political economy of public infrastructure development in ogun state ...

Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (OMAN Chapter) Vol. 5, No.4; November. 2015

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POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA (2003 – 2011)

Ngozi Nwogwugwu, PhD1; Femi Ajayi, PhD2

Rachael Oluseye Iyanda, PhD3 Corresponding Email: [email protected]

Abstract Infrastructure development has been a source of concern for most developing countries. The enormous resources needed to provide public infrastructure makes it prohibitive for countries with weak economies The inability of Nigeria to effectively manage it resources have also rub off on the development of public infrastructure in the country. Given the proposition of scholars that infrastructural development has a very strong relationship to economic growth as well as the well being of the poor in any developing societies, infrastructure development becomes both an economic as well as a political matter. The study investigated the political economy of infrastructure development in Ogun State, Nigeria from 2003 to 2011. Using in-depth interview of 52 respondents which included, key political functionaries, community leaders and private citizens, as well as observation carried out through visit of local government in the state, and documentary review of vital government publications, the study found that the adoption of direct labour approach led to drastic reduction in the cost of infrastructure development in the state. There was massive development of human capacity in the construction sector, as well as economic growth through boosting of the local economy as income and profits were ploughed back into the economy as against repatriation of profits by foreign construction companies. Other states and the federal government should adopt direct labour approach in order to achieve sustainability in infrastructure development, as well as economic development which it engenders. Key words: Economic growth, Infrastructure development, Political economy, sustainable development

1 Ngozi Nwogwugwu, PhD, is a Lecturer in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock Business School, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria. 2 Feni Ajayi, PhD, is Professor of Management and Conflict Resolution, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock Business School, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria. 3 Rachael O. Iyanda PhD, is a Lecturer in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock Business School, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.


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Introduction Infrastructure development is of vital importance in the overall development of any given society. It poses a major challenge to any government as most of the activities of different sectors of the economy revolve around some critical infrastructure. Oyedele (2012) writes that infrastructure development in democratic governance involves various activities. This include the process of deciding on the right project, the location of the project, the design of the project, carrying out of feasibility and viability studies, and carrying out of the physical development of the project. Kumar, (2005) categorises public infrastructure into two, “Hard and Soft" infrastructure. Under the class of Hard infrastructure are the large physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industrial nation. Soft infrastructure refers to all the institutions which are required to maintain the economic, health, and cultural and social standards of a country. There is an inherent allusion in Kumar’s conception that there is direct link between infrastructure and the well being of the citizenry of a given society. Nigeria as a nation has been having problems with public infrastructure, both in terms of development as well as maintainance of public infrastructure. Governments have had problems with non functional critical infrastructure, especially in the areas of road, railway, power generation and supply, provision of portable water. It is in acknowledgment of this crisis of infrastructure development that the Yar - Adua/Jonathan administration of 2007 – 2011 had as the first of its seven point agenda, development of critical infrastructure, which underscored the dearth functional public infrastructure across the country at the time. However, several commentators have emphasized the inability of the administration to deliver on any of the seven point agenda it set for itself (Dode, 2011; Tell, 2008; Tell, 2009). The reality remains that though it is the responsibility of the government in developing countries like Nigeria to provide the critical infrastructure needed by different sectors of the society, the resources available to the government is not sufficient to meet the needs. There are also other issues of political considerations that play into the making of major decisions on the development of public infrastructure. Engels (1976) writes that political economy is a historical science utilizing the platform of historical analysis and studies materials that are constantly changing. It highlights for specific in-depth analysis the special laws that govern the different stages or phase in the development of production and exchange. Momoh & Hundeyin (2008: 53) write that political economy “probes into the depth of issues, the interconnection of phenomena, policies, etc with a view to knowing their class origin, character and composition and the logic of their existence and future”. As a result of the massive resources required for infrastructural development, there are many abandoned and uncompleted projects across the country by both federal and state governments. Some of them were abandoned by new administrations that choose not to continue with projects of the governments that they succeeded. There are many projects that were abandoned because of political exigencies or economic realities that indicated that such projects may not be sustainable by the particular government that commenced such projects.


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The study examined the political economy of public infrastructure development in Ogun state, one of Nigeria’s 36 states, between June 2003 and May 29, 2011. There is specific focus on the mechanisms and strategies adopted by the state government in critical infrastructure development, as well as its wider political and economic implications. The study is divided into seven sub-sections, introduction, review of related literature, theoretical framework, methodology, Provision of critical infrastructure in Ogun State between June 2003 and May 2011, political and economic implications of adoption of direct labour approach, conclusion and recommendations. Review Relevant related Literature Infrastructure Infrastructure encompasses the basic physical and organisational structures needed for the operation of a society like roads, bridges, health services, energy supply and water supply. Public buildings can also be classified as public infrastructure. Public infrastructure are essential for the proper functioning of an economy (Sulivan and Sheffrin, 2003). The level of infrastructure development of any given nation is one of the vital tools for measuring the level of overall development of any country as well as the quality of life of its citizenry. (Oyedele, 2012). The Infrastructural development report of Nigeria just like most third world countries is very poor. Scholars have emphasized that in terms of quantity and quality of infrastructure, that Nigeria falls far below requirements (Oyedele, 2006; Ajanlekoko, 2001; Nubi, 2000; Agbola, 1998; Onibokun, 1996). Most of the public infrastructure across the country, are decayed and mal functioning. Nigeria has been importing refined petroleum for about two decades despite the fact that it has refineries and petro-chemical industries, whose combined production capacity should adequately supply domestic needs. It is the responsibility of the government using the census data to plan for the infrastructure needed in specific areas of the state or country, and ensure that they are functioning properly. OECD (2006) posits that the availability of infrastructure facilities and services as well as the efficiency of such services to a large extent determine the success or otherwise of all other production endeavourers. Investments in infrastructures such as energy, water, transportation and communication technologies promote economic growth and help to alleviate poverty and improve living conditions in developing countries. Infrastructure development and its impact on economic growth, economic development and general well being of the citizenry has been the subject of intense investigation by various scholars. Studies have shown a positive impact of infrastructure on economic growth Aschauer (1989); Baltagi and Pinnoi, (1995); Holtz-Eakin, (1994); and Cashin, (1995). Writing on the effect of infrastructure development on economic growth in China, Sahoo, et al (2010 cite Chatterjee, 2005 and Stephane, Vellutin, and Warlters, 2007) as reporting the findings of their earlier studies that China’s sustained high economic growth, and increased competitiveness in the global economy was underpinned by massive development of physical infrastructure. Sahoo, et al (2010) reports that China has


