POLITECNICO DI MILANO · 2020. 10. 10. · The Case of the Environmental Planning with Life Cycle...

POLITECNICO DI MILANO

Master in

Building Information Modelling

How Digital Tools inform the Decision Making during the Design

Process? The Case of the Environmental Planning with Life Cycle

Assessment in BIM Environment.

Supervisor: Author:

Prof. Zanelli Alessandra Georgios Triantafyllidis

Dr. Viscuso Salvatore

Arch. Edwards Kristian

a.a. 2019/2020

How Digital Tools inform the Decision Making during the Design Process. The Case of the Environmental Planning with Life Cycle


Erasmus Mundus Joint Master Degree Programme – ERASMUS+

European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ ii

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European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was done with the collaboration of Politecnico di Milano and the Architecture-Design

Studio Snøhetta, Oslo. I would like to thank my supervisors from the side of the Politecnico di Milano

Professor Zanelli Alessandra, PhD Viscuso Salvatore for their great support and all the useful material

that they provided me.

From the side of Snøhetta, I would like to thank Arch. Anne Cecilia Haug for accepting my application

and gave me the opportunity to work together with them. In addition, I would like to thank the Arch.

Kristian Edwards for providing me the case study taken into examination in this project, for providing

me his great insights towards the current development and concepts related to sustainable design and

more precisely the implications of the carbon accounting in the early design stages.

In addition, I would like to thank the Concortium of the Master program for the scholarship that they

offered me.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all the curious and engaged people that are producing and sharing

all their knowledge in youtube tutorials, dynamo scripts and other online open source platforms.




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ iv

STATEMENT OF INTEGRITY

I hereby declare having conducted this academic work with integrity. I confirm that I have not used

plagiarism or any form of undue use of information or falsification of results along the process leading

to its elaboration.

I further declare that I have fully acknowledged the Code of ethics and conduct of Politecnico di Milano.




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ v

SOMMARIO

Abstract page (University national language – ask the help of your supervisor and do not forget to

include the translated title. The abstract and keywords below must fit into a single page).

Parole chiave: (5 keywords in Italian, separated by commas and in alphabetical order)




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ vi

ABSTRACT

In the age of the Anthropocene, architecture has to face critical challenges that are affecting the quality

of life and the existence of life in a globalised form. The built environment cannot be seen as a sum of

single elements, but rather as a system which on the one hand interacts with its inhabitants and serves

them and on the other affects their behaviour. Accordingly, the job of the architect is shifting from mere

form-giving to creating systems that support human interactions. The design of those systems requires

well-coordinated actions and an explicit communication of goals and methods between teams, so that

the artefacts are coherent.

BIM can provide the common ground upon which the design team can interact and collaborate in order

to create the conditions under which the participants can design. That is, to create environments in which

conversations can emerge. In other words, it helps to generate the situations in which others can create.

It is a methodology, that recognises circular causality as a quality and thus creates a system, in which

the goals are negotiated in an open-ended and integrated process. Circular causality requires readiness

not only to affect the others, but also to be affected by them.

Additionally, the digital tools in the disposal of the architect enable feedback-based human-computer

interactions. Digital simulation tools allow the designers to reflect in action while testing their intentions.

By receiving the data from the simulations, they become conscious of the impact of their design choices

and are able to adjust their decision making.

This study proposes a further investigation in the way in which digital tools inform design. To this aim,

I will focus on the use and development of a dynamic Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in BIM

environment by linking the materials of the model with LCA databases. Dynamic LCA can be applied

both for new constructions as well as for building rehabilitation. Traditional LCA methods do not

consider factors that vary during the building life cycle or are executed only at the end of each phase. A

dynamic LCA will allow the design teams to be aware in real time of the environmental impact on their

choices of materials during the design phase and allow them to investigate and evaluate multiple

alternatives.

Keywords: design process, decision making, digital tools, dynamic LCA, Building Information

Modelling




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... III

SOMMARIO ............................................................................................................................. V

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. IX

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 10

1.1. MATERIAL CULTURE AS CARRIER OF KNOWLEDGE .............................................. 10

1.2. GENERAL CONTEXT AND THE NEED FOR THE SUSTAINABLE TURN IN DESIGN

DISCIPLINES ................................................................................................................................... 10

1.3. DESIGN PROBLEMS AND SYSTEMS THINKING ......................................................... 11

1.4. BIM AS AGENT TOWARDS DESIGN PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS AND

COLLABORATIVE PRACTICES ................................................................................................... 11

1.5. STATE-OF-THE ART AND PURPOSE OF THE THESIS ................................................ 12

1.6. STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .......................................................................................... 14

