Political Participation0Schumpeter criticized classical conception of

democracy (“rule by the people”)0 Political elites more competent than ordinary citizens to

make decisions0 Politics a “market” where voters/consumers choose among

competing elites0Authors stress active citizenship, political

participation0Most privileged (more time, money, organization)

tend to be most politically active; politicians more responsive to their demands

0Political inequality not inevitable0 When large numbers mobilized at polls, in interest groups,

and through social movements

Political Parties

0Political parties organize, transmit will of majority to government = heart of any democracy0 Committed to winning elections0 Educate and mobilize voters0 Recruit and nominate candidates0 Advocate policies

0Parties emerged quickly in U.S., a democratizing force0 Expanded participation, mobilized voters, broke

down deferential system0 Throughout 19th century, parties developed solid

organizational bases and mass followings

Two-Party Political System

0Plurality voting = whoever gets the most votes wins0 “Winner-take-all” process for electing President0Strong media bias against third parties0Democratic and Republican parties marginalize

splinter parties0 In two-party systems, tendency for each party to

assemble plurality by melding votes of centrist elements with core supporters0 Fosters moderation, stability, and predictability0 Limits innovation and representation

0 Governance vs. representation; plurality vs. PR

Critical Elections and Party Decay0Two-party systems limit voter choices; encourage

broad coalitions of diverse, sometimes conflicting groups

0Citizens seek answers outside existing party system through protests and social movements

0Eventually, one party (usually minority party) capitalizes on dissatisfaction by seeking to recruit those whose concerns are not adequately represented

0Tidal shift is often referred to as critical or realigning election

0Critical or realigning elections are rare0 Winning party reshapes ideological agenda; party

conflict reorganized around new set of issues0 Voters are realigned and party coalitions shift

Change in American Party System0 Late 19th century highpoint

0 Powerful, grass-roots, press, nomination process and platforms, turnout high, integrated immigrants

0 High turnout among low-income voters

0 Decline when pro-business Republican party took over (1896)0 Turnout declined, class bias in turnout emerged0 Business groups and middle class reformers weakened parties

0merit-based civil service, nonpartisan local races, legal barriers to voting (disenfranchising ¾ of all citizens in the south, mainly blacks and poor, uneducated whites); in the North, residency requirements, early registration depressed turnout

0 Since, campaigns more candidate-centered, professionalized0 Money, polling organizations, political consultants; less reliance

on political parties

0 Wealthy candidates and those with close ties to interest groups have clear advantage

Turnout and American Voters0 U.S. ranks fourth lowest in turnout among over 34

democratic countries. Why?0 Widespread popular cynicism0 Younger generation less in the habit of voting0 Casting a ballot is especially difficult (registration, voter

identification requirements; restrictions on convicted felons)0 Elections on Tuesday (not a national holiday or weekend)

0 Burnham: a hole in American electorate where working-class, less educated, and low-income Americans should be0 Least likely to turnout to vote; most in need of policy change

0 Wayne: “those who are most disadvantaged, who have the least education, and who need a change in conditions the most actually participate the least. Those who are the most advantaged, who benefit from existing conditions and presumably from public policy as it stands, vote more often”

Money and Elections0 Increasing importance of money; campaign spending has

skyrocketed0 Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission (2010)

overturned limit on corporate spending0 Business firms and wealthy individuals provide most

contributions (investments)0 Campaigns last longer, cost more, are less regulated, and are

financed by a higher proportion of private (rather than public) funds than in any other Western democracy

0 Increases chances of better-financed candidates0 Increases public cynicism about politics0 Those at top of income pyramid provide bulk of political

contributions0 Political finance connected to increasing economic inequalities0 Increases in economic inequality and political spending go hand

in hand; increase in one contributes to increase in the other

New Deal and Reagan Coalitions

0Two durable coalitions dominated American politics and policy

0New Deal coalition0 Led by Democratic party (1932-1968)

0Reagan Coalition0 Led by Republican party (1980-2008)

0Shaped political agenda: defined most pressing issues and policy responses

0Policies designed to reward social base, cement power, and ensure reelection

0Obama (2008-): will this produce durable realignment?