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experienced very drastic fall in the percentage of the population living under $1 per day from 60% in 1980 to 8% in 2009, which implies that the effect of infrastructure development translates to better life for the poor, and not mere paper records of economic growth that has no link to the common person on the street. Given that China was regarded as an underdeveloped country a few decades ago, it becomes imperative that other third world countries would need to develop their infrastructure as the platform for sustained economic growth which will equally rub off on their industrialization programmes. Like the case of China, infrastructure development will facilitate economic growth, which will lead to improved standard of living of the people and reduction of poverty level. Social infrastructure such as education, health and housing are essential to promote better utilization of physical infrastructure and human resources, thereby leading to higher economic growth and improving the quality of life (Hall and Jones, 1999 cited in Sahoo, Dash, and Nataraj, 2010: 13). This literature shows that policy changes that enhance the availability and quality of infrastructure services for the poor in developing countries have a significant positive impact on their health and/or education and, hence, on their income and welfare as well. Theoretical Framework The theoretical construct for this study is the political economy approach. Two major divergent variants of political economy exist; the classical political economy and the Marxist political economy approaches. The major proponents of political economy approaches include Karl Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mills amongst others. “Political economy is regarded as the social science that studies the laws and principles governing the relations of production and exchange of the means of subsistence in a society” (Dinneya, 2006: 209). As has been rightly observed by Onimode (1985) and Aina (1986), political economy has the potential to analyze the development of the society from holistic perspective. It is in this context that we utilize political economy to study the provision of public infrastructure in Ogun State. We look at the economic implications of adoption of specific methods for delivery of public infrastructure, the multiplier effect of such investments in the local economy, the development of requisite human capacity, the impact of development of public infrastructure on the overall well being of the populace. We have adopted the neo-classical political economy approach, made popular by scholars in the Keynesian and neo-Keynesian schools of thought. Their proposition is that state intervention and participation in economic activities is necessary, in order to achieve full employment equilibrium, control inflationary rate, and ensure that there is no recession. This is political economy within a capitalist system, but with a welfarist inclination (Momoh & Hundeyin, 2008). In developing countries such as Nigeria, market forces cannot be depended upon for the provision of critical infrastructure, as well as public goods and services. So, government intervention is required to ensure growth and development, as well as ensure that there is equality in the allocation of the resources of the state including the citing and execution of public infrastructure.


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We argue that the delivery of public infrastructure must be executed by the government in such a manner as to ensure that there is planned effort to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor. Execution of public infrastructure should not be carried out in such a manner to favour the domestic bourgeoisie and their collaborating multinational corporations. The execution of public infrastructure should lead to creation of jobs with the domestic economy, as well as empowerment of the vast majority of the populace who are predominantly poor. We argue that the adoption of direct labour in the execution of critical public infrastructure in Ogun state was the right approach to ensure economic growth and development on a sustainable basis. The local engineers and technicians who are civil servants on the pay role of the state government, who were engaged in such construction and execution of projects, acquired requisite skills which would be improved upon to ensure sustainable development. Methodology The study adopted historical and descriptive survey designs and utilized qualitative data. The data collection methods adopted, were in-depth interview and non participant observation by the researchers. The field survey was carried out over a period of nine months (September 2011 to May 2012). Fifty two personalities were interviewed, among the key informants were: a former governor of Ogun state; former speaker of the State House of Assembly; Traditional leaders; former council chairmen; senior public servants (Assistant Directors, and above); community leaders; residents of communities where execution of major projects were completed; as well as residents of communities where projects were abandoned. Secondary data included documentary review of various publications of the state government, institutions, as well as scholars on the activities of the state government during the period under review. Data collected were content analyzed and used in accomplishing the stated objectives of the study. Provision of critical infrastructure in Ogun State between June 2003 and May 2011 In the development of critical infrastructure, the Ogun state government made valuable in-roads in various sector; road construction, electricity or power sector, sports facilities development, health facilities development and upgrading, and water resources development. We have chosen to emphasize road construction, energy or power infrastructure, and water resources development. In the area of road construction, the state government relied majorly on direct labour in execution of its road projects. The state government established Ogun Road Maintenance Agency (OGROMA) which served as its major vehicle for maintenance of public infrastructure during the period under review. The ministry of works and housing handled predominantly road construction, some of which were awarded to private construction companies, while the ministry of special duties, handled specific special projects such as the secretariat complex. OGROMA reportedly constructed and rehabilitated over 700 roads, covering over 500 kilometres across the twenty local governments of the State. OGROMA had five operational bases, namely: Abeokuta, Ijebu ode, Sagamu, Ilaro and Ota. This was to ensure that its operations effectively cover all the local governments in the state thereby ensuring equity (OGROMA, 2011). Table 1 below, shows some of the prominent roads constructed/rehabilitated/dualized


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by OGROMA both completed and uncompleted between June 2003 and May 2011 across the twenty local governments in the State. Table 1: Some of the prominent roads constructed/rehabilitated/dualized by OGROMA between June 2003 and May 2011 both completed and uncompleted.

S/N Project location LGA Sen. Dist Project type Start Date

Completion Date

% of Completion

1. Nawarudeen-Isabo Abk. South

Ogun central

Rehab.