2. DESIGN RESEARCH AND SYSTEMS THINKING ..................................................... 16

2.1. DESIGN RESEARCH AND DESIGN PROBLEMS ........................................................... 16

2.1.1. Design Research as a field of study ............................................................................... 16

2.1.2. Design Problems – Wicked Problems ........................................................................... 17

2.2. APPROACH TOWARDS THE SOLUTION OF WICKED PROBLEMS .......................... 18

2.2.1. Systems Thinking and Design cybernetics .................................................................... 18

2.2.2. The spaces in which design actions are taking place .................................................... 20

2.3. SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 22

3. DIGITAL TOOLS AND COLLABORATIVE DIALOGUES ......................................... 23

3.1. BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING ...................................................................... 23

3.1.1. Collaboration – information accessibility ..................................................................... 23

3.1.2. Information Exchange – interoperability ...................................................................... 24

3.1.3. Simulation and Computation ......................................................................................... 27

3.2. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................. 27

3.2.1. LCA Specifications ....................................................................................................... 28

3.2.2. Existing tools about LCA calculation ........................................................................... 31

3.2.3. Dynamic LCA in BIM environment ............................................................................. 32

3.3. SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 34

4. CASE STUDY AND PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION ................................................. 35

4.1. DESCRIPTION OF SNØHETTA ......................................................................................... 35

4.1.1. The HouseZero – Harvard Center for Green Buildings and Cities - Case study

description ..................................................................................................................................... 36

4.2. LCA CALCULATION IN BIM DURING THE DESIGN STAGES ................................... 37




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ viii

4.2.1. Material Database .......................................................................................................... 40

4.2.2. Mapping of materials between ÖKOBAUDAT and Revit native library...................... 40

4.2.3. Alternative solutions for the exterior walls ................................................................... 42

4.2.4. LCA parameters and filter parameters ........................................................................... 43

4.2.5. Dynamo scripts .............................................................................................................. 44

4.2.6. Reports and optimization ............................................................................................... 46

4.3. SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 48

5. CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 49

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 51




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 – Stages of designing dialogues according to Glanville, as cited by Fischer and Herr, 2019) 21

Figure 2 - Schema of the traditional information exchange and the CDE,

https://bimportal.scottishfuturetrust.org ................................................................................................ 25

Figure 3 - Structure of data inside the CDE according to PAS 1192-2, (Kensek, 2018) ..................... 26

Figure 4 - Stages of LCA Analysis, ISO 14044:2006 ........................................................................... 29

Figure 5 - Existing Computer supported LCA Tools (Hollberg, 2016) and input from existing BIM –

LCA Tools (Cristine Bueno, 2016) cited by (Genova, 2018). .............................................................. 31

Figure 6 – MacLeamy curve, (Curt,2004) cited by (Hollberg, 2016) ................................................... 32

Figure 7 - From left to right: state of the building before the intervention, picture of the building after

the retroffiting / All rights reserved by Snøhetta ................................................................................... 36

Figure 8 – Main workflow to follow during the design process ........................................................... 37

Figure 9 - Design stage and production of variants based on the optimization of their embodied energy

- (Hollberg, Hildebrand and Habert, 2018) ........................................................................................... 38

Figure 10 – System map of the workflow for the LCA calculation in Revit ........................................ 39

Figure 11 - ÖKOBAUDAT Excel Database ......................................................................................... 40

Figure 12 - Material ID mapping in Revit ............................................................................................. 41

Figure 13 - Three fassade material variations ....................................................................................... 42

Figure 14 - Screenshots from the Revit properties of the model ........................................................... 43

Figure 15 - Dynamo scripts for the automated insertion and deletion of parameters in Revit .............. 44

Figure 16 - Dynamo script for the insertion of external database, material mapping, LCA calculation

and report of the values back in objects in the model ........................................................................... 45

Figure 17 - Dynamo script for the data report in Excel format ............................................................. 45

Figure 18 - Comparative Report of the final LCA values ..................................................................... 46

Figure 19 - Comparative diagram of the overall performance and impact for each variation .............. 46

Figure 20 - GWP Charts for each of the three variations ...................................................................... 47




European Master in Building Information Modelling BIM A+ 10

1. INTRODUCTION

The first part of the introduction presents the general scope of the thesis and introduces the reader to the

fundamental concepts and the framework that will be further developed in the next chapters. The

intention of this part is the attempt to bring forth the existing interrelationships among the disciplines of

architecture, design research to the Building Information Modelling (BIM) methodology.

