanxi = personal connections

The glue that holds Chinese politics together todayThe Chinese form of a patron-client networkSimilar to “old boys networks” in the West

Underscore the importance of personal career ties between individuals as they rise in bureaucratic or political structures

Besides bureaucratic and personal ties, guanxi is based on ideological differences and similarities and, as a result, has been the sources of factions within the Party Conservatives, reformers, liberals From the Time Magazine article? Source of corruption and nepotism

Party structures - PLA

People’s Liberation Army (PLA) – guardian of sovereignty and nationalism 1. Modernizing elements 2. Use at Tiananmen Square to maintain

domestic orderControlled by the Central Military

CommissionThe President, the prime minister, and the

most powerful party & government elites

The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) system officially exists to engage in “political consultation” with the Communist Party, perform “democratic supervision” of the Party, and “participate in the deliberation and administration of state affairs.” The Communist Party routinely holds up the PPCC system as a core part of China’s “socialist democracy,” characterized by “multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the Communist Party of China.” In practice, the CPPCC system gives select prominent citizens, many of them non-Communists, an approved platform to make suggestions about aspects of public policy, but does not oblige the Communist Party to act upon those suggestions. The institution can thus ignite and influence policy debates, but is essentially powerless. The Chinese government refers to CPPCC members as “political advisors.”

Other Political Actors - MediaTraditional Media, New Media, and a Wired

CitizenryCCP’s goal is to “guide public opinion”Not as easy to control as it used to beTV is the most tightly controlledNew media, especially “weibo” (micro-blogs),

have empowered citizens to share news and views directly Pressure on authorities to address problems Weibo posts are monitored

Other Political ActorsBig Business (SOEs)Official & Quasi-Official Research Institutes

(think tanks)Research and recommend policy alternatives

University AcademicsAuthors, advisors, media commentatorsUniversities in China are not independent

All have CCP committees that make decisions for the university

Oversee ideology, personnel, propaganda & finance

Other Political Actors (Civil Society)Officially Sponsored Associations and Societies

“Social Organizations”Most are GONGOS: Government-organized non-

governmental organizationsGrassroots NGOs

Require a government “sponsor”Helpful in areas such as environmental

protection and public healthProvide services to under-served populations,

such as the disabled.

The Other Political PartiesCCP allows existence of 8 “democratic”

partiesEach “party” has a special group that it

draws from such as intellectuals or business men

Total membership = ½ millionThe loyal non-opposition

They serve an advisory role

Rule by LawSocialist LegalityLegal ReformCriticism of Legal Practices

A. New element B. Need based on righting past wrongs,

eliminating arbitrary rule, and as a requirement of a modern economic system

C. Excessive use of death penalty D. Criticized for number of political

prisoners E. Need for criminal codes and legal reform

Rule by law

Political Structures - JudicialG. Judicial authority rests with Supreme

People’s Court and local people’s court 1. Supreme People’s Procuratorate is the

central prosecutorial agency 2. Serious deficiency in law and legal

administrationSupreme People’s Court: no judicial

review/not an independent court

China:Rule of Law Tradition:

Mao: minimize law (1949-1976 = few laws)—rely on party doctrine

Deng: greater reliance on code lawJiang, Hu: increased emphasis on code law

Three Supremes

MeasurementsWorldbank Governance Percentile Rank: 45Freedom House: PR-7, CL-6

Interest Articulation and Aggregation

Organizations Under Party LeadershipSatellite partiesChinese People’s Political Consultative

ConferenceImportant mass organizations

NGOs: Nongovernmental organizationsMost active in environmental issues

GONGOs: Government-organized NGOsFront operations for government agenciesTake advantage of interest of foreign

governments, international NGOs to support civil society

Business associations set up to organize firms


Interest articulation and aggregation

A. Ordinary citizens engage in interest articulation without interest aggregation

B. Formal organizations 1. All-China Federation of Trade Unions 2. Women’s Federation

Political SocializationMass Media

Citizens exposed to news, opinions, public affairs

Hong Kong: free, critical mass mediaLeaders shut down publications that go too farInternet: tens/thousands cyber police block

foreign news Education System

Past: ideological, persecution of scholarsToday: respect for expertise


Feedback Regime continues to control mass media Government mostly successful at

controlling access to Internet Millions find ways around Internet

controls China is world’s leader in pirated films,

music, and software

Political CultureRadicalism to reform, opening to worldPolitical Knowledge

Not uniformly distributedMore knowledge, interest found in men,

highly educated, higher incomesPolitical Values

Reject democratic valuesInfluence of non-Chinese evidentImpact of socioeconomic development:

urban more supportive of democratic values


Political Participation

Changes in the RulesPolitical participation was required, now optionalMao: mass mobilization campaignRejection of mass mobilization as dominant mode

of political participationLocal Congress ElectionsVillage Committees: autonomous self-

governmentUnacceptable Political Participation:

increasingProtestors and Reformers


Political participation A. 1979 – removal of class and political labels B. Government now avoids mass participation

and campaigns C. Four constraints (mass line): 1. uphold the

socialist road, 2. Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong thought, 3. the people’s democratic dictatorship, and 4. the leadership of the Communist Party

Political participation D. Politically unacceptable rural and peasant

riots, and urban-based strikes and demonstrations

E. Tiananmen Square (1989) F. Expansion of CCP membership to include

representatives from the “advanced productive forces”

Political Culture and Participation Participation from the top down

CCP determines what people should do and organizes their participation

Action routinely involves carrying out policies adopted by leaders

More than 70 million Party members engage in implementation of policy decided by leadership

Less top-down activity as more people are involved in enterprises not directly controlled by the Party and government

Political Culture and Participation From the Bottom Up?

Contested elections in rural areas Nearly a third of people report some

form of voluntary political activity Modernizing regions have active

chambers of commerce Resurgence of Chinese nationalism

Political Culture and Participation Organized Dissent

Democracy Wall (1978) and Wei Jingsheng

The Democracy Movement (1989), Fang Lizhi, and Tiananmen Square

Falun Gong: founded 1992; 50 million practitioners

Policymaking and Implementation

Policymaking: 3 tiersPolitburo and its Standing CommitteeLeading small groups (LSGs)Relevant party departments and government

ministries From agenda setting to implementing

regulation 5 stages: agenda setting, interagency review,

Politburo approval, NPC review, debate, passage

Policy implementation Monitoring Policy Priorities Adapting Policy to Local Conditions

CorruptionCopyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Policymaking and implementation

A. Reliance on negotiation and consensus building B. Combination of party and government

leadership C. Fragmented authoritarianism (see Powell) D. Policy implementation

1. Difficulty in monitoring 2. Difficulty in assessing responsibility

E. Official corruption – threat to regime legitimacy

China’s Political FutureDramatic changes in economy, polity,

societyWill democratization reach China?Authoritarianism has not survived

intact with economic modernization in many East Asian countries.

Communist Party will continue to transform China, transform itself in order to continue rule


Politics in China Copyright © 2012, 2010, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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