2004

2004

100%

2. Internal Roads within Govt House, Ibara.

Abk. South Ogun central

Rehab. 2004

2004 100%

3 Kemta Okebode Road

Abk. South Ogun central Rehab. 2004 2004 100%

4. Tekobo Estate Road Abk. South Ogun central Rehab. 2004 2004 100%

5. Ilaro-Idogo Road, Ilaro Yewa South Ogun West Special project 2004 2004 100%

6. Sagamu-Siun-Kobape-Abeokuta Road

Obafemi/Owode/Sagamu

Ogun central/East

Dualization 2004 2006 100%

7. Access road to Asero Housing Estate


8. Adigbe Road Obafemi/Owode Ogun central Rehab. 2005 2005 100%

9. Access Road to Paramount FM

Obafemi/Owode Ogun central Rehab. 2005 2005 100%

10. Access Road to University of Education Ososa Campus

Ijebu-Ode Ogun East Special Project 2009 2009 100%

11. Internal Roads at new commissioners/judges quarters phase 1

Abk. South Ogun central Special project 2005 2006 100%

12. Samsideen Ayorinde Street Abk. North Ogun central Rehab. 2006 2006 100%

13. I. M. A. Road Abk. South Ogun Central

Special project 2005 2005 100%

14. Oke-Ero Road, Adatan Abk. South Ogun Central

Rehab. 2005 2005 100%

15. External Works at Obas’ complex, Abeokuta

Abk. South Ogun Central


16. Ejirin Road, Ijebu-Ode Ijebu-Ode Ogun East Dualization 2005 2006 100%

Table 1: Continued


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Completion Date

% of Completion

17. Internal Roads within Gateway Broadcasting House

Obafemi Owode Ogun central Rehab. 2005 2005 100%

18. Internal Roads within Kuto market


19. University Of Agric (UNAAB), Alabata, Abeokuta

Odeda Ogun central Special project 2005 2005 100%

20. Kuto-Naiwaruudeen road Abk. North Ogun central Special project 2007 2007 100%

21. Ake Palace Ground Abk. South Ogun central Special project 2004 2004 100%

22. Governor’s residential quarters internal roads & car parks


23. Piaza road, Sango-Ota Ado-Odo Ota Ogun West Rehab. 2006 2006 100%

24. Owode Market Road, Owode

Yewa South Ogun west Rehab. 2006 2006 100%

25. Iberekodo – Okeona Gramm School

Abk. North Ogun central Special project 2004 30%

26. Obaruwa/Aiyegbami Road Ijebu Ode Ogun East Rehab. 2005 2005 100%

27. Oritameje/Olose/Aderenle/Akinhanmi rd

Ifo Ogun central Special project 2005 2005 100%

28. Onipara Road, Remo North Ogun East Special project 2005 2005 100%

29. Tai Solarin College of education, Ijagun

Ijebu-Ode Ogun East Special project 2004 2005 100%

30. Ilese Road, Ijebu Ode Ijebu East Ogun East Special project 2005 2005 100%

31. Access road to Polytecnic, Ijebu-Igbo

Ijebu North Ogun East Special project 2008 2008 100%

32. Ososa-sabo Junction – Abass St, Ijebu-Ode

Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project 2005 2007 100%

33. Ogbere-Oritamobi-Korede Road

Ijebu-Ode Ogun East Rehab 2006 2007 100%

34. Ikija-Ijebu Road, Ijebu North

Ijebu North Ogun East Rehab. 2008 2009 100%

Table 1: Continued

S/N

Project location LGA Sen. Dist Project type Start Date

Completion Date

% of Completion

35. Molusi College Road Ijebu Ode Ogun East

Rehab 2005 2005 100%


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36. Ogbogbo – Iworo Road Ijebu North

Ogun East

Rehab 2006 2006 100%

37. Kojumaribi Road, Onikolobo (Adesba Hotel, Oluwo)

Abk. South

Ogun central


38. Iberekodo-Elega Road, Abeokuta Abk. North

Ogun central

Rehab. 2008 2008 100%

39. Imosu/Isamuro/ Aiyegbami/Obaruwa/ Oladipo Streets

Ijebu Ode Ogun East


40. Oru-Awa-Ilaporu Ijebu East Ogun East


41. Pediatric Hospital Ijebu Ode Ogun East

Rehab. 2004 2004 100%

42. Ayawoele Road, Akute Ifo Ogun central


43. Poluga Oduduwa Rd, Ijebu East Ijebu East Ogun East


44. Tunwase Drive Ijebu Ode Ogun East


45. Isiwo Road Ijebu Ode Ogun East

Rehabilitation 2005 2005 100%

46. Bisi Onabanjo Way, Ijebu Ode, Phase I Ijebu Ode Ogun East


47. Owu-Ijebu main Township Rd. Ijebu East Ogun East


48. Ijagun – Imaweje road Ijebu Ode Ogun East


49. Adedoyin Street, Ikenne Ikenne Ogun east


50. Powerline Road, Wasimi Ewekoro ogun central


51. Phase II of the main arterial road into Obasano Hill Top Estate, Abeokuta

Abk. South

Ogun central


Table 1: Continued

S/N


Completion Date

% of Completion

52. Ipokia – Tube Road Ipokia Ogun west


53. Phase I of the internal roads at rhe OGD workers Estate, Laderin.

Abk. South

Ogun central


54. Osiele Road Odeda Ogun central



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55. Internal roads at the commissioners/Judges quarters, phase I

Abk. South

Ogun central


56. Ijebu Ode – Imodi Imosan Road. Ijebu Ode Ogun East


57. Ajegunle Soluade Road, Abeokuta. Abk. South

Ogun central


58. Town hall Road, Omu Ijebu North

Ogun East


59. Link road to new Library complex at Tai Solarin University of Education

Ijebu Ode Ogun East


60. Joju Street, Ota Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West


61. Ogbogbo-Erigo Road, Ijebu North East

Ogun East

rehabilitation 2009 2009 100%

62. Owode – Ilaro Road, Ilaro Yewa South

Ogun West


63. Otegbeye Road, Ilaro Yewa South

Ogun West


64. Sagamu-Ijebu Ode, Ajebandele – Benin Expressway

Sagamu & Ijebu Ode

Ogun East


65. Ilogun Road, Aiyetoro. Yewa North

Ogun West


66. Prison Road, Sagamu Sagamu Ogun East


67. Lafenwa –Odo-Eran-Sobogaa Road, Abeokuta

Abk North

Ogun central


68. Roads within sagamu International Market.

Sagamu Ogun East


Table 1: Continued

S/N


Completion Date

% of Completion

69. Somorin road, Obantoko, Abeokuta Odeda Ogun central


70. Iporo Ake Road Abk. South

Ogun central


71. Awokoya Road, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East


72. Roads in Aiyetoro (Olowu, Eeemado & Social Road, Aiyetoro

Yewa North

Ogun West


73. Elebute Road, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East


74. Lusada – Igbesa Road Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West

Special project 2010 - 48%

75. Adesanya/Bakare/ Anifowoshe/Oyesiku Road, Ijebu Ode

Ijebu Ode Ogun East


76. Akarigbo Road, Sagamu Sagamu Ogun East



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77. Ogunyanwo Road, Sagamu Sagamu Ogun East