The second part will be focused on the definition of the purpose of the thesis, the definition of the

problem that will be treated and the objectives.

In the third and last part, the structure and a summary of the next chapters will be presented.

1.1. Material culture as carrier of knowledge

Architecture and design belong to a transdisciplinary branch of knowledge which is shaped by, interacts

with and affects other dimensions of knowledge. Architecture and design practises belong to the artifact

- artisan practises and are embedded in the social realm. They act as external representations and are the

carriers of knowledge. This material dimension of architecture and design are shaped by the cognitive-

and social- dimension of knowledge. The material dimension therefore contains the traces of the other

two dimensions from which it has been shaped by, while at the same time it leaves traces on our

cognitive constructs, which at their turn are getting shaped by those concrete situations. The three

dimensions can account for the evolution of knowledge. (Renn, 2020).

In that sense, knowledge is part of a system, where its part are affecting each other in a circular causal

fashion. In this system, each dimension is affecting the system, while at the same time is getting affected

by it. Whenever the system is confronted with new technologies or challenging objects, it is getting

transformed in the process. Consequently, the emergence of novelty can be seen as the result of the

transformation of the existing system. (Renn, 2020).

1.2. General context and the need for the sustainable turn in design disciplines

In the Anthropocene, the era where the planet has been deeply shaped by the human interventions and

it is approaching the planetary boundaries, is challenging the knowledge system. To maintain and

promote sustainable solutions which will maintain living conditions on earth, more knowledge needs to

be produced, shared globally, and applied locally.

During the United Nations Climate Change conference that took place in Paris in 2015, it was agreed

that all the countries should take special measures in order to reduce the global warming by reducing

their carbon footprint. It is widely acknowledged that GHG emissions are having a direct impact on the

global warming and therefore part of the measures should be on the reduction of the GHG production.

Building industry is accounted for contributing around 40% of the total CO2 emissions and the goals

from the Paris agreement is to set a limit of the rising temperature to 1.5 degrees. Therefore, architect





and designers need to keep a track on the impact that their decisions are contributing towards the global

warming. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), constitutes a methodology for accounting the environmental

impact caused by the whole life cycle of products, processes, and services. LCA results a complex

methodology which includes lots of information and consequently its calculation results a time and

energy consuming task for the designers.1

1.3. Design problems and systems thinking

Solving design problems that are arising by such complexities, requires a different approach than the

one used in traditional natural sciences and engineering. This is due to the different nature of design

problems which in a pluralistic society there no absolute objectivity of what is considered as good, or

any objective definition of equity therefore design problems are defined as “wicked problems”. (Rittel

and Webber, 1973)

The approach taken in consideration in this thesis regarding the design problems has been developed by

the theory on the second order cybernetics.

The approach towards the development of wicked-problem solutions according to (Rittel, 2010), is

giving importance among others to:

1. The presence of the subjective observer both as an actor and controller

2. The circular causality as quality

3. The value of conversation in the “solution-finding” process

4. The collaborative practices and the refusal of the figure of the specialist - expert

Consequently, the job of the designer is shifting from mere form-giving to creating systems that enhance

collaboration, conversation, and exchange of information from all the participants-observers. At the

same time, the design of those systems requires well-coordinated actions and an explicit communication

of goals and methods between teams, so that the artefacts are coherent. (Fischer and Herr, 2019)

1.4. BIM as agent towards design problems solutions and collaborative practices

Due to the complexity and the nature of the design problems on the one hand, and the complexity of the

buildings themselves, the design of those systems is making use and taking advantage of the evolving

technological advantages. The use of computer and computation in design is seen as a tool that serves

towards the fulfilment of the intentions of the designers. It has therefore to be used in such a way that

will facilitate the designers to reach their goals.

BIM methodology is joined with this line of thought since its ontology is very much based in such a

way in order to help the architect and the other stakeholder towards their approach to the rising

complexities towards the generation of wicked-problems’ solutions. Although there are several

applications of computer technology applied in the Architecture, Engineering, Construction (AEC)

1 More detailed description about the LCA will follow in the second part of the introduction, where the description of the purpose of the thesis

will be described.





industry during the design, construction and operation phases, the information flow both of the existing

information as well as the new data produced by the different stakeholders in the different stages are

lost or is hard to be retrieved. This happens mostly due to the lack of a precise method which the

information flow should follow, the use of different mediums of information’s transmittance between

the stakeholders as well as problems that regard the storage and retrieval of information whenever

necessary.