New Deal Coalition0 Blacks; Southerners; immigrant Jewish and Catholic workers;

Irish; some financiers and corporate executives0 Marriage of convenience between Southern, white, segregationist

wing (hostile to federal policies benefiting blacks) and Northern, liberal wing based in large urban areas with millions of first- and second-generation working-class immigrants

0 Johnson’s reliance on Northern Democrats and moderate Republicans to pass legislation outlawing discrimination (Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965)) caused Southerners to desert Democratic party

0 Weakened by political and cultural conflict in Democratic party (Vietnam War, feminism, gay rights, abortion, crime, etc.)0 Traditional working–class economically liberal, socially

conservative0 Wealthier, more educated supporters economically conservative,

socially liberal 0 Decline of labor unions 0 1970s, economic growth faltered, inflation and unemployment

increased; couldn’t satisfy demands of constituents

Reagan Coalition0 White males became more Republican (candidates played to

fears of dismantling racial and gender hierarchies)0 Base among religious fundamentalists0 Business community united behind Republicans0 Population growth in suburbs and Sun Belt0 Republican Party rebranded by network of highly conservative

organizations working with Republican strategists; re-centered party ideologically and geographically (secure base in South and Rocky Mountain states)

0 Republican supporters0 traditional base wealthier voters0 Conservative turn secured by white Protestants (especially

evangelicals), Catholics, regular religious service attendees0 White men, married couples, rural voters

0 Democratic supporters = Northeast and Pacific Coast; Low-income voters (especially labor union members); African Americans and ethnic minorities; unmarried people; Jews, young, and less religious; Liberal and well-educated voters

2008 Presidential Election0 Obama benefited from shift among women, young, and

unmarried voters0 Pro-Democratic groups growing in size; pro-Republican

groups shrinking as proportion of electorate0 Strong support among racial and ethnic minorities

(increasingly significant proportion of the electorate)0 McCain supporters tended to be white, male, Protestant,

religiously observant, married, from rural areas and small towns, and fairly affluent

0 Obama supporters tended to be ethnically and racially diverse, young, female, single, low or high income, and less religiously observant

0 Obama’s popular vote margin 53%-47%, majorities in 28 states, 2/3 electoral college delegates (365-173)

0 Regional voting patterns: Obama beat McCain in six traditionally Republican states (North Carolina, Virginia, Florida; Colorado, New Mexico, and Nevada) and three Midwest states (Iowa, Indiana, and Ohio)

Polarization and American Politics0 Majority of voters consistently support same party’s

candidate (red and blue states); only a few change majorities (swing states)

0 Political polarization tied to ideological polarization0 Two parties’ social bases reinforce their distinctive

regional bases of support0 South switched to staunchly Republican race, religious

observance (especially evangelicals), conservative on economic issues

0 Fiorina = political parties more ideologically homogeneous; more distinct from each other

0 Hacker and Pierson = Republican Party moved further to right than Democratic Party to left0 Taken over by coalition of hard-right conservative groups,

including Christian Right and free-market economic conservatives, organized in churches, interest groups, voluntary associations, and think tanks

New Media and Public Opinion0 Milestones in 2008 election

0 election of African American president0 effective use of new media (internet) by Obama campaign

0 Media (newspapers, radio, and TV) continue to play a role0 New media (internet, email, blogs, instant messages, social

media) increasingly important in fundraising, voter registration, mobilization

0 Political significance of new media0 Some argue it produces more involved, informed public0 Others that it increases gap between politically connected and

uninterested0 Hard to differentiate fact from fiction0 May offset increased importance of money in politics

Conclusion0 Democracy = preference of citizens deserve equal

consideration; citizens should have equal ability to influence outcomes

0 Political participation is slanted toward rich (more advantaged groups) in voter turnout, campaign contributions, and political activism disproportionate advantage to Republicans

0 Obama’s victory result of weakening link between wealth and pro-Republican vote; campaign energized millions of voters who are typically less connected (increased turnout)0 When citizens are mobilized, political participation, which often

reinforces privilege and inequality, can counteract advantages of class, race, and gender

0 Political parties and elections potentially enable citizens to keep and deepen republican and democratic forms of government

0 Requires citizens to mobilize, participate, and challenge power of money; tendencies for inequalities in political participation to parallel economic inequalities