78. Oba Erinwole Byepass, Sagamu Sagamu Ogun East


79. Ilas-KoKo-Alari-Ota-Ifoyintedo Road Ipokia Ogun West


80. Ifo Main Township Road Ifo Ogun central


81. New Access Road to New Secretariat Complex, Abeokuta

Abk. South

Ogun central


82. Igan Road, Ago Iwoye Ijebu North

Ogun East


83. Internal roads at Ososa campus of TASUED

Ijebu Ode Ogun East


84. Lafenwa/Old garage Road/Section 1 of Owode road.

Ado – Odo Ota

Ogun West


85. Haruna Ishola Road, Ijebu – Igbo Ijebu North

Ogun East

Rehabilitation 100%

86. Motoye – Eredo Road Remo North

Ogun East


Table 1: Continued S/N Project location LGA Sen. Dist Project type Start

Date Completion Date

% of Completion

87. Lalubu Road, Abeokuta Abk. South

Ogun central


88. Ibiade – Agodo – Lukogbe – Lukola – Tigara

Ogun waterside

Ogun East Special project

2004 2004 100%

89. Aiyetoro road Yewa North

Ogun West

Rehabilitation

2004 2005 100%

90. Olabisi Onabanjo University internal roads, Phase A

Ijebu North


2004 2004 100%

91. Construction of Ali Isiba Road, sango Ota

Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West

Special project

2008 2008 100%

92. Abeokuta Sports Club Internal Roads & Car Park

Abk. South

Ogun central

Special project

2006 2006 100%

93. Construction of Ogun Elegi road network, Ijebu-Igbo

Ijebu North


2008 2009 100%

94. High Court road, Sagamu to link Benin exp. Road

Sagamu Ogun East Special project

2004 2005 100%

95. Construction of Sagamu GRA road network, Paddy Arikawe Ave., Olootu Michael Oyedele

Sagamu Ogun East Special project

2009 2011 100%

96. Ondo road, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project

2010 2010 100%

97. Construction of palace road, Igbesa Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West

Special project

2008 2010 45%

98. Ode-Remo – Akaka Road Remo North


2006 2006 100%

99. Construction of Fashakin Road, Akute Ifo Ogun central

Special project

2006 2006 100%

100 Ijofin Agosasa Township Road Ipokia Ogun West

Special project

2008 2010 30%


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101. Construction of 3 roads in Ibefun (Maternity/Akio/ Market Roads)

Odogbolu Ogun East Special project

2006 2010 20%

102. Construction of Oba Ogunfowora road, Iperu

Ikenne Ogun East Special project

2008 2009 100%

103. Dualisation of Awolowo Road, Ikenne Ikenne Ogun East Dualisation 2008 2010 100%

104. Dualisation Of Sagamu – Wapco Road (Federal Road)

Sagamu Ogun East Dualisation 2006 2008 52%

Table 1: Continued S/N Project location LGA Sen. Dist Project type Start

Date Completion Date

% of Completion

105. Dualisation of Ilo – Awela Road, sango – Ota

Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West

Dualisation 2008 2010 40%

106. Dualisation of Ilishan-Ago – Iwoye road

Ikenne/Ijebu North

Ogun East Dualisation 2005 2010 50%

107. Dualisation Of Adatan – Asero (Federal road)

Abk. North Ogun central

Dualisation 2009 2010 70%

108. Dualisation of 2 major roads within the new site of Olabisi Onabanjo Teaching Hospital

Sagamu Ogun East Dualisation 2008 2010 35%

109. Dualisation of Ondo road/ Olabisi Onabanjo way (Stadium road)

Ijebu Ode Ogun East Dualisation 2010 2010 89%

110. Construction of bye pass at Isheri Ifo Ogun central

Special project

2010 2011 30%

111. Construction of Abass road, Ijebu Ode

Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project

2008 2008 100%

112. Molipa – Express Road, ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project

2011 2011 100%

113. Awoyelu/Ogunfowora Road, Ijebu Ode

Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project

2011 2011 100%

114. Akute Road Ifo Ogun central

Special project

2009 2011 100%

115 Lafenwa Gaa Abk. North Ogun central


116. Isale Abetu Road Abk South Ogun central


117. Bakare Avenue Abk. North Ogun central


118. Customs road Abk. North Ogun central


119. Ijemo-Okepadi-Eruwon road Abk. North Ogun central

Special project

2005 2006 100%

120 Onirugba road, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East Special project

2007 2011 100%

121. Club road, Ijebu Ife Ijebu North east

Ogun East rehabilitation 2008 2008 100%

Table 1: Continued


Completion Date

% of Completion


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Source: OGROMA (2011, pp. 63 – 71) Table 1 above, shows that most of the projects that were executed by OGROMA during the period under review were completed within one year of the commencement date. The implication of this is that the state was able to save enormous funds that could have been spent on deferential if the contracts were awarded to private companies who usually do not complete projects within one calendar year. Some of the projects were equally not completed. Some of those interviewed stated that the crisis between the executive and the house of assembly which affected the normal operations of the state, let not financial crunch, which meant that the government did not have sufficient resources to complete the roads. Some of the respondents thought it was the second term syndrome that affected the execution of projects. Their argument was that the uncompleted projects were those that were embarked upon during the second term of the administration. This assertion was denied by the former governor who stated that the administration was focused on completion of the projects but for the crisis in the state fueled by the house of assembly between 2008 – 2011. Projects execution by Ministry of Works The Ministry of Works “constructed/rehabilitated twenty six roads spread across the twenty local governments of the State.” (Jacobs, 2010: 420). Table 2 below, shows some of the roads that were constructed/rehabilitated by the Ogun State Ministry of Works, during the period under review. Table 2: Some of the roads constructed/rehabilitated and other projects executed by the Ministry of Works between June 2003 and May 2011. Project Location Name of