By applying BIM method, all information produced and collected by the different participants is stored

in digital models i.e. comprehensive digital representations of building. This approach dramatically

improves the coordination of the design activities, the integration of simulations, the setup and control

of the construction process, as well as the handover of building information to the operator. In addition,

by reducing the repetitive manual tasks by the re-entering, the chances for errors is reduced, while at the

same time repetitive work is avoided. (Kensek, 2018)

As a consequence, BIM method promotes collaboration, knowledge sharing between different

stakeholders, a common ground where collaboration takes place, while at the same time creates a data-

knowledge depository in an organised fashion where information can be created, shared, stored and

retrieved. By doing so, it creates a system, where conversation can emerge. In other words, it helps to

generate the situations the others can create. The goals are negotiated in an open-ended and integrated

process and recognizes circular causality as a quality.

1.5. State-of-the Art and purpose of the thesis

New technology and on-going research are trying to give answers and establish methods and frameworks

on how the building industry will result more sustainable and will enhance the human health and well-

being. Life Cycle Assessment is a relatively not so new concept whose goal is to analyse the energy and

impact of the production of construction materials, the energy produced by their transfer, on side

construction, operation, demolition and their potential to be reused for future buildings. LCA analysis

results a complex operation which requires a lot of information and calculation especially if one

considers big and complex buildings. Its complexity limits its use and therefore, LCA analysis is mostly

produced at the end stage of the design process. This has therefore to minimize the room for significant

changes and therefore for significantly reduce the CO2 emissions.

There is a need for an integration of the LCA analysis in the early design stages, where the initial

decision making in taking place. In addition, there is a need for an integrated design process where all

different disciplines are participating in an open and continuous conversation. Architecture and design,

as described above, are part of a collaborative transdisciplinary field, acting in a systemic fashion. In

this open system, every component should be ready to be affect and to be affected. An integrated design

approach will offer a deeper understanding on the interrelationships between architectural-, structural-,

MEP- and environmental design, which will allow for better solutions with lower environmental impact

by integrating different sources of knowledge and perspectives.

The purpose of this thesis is to trace a connection between the disciplines of architecture, design research

and the Building Information Modelling (BIM) methodology. More precisely, this research is focusing

on how the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is informing the decision making during the design process





in BIM environment. This research is trying to make use and to implement the workflow introduced by

the research by (Genova, 2019). The scope of this is to test and appropriate the workflow in an attempt

to possibly improve and make it more flexible and usable for a variants research LCA evaluation

process.

In the architecture field, the LCA due to its complexity is usually calculated at the end of the design

process. In order to improve the speed and being able to use the LCA as a tool in the earlier stages, there

is the need to simplify-or speed up the process/computation of the data while having more time to invest

in finding alternative design solutions and therefore reducing the cost, and the impact of the building

through its life cycle. In this sense, the accounting and calculation of the environmental impact that the

design of a new building or product is producing through the LCA methodology leaves traces in the

object itself as described in the subchapter 1.1.

The digital tools employed now for the LCA calculation are extracting the information regarding the

materiality and quantity from the 3D model and compute the life cycle assessment in cloud or in external

platforms, outside the BIM environment. This has as a consequence that the results of the calculation

are not connected with the 3d model, but are mere data which represent the impact values of the building

at the certain point in time, when the analysis has been executed.

This separation of the analysis’ data from the model is causing a problem, especially when we are talking

about complex problem which require an integrative design approach. One of the main revolutions of

the BIM methodology is the collection of all the necessary data in one platform and make it accessible

to all the participants of the different disciplines. There is therefore a need for the LCA to be integrated

in the BIM authoring tool in order to:

• facilitate the optimisation of the design solution

• make it parametric and automatically updated according to the changes in the model

• make the results of those changes visible and available to other disciplines

• connect and map the impact that each building component is causing in the whole in order to

allow the designer to focus only on the points where there is excessive production of CO2 and

give her space to act

In this thesis, I will try on the one hand, to create make use of a dynamic LCA analysis using the visual

programming tool Dynamo applied to the and on the other to Harvard Center for Green Buildings and

Cities building, and on the other make the link between the influence on the decision making during the

design phase and the influence – participation of the digital tools in the process of creation of the

architectural design of the building.





1.6. Structure of the thesis

This thesis is divided in two main parts. The first part is introducing theoretical framework, the definition

of design problems and concepts. The second part is based on the presentation of the case study taken

into examination. In this second part, the case study will be presented and will emphasise the ways

digital tools informed the decision making and shaped the final building. Later, there will be presented

the computational script will be developed. This will present how an automated LCA process inside the

BIM environment is facilitating the decision making of the architect towards the decision on the choice

of materials, while at the same time giving the opportunity to share, exchange, update and include more

information in a collaborative fashion by the inclusion of the participation of the other stakeholders

involved in the project. The thesis structure will be subdivided in 5 main chapter, as follows:

Chapter 1:

The first chapter introduces the reader to the fundamental principles of design research and their

relationship with the systemic thinking. The chapter starts with the definitions of the theoretical concepts

and their definitions. Later, there will be presented the peculiar characteristics of the design problems

and the justification why design problems cannot be treated the same way as problems are treated by

other disciplines. Design problems therefore are not looking towards design-as-problem-solving but

towards design-as-problem-finding or needs-finding. (Fischer and Herr, 2019). In the last part, there

will be presented the position and the role that the design researchers play in that process and their

criteria of judgment and decision making. In the last part of the chapter there will be briefly discussed

how the special agency included inside the design studio affects the designers. In addition, it will be

briefly discussed the notion of Reflection-In-Action and Knowledge-In-Action as characteristics of the

design process.

Chapter 2:

After defining the nature of design problems, the methods employed by the designers in order to

approach the decision making and the spatial qualities that are affecting the designer, the third chapter

approaches to position the role of BIM, its qualities, structure inside this framework. BIM is seen as a

“space” and as a “tool” in which conversation takes place, allowing different stakeholders to collaborate,

exchange information, share knowledge. In the last part of this chapter, there will be discussed the

principles of LCA analysis, its role inside the design process and decision making, while there will be

presented the state of the art and the method applied in the next chapter.

Chapter 3:

In the fourth chapter, there will be presented and analysed the case study, according to the themes

introduced in the previous chapters. The case study presents an exemplary case of a retrofit of a two-

storey building in Boston. The building presents a lot of peculiar characteristics and themes which span

from historical conservation and memory to passive house principles, well-being, human – sensor

regulators, digital computational- and simulation tools. Later in the chapter, the main topic of the thesis

which consists on the integration of LCA analysis in the BIM environment as agent that enhances

collaboration and produces justification for decision making will be presented. In addition, there will be

presented the





Chapter 4:

In the last chapter, there will briefly summed up and brought together the concepts described in the

previous chapters in order to arrive to conclusions and discuss the limitations of the thesis, the relevance

of the research and suggestions for further research.





2. DESIGN RESEARCH AND SYSTEMS THINKING

In the first section of the chapter, there will be explained the principles of design research as field of

study and the nature of design problems. Later, there will be discussed and defined the term and

principles of cybernetics, focusing on their relevance towards the design solution approach. The second

part will be focused on the processes which designers are employing in order to formulate judgement

and decisions. In order to do so, there will be discussed the constellation both of spatial qualities as well

as tools and instruments employed during the design process as well as during the decision-making

process. The aim is to present the complexities of this dynamic interrelated system, which includes

human and non-human objects while creating sets of atmospheres which in their turn are affecting the

process.

2.1. Design Research and Design problems

In the first part of this chapter there will be introduced the definitions of Design Research as a field of

study and its main characteristics. Later there will be discussed the nature of design problems, their

characteristics, and the approach towards their solutions.

2.1.1. Design Research as a field of study

Design research as we know it today, is a result of two main evolutionary phases. The first took place

during the 1920s and the second during the 1960s. In both cases there was the attempt to place design

inside the milieu of sciences, by on the first case introducing concepts of universal objectivity as a mean

for designing and on the second by the launch of design methodology as a subject or field of enquiry.

This second movement was even more focused on how to base design processes and design products on

objectivity and rationality. (Cross, 2006)

New technological, computational and scientific methods were the foundations of this new approach to

design. It was claimed that the design science revolution based on science technology and rationalism

could provide solutions to the problems that politics and economics could not solve. Despite the rising

interest of the application of scientific discourses inside the field of design, during the 1970s initial

supporters and pioneers of this movement started questioning its validity. Among others, Christopher

Alexander, who had originated a rational method for architecture and planning was proposing the

complete refuse of those methodologies and he went on by saying “ I’ve disassociated myself from the

field… There is so little in what is called “design methods” that has anything useful to say about how to

design buildings that I never even read the literature anymore. I would say forget it, forget the whole

thing”. (Alexander, 1964)

Aligned to this way of thinking, were the contributions and questions raised by Rittel and Webber in

1973, who recognised the nature and complexity of design problems - planning problems embedded in

the society. They introduced the term “wicked problem” and assigned it to describe the design problems

while they made the distinction between the wicked problems and tame problems that traditional science

is dealing with.





Design as a field of study seeks solutions towards the design problems. Research according to (Archer,

1981) as cited by (Cross, 2006) is the systematic enquiry, the goal of which is knowledge.