Contractor Cost in Naira

Status

Construction of Atan-Ishaga Orile Road & Atan- Agbara Road (70km)

Abeokuta North/Yewa North/Ado Odo Ota

Direct Labour 2.3 billion uncompleted

Ago-Iwoye Township Roads i. Construction of Abobi Rd

(1.1km) ii. Apakuta/Okeola Rd (0.9km) iii. Magistrate Court/Methodist

Church/Mosque Rd (0.9km) iv. Borowaye/Epoyun Rd (0.9km) v. Ololo/Attacker Avenue, Idode

Rd (1.8Km)

Ijebu North

Direct labour

43,145,155 28,447,545 20,787,663 32,523,122 34,242,188

Completed uncompleted

Construction of Kemta Housing Estate Abeokuta South Direct Labour 143, uncompleted

122. Repair of bad sections of Lagos – Abeokuta road, Sango

Ado-Odo Ota

Ogun West


123. Aiyetoro road, Abeokuta Abk. North Ogun central

Special project

2009 2010 100%

124. Bonojo Street Ijebu Ode Ogun East rehabilitation 2003 2003 100%

125. Alapo Street, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Ogun East rehabilitation 2003 2003 100%

126. GRA, Sagamu Sagamu Ogun East Rehabilitation 2003 2003 100% 127. Sabo Junction, Ilaro Yewa

South Ogun West



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Roads-Phase II (5km) 000,000 Sagamu Township Roads 226,298,82

9.75

Ijaodankan Street (0.5km) completed Ogunkoya/Kafaru street (0.7Km) Akinsanya-Ajaka Rd (0.3Km) Major Thompson Rd (0.8Km) Itajerin/Iraye (1.15) – 220m tarred

Sagamu

Direct labour

Completed uncompleted

Construction/Rehabilitation of Odogbolu Township roads

156,260,465.50

i. Igbodile Road (0.7Km) ii. Ikosa Road (1.0Km) iii. Oditami/Odo-Aloro Rd

(0.6Km) iv. Adeniyi Gabriel Street (1Km) v. Otunba Adebayo Odeniyi Rd

(1.6Km) vi. Soludero Avenue (0.9Km)

Odogbolu LGA

Direct labour

Completed uncompleted unconmpleted

“

Rehabilitation of Papalanto-Iro-Sagamu Ewekoro/Ifo/Obafemi Owode

C.G.C. Nig Ltd

1,065,000,000.00

uncompleted

Construction of Itoki-Arijeloro Rd (5Km) Ijebu North Crest & Crown

225,471,700.00 uncompleted

Construction/Rehabilitation of Iyana-Ilogbo-Iju Ota Rd (13.2Km)

Ado Odo Ota Abdel Najeem ventures


Lateef Adegbite Street (250Km) Abk. Abeokuta South Direct labour 5,448,975.00 Completed Construction of Prof ajayi Rd, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode Direct labour 3,500,000.00 Completed Construction of Mushin-Esure-Igbaga-Yemoji Rd (10Km)

Ijebu East OARS 283,000,000.00 Completed

Construction of Housing Estate Rd, Kemta, Phase I

Abeokuta South Direct labour 106,900,000.00 Completed

Ota Itele Ayobo Ado Odo Ota Direct labour 492,240,000.00 Completed Abiola Way-Ewang Estate-Idi-Aba rd Abeokuta South Direct labour 48,901,860.00 Completed Imeko Ilara Rd Imeko Afon Direct labour 217,974,109.50 Completed

Atan-Odoshimadegun-Eti-Obu Road (5.7Km)

Ijebu North East Direct labour 113,000,000.00 Completed

Awa-Ibadan Rd Junction (1.3Km) Ijebu North Direct labour 21,300,825.00 Completed

Ijebu Igbo-Agunboye Rd Ijebu North Direct labour 95,000,000.00 Completed

World Bank Assisted Projects

Construction of Ita-Elega Rd via Elega Housing Estate to Saje junction 94.4Km)

Abeokuta South MOTEF Eng Ltd


Construction of road & drainages in Ago-Oko

Abeokuta South CONTENG Nig Ltd


Construction/Rehabilitation of schools in Owu/Gbagura & Ago-Oko Community

Abeokuta South PROPHAM WALTER ODUSOTE



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V.I.O achievements

Kotopo VIO Station Abeokuta 10,283,930.00 Completed Ijebu-Ode VIO Station Ijebu Ode 10,283,930.00 Completed Ota VIO station Ota 12,417,296.50 Completed

Ijebu-Igbo VIO section Ijebu-Igbo 10,258,229.10 Completed

Ilaro VIO section Ilaro 13,853,942.70 Completed

Fire services Fire tender 12 Nos Isheri Fire station Ifo HPH Nig Ltd 9,000,000.00 uncompleted

Source: Jacobs (2010: 424 – 425). Table 2 above equally shows that most of the projects that were executed by the ministry of works were carried out through direct labour. This indicates that there was a deliberate effort by the state government to positively transform the domestic economy through the provision of public infrastructure. The projects that were awarded to construction companies were mainly awarded to local construction companies. Intervention in the supply and distribution of electricity The Ogun state government established Ogun State Electricity project Agency (OGSEP) as its primary vehicle for provision of infrastructure in the energy sector in the state. During the period under review, the state government provided ninety two (92) relief sub-stations to communities across the twenty local governments of the State, at a total cost of six hundred and six million, three hundred and eighty nine thousand, four hundred and fifty eight naira, forty two kobo (N606, 389, 458. 42). This was aimed at boosting electricity supply in the state. Table 56 shows the 92 Relief Sub-Stations provided by OGSEP, according to location/local government, cost and status. Table 3: Relief Sub-stations provided by OGSEP the State June 2003 to February 2010 by Location and Local Government Area. S/N PROJECT LOCATION/LGA COST (Naira) STATUS