Consequently,

Our concern in design research has to be the development, articulation and

communication of design knowledge. Where do we look for this knowledge? I believe

that it has three sources: people, processes and products. (Cross, 2006)

In this sense, the role of the design researcher lies on the capacity to understand and reflect on the design

practises and investigation of the human ability to design and on the methods of how to learn to design.

In addition, design research is focusing on the material manifestation of forms of knowledge that reside

on one hand on processes and methodologies and on the other on products themselves. In the first case,

the tactics and strategies of designing are defining the tools and techniques that the designer is applying

during the design stages. Much of this research revolves around the study of modelling for design

purposes. Modelling is the ‘language’ of design. Traditional models are the sketches and drawings of

proposed design solutions, but which in contemporary terms now extend to ‘virtual reality’ models. The

use of computer-based models has stimulated a wealth of research into design processes. (Cross, 2006)

Secondly, the design researchers recognise the value of tradition and history as a depository of

knowledge contained in the products themselves. This form of knowledge is manifested in forms,

materials, techniques, finishes and the tools employed in order to give same to the product.

2.1.2. Design Problems – Wicked Problems

As described above, architecture and design disciplines are transdisciplinary fields, that in order to be

constructed require interdisciplinary teams. Architecture and design problems are disciplines based on

the social realm and they result from the interactions between the users with the object themselves. In

this sense, the final product is shaped by the interaction between designers, materials, processes and

users. Design problems are characterized as wicked problems. The nature of those problems is not

following a linear process, but a messy one which is unique for each case and cannot be repeated.

In the pluralistic society where no absolute good or right decision can be considered, what a designer

has to face during the decision making makes this task hard to cope. This is one of the main principles

upon which the distinction of wicked problems has been made. Consequently, architecture and design

urges for a collaboration between as many people that stem from more as possible consequences. In this

sense, wicked problems do not provide solutions, but rather temporary solutions, which can

continuously get improved, re-appropriated and reshaped. This makes the whole process an open source,

open ended process which runs in feedback loops and in which every output is used as input for another

sub-process and all this interaction web which they form constitutes the system.

Architecture, design, urban planning among others dealing with problems that differ from the problems

that scientists and engineers are dealing with. Although this is a conception that in contemporary

research is not regarding those two aspects as completely separated, in this thesis I will focus more on

the concept of wicked problems vs tame problems as discussed by Webber and Rittel.





Design problems, or else wicked-problems as described by (Rittel and Webber, 1973) and they have the

following 10 characteristics:

1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule

3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad

4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem

5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no

opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly

6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of

potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may

be incorporated into the plan

7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique

8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem

9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in

numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's

resolution

10. The planner has no right to be wrong

2.2. Approach towards the solution of Wicked Problems

As described previously, design problems have particular characteristics that at they turn require a

different approach towards the formulation of solutions. In this sub-chapter it will be discussed the

systems thinking applied in design by focusing of the second order cybernetics. Firstly, the reader will

be introduced to the main definitions and concepts of cybernetics and later it will be presented the

relevance of cybernetic thought inside the design and architecture fields. At the last part, it will be

presented how the designers design, the influence of the designers’ studio space and the tools they

employ to design and how those two aspects is affecting the overall design process and as a consequence

the design object itself.

2.2.1. Systems Thinking and Design cybernetics

Systems thinking recognises the interrelations between all single elements with the whole. In this sense,

the building cannot be seen just as static assemblage of different elements, but rather as a part of a system

which integrates, reacts and creates the place for interaction among the other parts of the built

environment in which it is embedded. Systems thinking recognizes the interrelations between all

different parts of the whole as a quality, where each part is influencing the behaviour of the other. There

is a growing interest to reduce the impact of the built environment in the ecosystem. This is a complex

issue which involves the participation of different experts from different fields in order to formulate a

coherent strategy. Therefore, it can be said that

…even seemingly insignificant artefacts have an influence on the systemic context they

are embedded in. If we want to solve the resource situation for the future and avoid the

destruction of the planet, we need a consistent concern with the systemic influences of

our artefacts and actions. (Sevaldson, 2008)





Systems thinking has evolved thought the years and there have been different approaches to it. Still the

core of this kind of “meta-theory” remains the study of the interaction between the members which

constitute the whole.

Cybernetics, as part of the systems thinking has appeared first in Plato’s writing. The origin of the word

stems from the κυβερνητικός, steersmanship with similar connotations to the word government. Later

in 1948, Wiener seminal work Cybernetics; or, control and communication in the animal and the

machine. Wiener’s work was introducing cybernetics in order to describe the self-regulating systems by

means of a circular feedback dependency. Although his work and generally the term cybernetics has

been disassociated by its philosophical dimensions and been used as a science of deterministic,

instrumentalist control technology inherited the Cold-War reputation (Fisher et al., 2019), Wiener

recognized the agency of the interactions of those systems. In other words, Wiener recognized the

influence and importance of the observer, the circular causality and non-determinability inside the

system in which the action is taking place. In this sense, he recognized that cybernetics have a reflexive

character instead of a linear one.

This first stage known as first order cybernetics is putting the foundations for the second order which is

based on the transition from the a detached, “objective” pose, where we can duck responsibility, right

into the messy middle of things, where we must take responsibility for our actions. (Dubberly et al.,2019)

Second order cybernetics are putting forward the importance that the subjective observer has during the

design process. The subjective observer is seen as an active agent who influences and takes a precise

position and perspective within the problem. In architecture and building industry where different

designers and stakeholders are involved during the design phase, is becoming a ground in which people

meet, collaborate, exchange knowledge and information and negotiate in an open-ended fashion.

Conversation and dialogue are fundamental parts of second order cybernetics. Dialogues and

conversation are shaping and are being shaped by an open-ended continues feedback loop, in which the

outputs are becoming again inputs in a circular causal manner. During this process, the involvement and

participation of each of the members are of equal value and each of the actors can challenge and

influence the system.

Architecture and design due to the rise of computing technology and its role in human communication

are expanding from form giving to create systems that support human interactions. (Fischer and Herr,

2019). At the same time,

a building cannot be viewed simply in isolation. It is only meaningful as a human

environment. It perpetually interacts with its inhabitants, on the one hand serving them

and on the other hand controlling their behaviour. In other words, structures make sense

as parts of larger systems that include human components and the architect is primarily

concerned with these larger systems; they (not just the bricks and mortar part) are what

the architect designs. (Pask, 1969)





2.2.2. The spaces in which design actions are taking place

In this section it will be presented and discussed the literature regarding the design practise and the

spaces in which design takes place. The goal is to present how the designers are getting affected by the

tools, their spaces and the dialogues between the self and the other. In this sense, spaces in which design

is taking place is part of the dialectic which is stimulation the generation of circular causal feedback

loops. Architecture and built environment according to (Sloterdjik, 2015) is the design of immersions.

Immersion, in this context, means to engage with one’s immersion in artificial environments, assisted

by technical equipment, for instance a virtual reality helmet or an electronic visor. In addition, according

to (Ash, 2016), the studio space should not be understood as geometric containers in which action takes

place, but instead as a series of co-existent spheres and atmospheres that shape the possibilities for action

of those that work in studio settings.

This necessarily leads us on to architecture, for it is properly considered, together with

music, the original form in which the immersion of humans in artificial environments

has been developed into a culturally controlled process. House building is a sort of basic

version of immersion technology, while urbanism is the developed stage. (Sloterdjik,

2015)

In this sense, architects and designers are the constructors of those immersive conditions, in which at

the same time they are immersed by. The design studio as a constellation of such an immersive space

includes both human and non-human objects and tools. The interaction and agency existed inside the

spacial constellation of the design studio can create situations in of knowledge production.Accoridng to

(Ash, 2016), this relational account of studio space points to the ways that any form of knowledge

produced within a studio does not simply emerge from individual human bodies or brains, but is co-

produced with a range of objects, which in turn produces the space of the studio as a particular location

in which particular activities take place. that the affective capacities of non-human objects are absolutely

fundamental to how a studio space is produced and that affect also shapes the potentials for new

knowledges and objects to be generated. Affect is not then an additive or emergent effect of a relation

between human bodies, but one of the basic components that enables the possibilities and limitations of

a space to appear through non-human objects as well.

In the same line of though is the contribution of Donald Schön, who challenged the positivist doctrine

of the design as a science and he proposed the shift to the design as a reflective practise. According to

(Schön, 1983), design together with city planning, engineering, management law, but also education,

psychotherapy and medicine require series of activities in domains that involve reflective practice.