1. Ministry of Agric, Secretariat complex, Abeokuta

Abeokuta South 1, 807, 452.00 completed

2. Parastatals office Complex, Oke Mosan, Abeokuta

Abeokuta South 964, 600.00 completed

3 Gateway Savings & Loans, Oke Ilewo, Abeokuta


4. Presidential Hilltop beside PDP secretariat, Abeokuta


5. Olorunsogo/Idi-Aba, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 2, 549, 809.00 completed 6. Fajol Castle area, GRA, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 3, 227, 045.00 completed 7. Plant gate Site, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 4, 210, 200.00 completed 8. June 12 Market, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 2, 368, 200.00 completed 9. Media Village, Ajebo, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 5, 312, 500.00 completed 10. Imo, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 2, 173, 045.00 completed


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11. Labaiwa Oke-Aregba, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 9, 678, 537.00 completed 12. Ibara Police Station, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 4, 026, 410.00 completed 13. Workers’ Estate, Laderin, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 19,531, 180.00 completed 14. Ewang Estate Ext., Abeokuta Abeokuta South 15,339, 205.00 completed 15. Amazing Grace, GRA, Ibara, Abeokuta South 6, 291, 185.00 completed 16. Onikolobo, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 2, 984, 393.00 completed 17. Lemo Community, Abule Ojere Abeokuta South 5, 542, 897.63 completed 18. Adegbenro Street, Onikolobo Abeokuta South 7, 752, 162.00 completed 19. E4 Road, Olomore Abeokuta South 5, 938, 634.00 completed 20. Ire-Akari Community, behind Kampala

Market, Asero Abeokuta South 10, 813, 048.00 completed

21. Akanni Section of Obasanjo Hilltop GRA


22. Ore-Ofe Community, Adigbe Abeokuta South 5, 803, 039.00 completed 23. GRA III in front of Legislative quarters Abeokuta South 3, 812, 477.00 completed 24. Leme Community, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 9, 554, 546.00 completed 25. Ifekowajo Odemo, Abeokuta Abeokuta South 22,596, 546.00 completed Table 3: continued S/N PROJECT LOCATION/LGA COST (Naira) STATUS 26. Temidire Community, Sabo, Abeokuta Abeokuta North 3, 899, 045.00 completed 27. Talabi Odutayo Community, Olomore Abeokuta North 12, 266,315.00 uncompleted 28. Eweje Farm Institute Odeda 850, 000.00 completed 29. Obantoko Odeda 2, 205, 585.00 completed 30. Ilupeju Odeda

11,515, 062.18 Completed

31. Aiya Odeda Completed 32. Surulere Odeda Completed 33. Eternal Oil & Gas Plc, Sagamu

Interchange Obafemi Owode

5, 526, 654.51

Completed

34. Federal Road safety Corps Station, Sagamu Interchange

Obafemi Owode Completed

35. Itori General Hospital Ewekoro 6, 067, 730.00 Completed 36. Summit Hotel Ewekoro Completed 37. Gateway ICT Polytechnic, Eruku-Itori Ewekoro 15, 420, 057.00 Completed 38. Nahman Gateway Asphalt Plant Office Ewekoro 13, 615, 075.00 Completed 39. Obada Oko Ewekoro 7, 077, 501.00 Completed 40. Ijoko Lemode 20, 777, 260.00 Completed 41. Oposuru Ifo completed 42. Ija Ola Ifo Completed 43. Gateway City Development House,

Isheri Ifo 4, 900, 000.00 Completed

44. Dalemo, Alakuko Ifo 8, 979, 525.00 Completed 45. Oloke GRA Extension, Abeokua Ifo 9, 745, 121.00 Completed 46. Oke Ore Ado Odo Ota 8, 506, 470.00 Completed 47. Ilo-Ifako, Ota Ado Odo Ota 3, 106, 425.00 Completed 48. Iyedi Ota Ado Odo Ota 2, 976, 725.00 Completed 49. Iyesi Ota Ado Odo Ota 4,549,745.00 Completed 50. Abebi Ota Ado Odo Ota 8, 332, 405.00 Completed


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51. Igberen Ota Ado Odo Ota 11,114, 385.00 Completed 52. Anuoluwapo Ota Ado Odo Ota 9, 391, 685.00 Completed 53. Olosun Ota Ado Odo Ota 3, 681,720.00 Completed 54. Oluwalose Ota Ado Odo Ota 8, 035, 825.00 Completed Table 3: continued S/N PROJECT LOCATION/LGA COST (Naira) STATUS 55. Abule Owode Ota Ado Odo Ota 7, 589, 645.00 Completed 56. High Court, Ota Ado Odo Ota 2, 974, 330.00 Completed 57. Ewupe Ota Ado Odo Ota 5, 918, 865.00 Completed 58. Igboloye Ota Ado Odo Ota 5, 079, 130.00 Completed 59. Owode Community, Ota Ado Odo Ota 4, 895, 530.00 Completed 60. Ogun Guandong FTZ Logistics centre,

Igbesa Ado Odo Ota 7,000, 000.00 Completed

61. Ogun Guandong FTZ start-up Area for Factory production

Ado Odo Ota 7, 000, 000.00 Uncompleted

62. Joga Orile Yewa North 1, 808, 307.00 Completed 63. Agbole Aibo, Aiyetoro Yewa North 8, 073, 073.00 Completed 64. Oka Odan Yewa South 6, 285, 930.00 Completed 65. 192 Batallion Barracks, Owode Yewa South 7, 302, 689.00 Completed 66. GRA Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode 1, 500, 000.00 Completed 67. Itanrin Housing Estate, Ijebu Ode 4, 340, 710.00 Completed 68. Ikanigbo, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode 3, 544, 195.00 Completed 69. Imowo-Igoya Ijebu Ode 6, 883, 699.00 Completed 70. Bishop’s court comm. Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode 3, 984, 901.00 Completed 71. Molipa, Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode 4, 629, 466.00 Completed 72. Erunwon/Ijebu-Ode GRA Extension,

Ijebu Ode Ijebu Ode 31,763, 334.00 Completed

73. Abraham Adesanya Polytechnic, Ijebu-Igbo

Ijebu North 18,164, 460.00 Completed

74. Ijari Ijebu North East 4, 153, 185.00 Completed 75. Igbeba Ijebu North East 2, 914, 885.00 Completed 76. Odosenlu Ijebu North East 2, 128, 045.00 Completed 77. Irewon Ijebu North East 6, 177, 810.00 Completed 78. Imobi Ijebu East 9, 879, 895.00 Completed 79. Oguru, Kajola, via Ogbere Ijebu East 4, 504, 110.00 Completed 80. Demuren Ijebu East 4, 083, 585.00 Completed 81. GRA, Sagamu Sagamu 6, 648, 424.00 Completed 82. Abekoko, Ipara Remo North 3, 665, 505.00 Completed Table 3: continued S/N PROJECT LOCATION/LGA COST (Naira) STATUS 83. Omu Odogbolu 958, 025.00 Completed 84. Ijesa-Ijebu Odogbolu 6, 131, 813.00 Completed 85. Imodi/Imosan Odogbolu 3, 722, 445.00 Completed 86. Aiyepe Sawmill Odogbolu 3, 096, 937.00 Completed 87. Idowa Odogbolu 4, 626, 145.00 Completed 88. Imoru Odogbolu 5, 304, 465.00 Completed 89. Oke-Meri Road Junction, Omu Odogbolu 8, 718, 445.00 Completed


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90. Ogunrin Omu Odogbolu 3, 613, 905.00 Completed 91. New palace, Omu Odogbolu 11,851, 915.00 Completed Total 606,389,458.42 Source: Jacobs (2010, pp. 527 – 531). Beyond the relief sub-stations that the state government provided across the state to improve power supply in the state in the face of the failure of the agency of the federal government to discharge its responsibilities, the state government allocated transformers to various communities in the state, according to need. The allocation of transformers was made in consideration of the energy consumption capacity of each local government. A total of 402 transformers of varying capacities were allocated to different communities (Onadipe, 2007). The state Bureau of Electrical Engineering Services (OGSEP) also completed street lighting facilities on sixty roads and streets across the state at a total cost of one billion, twenty three million, sixty four thousand, four hundred and twenty six naira, nine kobo (N1,023,064,426.09). It rehabilitated and extended distribution networks in one hundred and ten locations across the state at a cost of two hundred and eighty nine million, eight hundred and seventeen thousand, nine hundred and thirty six naira fifty six kobo (N289,817,936.56). Thirty eight rural electrification projects were executed in ten communities across the State at a cost of four hundred and thirty eight million, eight hundred and twenty three thousand, one hundred and thirty naira only (N438,823,130.00) (Jacobs, 2010: 532-539). Provision of portable water In continuation of its responsiveness to the needs of the residents of the state, in the area of provision of portable water, the Ogun State government during the period under review made efforts to permanently redress the problem of acute water supply shortage in the State before May 29, 2003. The Abeokuta Water scheme was rehabilitated and upgraded. The first phase of the rehabilitation was embarked upon in 2005 at the cost of five hundred and sixty eight million naira (N568, 000, 000), this included the upgrading and construction of a Booster station at Panseke. The Panseke Station ensured provision of water to Onikolobo, Adigbe, Ojere and environs. The Adatan Booster Station was also upgraded providing uninterrupted water supply to Obantoko, Asero and Osiele. The old water scheme was also resuscitated to produce additional 18mld under the State/Federal Water Projects (Daniel 2011). Other interventions bothering on Abeokuta Water Scheme include: complete rehabilitation of the scheme under the National Urban Water sector reform programme in conjuction with World Bank; Regular purchase of water treatment chemicals to produce wholesome water that meets World Health Organization standard for drinking water; general overhaul of the 2.4 MVA generating set which serve as standby during PHCN outages; purchase of two new 1, 100 KW electric motors to improve production at the Abeokuta main water scheme (Daniel 2011). Besides the Abeokuta water scheme, the Ogun State government during the period under review rehabilitated the five other major water works in the State. They are: Yemoji Water Scheme, Ijebu Ode; Sagamu Water Works; Ifo -Akinside Water Scheme (Papalanto); Ijebu-Igbo Water Scheme (Apoje); and Ogere Water Supply Scheme.


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Political and economic Implications of adoption of Direct Labour Approach to project execution The use of direct labour in the execution of most of the road projects of the State, which made them to be delivered at lower costs than what it would have cost if they were executed through contracts awarded to construction companies, was a very good initiative that could be stated as a major reason for the positive results in this sector. The former governor stated (in an interview conducted September 2011) that the cost of project execution by OGROMA through direct labour was about 30% of executing the same project using private contractors. This explains why the government was able to execute large number of road projects during the period under review. As Nigeria seeks to become one of the top twenty economies in the world, it needs to develop its domestic human capital, especially in the areas of industrialization and critical infrastructural development. Nigeria cannot achieve the required sustainable development without its ability to develop indigenous technology and the manpower to utilize them for improved productivity. Across Nigeria, engineers are engaged as civil servants and paid by the government to stay in the offices and carry files, and receive reports from the expatriate contractors that build the public infrastructure in Nigeria. Majority of the so-called “engineers” employed by the foreign construction companies are actually technicians who do not have the level of training that the Nigerian engineers have. The Nigerian engineers are employed to stay in office and waste away, while the projects they are supposed to execute are handled by less qualified expatriates. OGROMA proved with the quality of the roads it executed that given the right environment, Nigerian engineers, even when employed by government as civil servants can execute major road projects. Another very important dimension to the significance of the use of direct labour is that the salaries earned by the civil servants who executed the roads were plowed back into the local economy, unlike the situation where multinational or foreign construction companies would repatriate their profits to their home countries at the end of each year. Such repatriated profits, in line with the propositions of left wing scholars are utilized in the further development of their home countries economies. The domestic economy suffers as such profits if retained in the domestic economy would serve as savings to generate further investments that will ultimately lead to economic development. Adoption of direct labour approach also led to reduction in the level of unemployment in the state. The five operational gangs covering different zones of the state, led to creation of jobs, as many unemployed people were engaged by OGROMA in the construction works. These people were able to acquire skills in road construction which implied that they could subsequently be engaged by construction companies, if and when their services are not needed by OGROMA. Conclusion The state government engaged in massive provision of public infrastructure in roads, energy and water resources development during the period under review. However, most of the projects that were undertaken during the second term (2007 – 2011) were not completed. Various reasons were adduced for this, including the crisis that engulfed the state that led to


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near total neglect of capital projects. The main mechanism for execution of public infrastructure by the state government was the direct labour approach. The adoption of direct labour approach as the predominant strategy for public infrastructure development by the state government was commendable as it had multiplier effect on the local economy. It helped in ensuring economic growth within the state, as the salaries and profits generated from them were re-integrated into the local economy to facilitate further growth. It equally led to the building of human capacity building in the area of road construction and energy supply, areas that have been dominated by expatriates in the country for decades. The exploit of OGROMA exposed the myth that the country lacks local human capacity to achieve sustainable development. It has created the background on which future administrations should build upon to improve the capacity in infrastructure development as well as ensure sustainable development through the continual maintenance of the infrastructure. Recommendations There is need for the federal government and the various state governments to adopt direct labour approach to the development of public infrastructure. This will go a long way in boosting the human capacity of the citizens, as well as provide the needed economic growth and industrialization of the country. Governments should to a large extent discourage award of construction contracts to foreign construction companies, who end up not adding value to the local economy. They utilize predominantly foreign nationals in the technical roles, and use nationals as menial hands. The foreign construction companies also encourage capital flight through the repatriation of their profits. The relevant committees of the national assembly and those of the different states houses of the assembly should carry out their oversight functions properly to ensure that the quality is adhered to in the development of public infrastructure, and there is maintenance culture entrenched across board. References Agbola T. (1998). The Housing of Nigerians: A review of policy development and Implementation. Research Report No.14. Aina, T. A. (1986). What is Political Economy? In Nigerian Economic Society (1986). The Nigerian Economy: A Political Economy Approach. London: Longman. Ajanlekoko, J. S. (2001). Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria – The Financial and Infrastructural Implication. Available at http://www.fig.net/pub/proceedings/nairobi/ajanlekokocmws1-1.pdf. Aschauer, D., 1989. "Is Public Expenditure Productive?" Journal of Monetary Economics 23, 177-200. Baltagi, H., Pinnoi, N., (1995). Public Capital Stock and State Productivity Growth: Further Evidence from an Error Components Model. Empirical Economics 20, 351-359


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Behrman, J., Wolfe, B., (1987). How does Mother’s Schooling Affect Family Health, Nutrition, Medical Care Usage and Household Sanitation? Journal of Econometrics 36, 185-204. Cashin, P., 1995. Government Spending, Taxes, and Economic Growth. IMF Staff Papers 42 (2), 237-269 Chatterjee, S. (2005). Poverty Reduction Strategies-Lessons from the Asian and pacific Region on Inclusive Development. Asian development Review. 22: 12 – 44. Daniel, G. (2011). Daniel in the Lion’s den. Ibadan: Frontline Books. Dode, R. O. (2010). Yar’ adua 7-Point Agenda, the MDGs and sustainable development in Nigeria. Global Journal of Human Social Science. Vol 10 Issue 4 (Ver 1.0) (August 2010). Pp 2 – 8. Engels, F. (1976). Anti Duhring. Peking: Foreign Language Press. Fulmer, J. (2009). What in the world is infrastructure? PEI Infrastructure Investor (July/August): 30–32. Hall, R. and Jones, C. (1999). Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114: 83 – 116 Holtz-Eakin, D. (1994). Public Sector Capital and the Productivity Puzzle. The Review of Economics and Statistics 12-21. Jacobs, J. (2010). Socio-Economic Transformation in Ogun State, Governor Gbenga Daniel’s Impact. Ibadan: Glow Communications. Kumar, D. (2005). Infrastructure in India. ICFAI Journal of Infrastructure. Available at http://129.3.20.41/eps/urb/papers/0506/0506002.pdf. Momoh, A. & Hundeyin, T. (1999). Perspectives on Political Economy. In Anifowose, R & Enemuo, F. (eds) (1999). Elements of Politics. Pp 37 – 59. Lagos: Concept Publications. Newswatch Magazine, (February 9, 2009). Ogun State Government (2011a). The Landmark, a Compendium of Otunba Gbenga Daniel’s administration, Social Welfare Development: Enhancing Human Development, Abeokuta: Office of the Economic Adviser to the Governor. Ogun State Government (2011b). The Landmark, a Compendium of Otunba Gbenga Daniel’s Administration, Infrastructural Development: Laying a New Substructure, Abeokuta: Office of the Economic Adviser to the Governor. Ogun State Road Management Agency – OGROMA (2011). Tarring into the hearts of the people for 8 years (2003 – 2011). Abeokuta: OGROMA. Okundare, A. (2011). Youth Directed Programmes – Sports Development and Infrastructure. In Oyesiku, K. O. (ed.) (2011). Governance and Vulnerable. Ago- Iwoye: Olabisi Onabanjo University Press. Onadipe, K. (2007). Ministry of Special Duties: Fulfilling the Promise, the Promise the Bond. Abeokuta, Nigeria: Ogun State Ministry of Special Duties. Onibokun, A.G. and A .J. Kumuyi, (1996). An Evaluation of Informal Sector Activities and Urban Land use. Retrieved from www.fig.net/pub/fig2006/papers/ts35/ts35_02_adeyinka_etal_0641.pdf. Onimode, B. (1985). An Introduction to Marxist Political Economy. Third World Books. Oyedele, O.A. (2006). Effects of Waste Dumps Values of Adjoining Properties: A case study of


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Abule-Egba Waste Dump. Being Unpublished Thesis Submitted to the Senate of University of Ibadan, Nigeria, in partial fulfillment of the conditions for the award of Master of Science in Housing. Sahoo, P., Dash, R. K., Nataraj, G. (2010). Infrastructure Development and Economic Growth in China. Institute of Developing Economies Discussion Paper, No 261. Pp 1 – 33. Stephane, S., Vellutin, C., and Warlters, M. (2007). Infrastructure and Economic Growth in East Asia, The World Bank, Policy Research Working paper. No. 4589. Sullivan, A. and Sheffrin, M. S. (2003). Economics: Principles in action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Tell Magazine, December 8, 2008. Tell Magazine, February 23, 2009

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