(Visser, 2011)

The reflective practitioner is then a figure which is part of an open system in which a there is a

continous flow of inputs that are being processes, both material, immaterial, emotional and digital, that

are creating outputs which in their turn are becoming inputs again in a continous circuar – causal

manner. The reflective practitioner is a figure whose knowledge is based on the tacit dimension since

on the main processes of knowledge production is generated by intutitive processes which some

practitioners bring to situations of uncertainty, instability, uniquenness and value conflict. (Cross,

2006)





Designing according to Glanville, is unfolding as a conversation between a self and various possible

kinds of other, such as a pen and paper, a person, an imagined person, computer soft- and hardware,

physical models and so on. The crucial requirement is for the self to allow the other to “speak back” and

to accommodate the unexpected so that self affects other, and other affects self. Avoiding requisite

variety, both get partially “out of control” in a mix of positive and negative feedback, thus conversing

along non-determinable trajectories to arrive at previously unknown destinations. (Fischer and Herr,

2019)

Figure 1 – Stages of designing dialogues according to Glanville, as cited by Fischer and Herr,

2019)





2.3. Summary

In this chapter, the reader introduced to the principle ideas of Design Research as field of study. It has

been also presented the different stages of the evolution of research in design and design methodologies

as part of a scientific milieu. A distinction between methods applied to science and those that need to be

applied in the design have been made. Methodologies may be useful for scientific research especially

then the result need to be validated. The results of design on the other hand do not have to be repeatable

and in most of the cases must not be repeated or copied. (Cross 2006). Research in science and in design

as well as the methods and strategies employed in order to conduct research differs.

Later, the characteristics of the problems that the designers are dealing with have been described.

Moreover, since design problems - wicked problems differ from tame problems, the method with which

they need to be faced is different. Due to their complexity and interrelations of the different components

of the wicked problems, it has been discussed how the systemic thinking and more precisely the second

order cybernetics can assist the definition of goals during the design stage. In the beginning of the second

sub chapter, the main concepts, and principles of the second order cybernetics and their relevance with

the design stage has been made. Second order cybernetics recognises circular causality, non-

determinism, the subjective observer and other concepts avoided by natural science. In this way, it offers

an approach to self-organising systems that negotiate their own goals in open-ended processes – in other

words: design. (Fischer and Herr, 2019)

In the second part of this chapter, it has been discussed the spaces in which the design action is taking

place. Spaces are seen not as containers of material and immaterial objects, but as the active matter

which creates atmospheres as results from the interaction of humans and non-humans. In addition, it has

been discussed the ways in which designers work in an reflexion-in-action fashion, by involving the

reflection and conversation between the self, the other designers or even the material and immaterial

objects such as models, sketches, digital tools and digital simulations.

The goal of this chapter was to introduce to the reader the complexities of design as well as the ways in

which designers work, the spaces and agency of their design studios, as well as the feedback loops and

conversations happening by the interaction between both human, non-human and the self in a circular

causal manner.





3. DIGITAL TOOLS AND COLLABORATIVE DIALOGUES

This chapter is focused on how digital tools and more precisely the BIM methodology can enhance the

collaborative practices and how the use of those tools can inform the decision making during the design

stage. To this aim, there will be discussed the main characteristics of the BIM methodology in relation

to the information use, storage and exchange between the different stakeholders. Later, there will be

discussed how BIM by following those rules about the information management, can become the base

for other simulation and computational tools. In the second part of the chapter, the focus is based on the

calculation of the LCA analysis. It will be presented the main characteristics and standards that the LCA

should follow, and there will be presented the current tools that help the designer with the calculation

task. In the last part, there will be presented the advantages of the LCA analysis in a BIM environment

and how this dynamic approach can have a positive impact during the decision making and how this

exact process is a part of a reflective dialogue between designer and machine as described in the previous

chapter.

3.1. Building Information Modelling

BIM is the method by which 3D objects and buildings are designed in a virtual environment. Buildings

and their parts are containing sets of properties and information regarding a wide range of different sorts

of information for the early conceptual design stage to the operation and end of life of the building. The

inclusion of such information makes the model the carrier of knowledge which include the participation

of all different stakeholders that take part in it. At the same time, makes the information easily

retrievable, updated, shared, stored or cancelled. The main advantages of this methodology are to be

seen during the development of big complex projects that include accordingly the analogous amount of

information. BIM is promoting the collaborative practices and the integrated design by the participation

of the different disciplines. In this first part of the third chapter, there will be discussed some of the main

characteristics upon which the BIM methodology is based, and how those characteristics can contribute

towards the developments of solutions for the wicked-design problems that the designer has to deal with.

3.1.1. Collaboration – information accessibility

One of the main characteristics as mentioned above, is the enhancement of collaboration throughout the

design of a building or object. BIM recognized the interdisciplinary approach as a quality and allows

multiple stakeholders to meet and work together in a collective fashion where every participant is

contributing to the same scope which is the development of a solution for a design problem.1

There are many definitions about what BIM is and how it is about to change the process of construction.

In most if not all of them, the collaborative aspect is constantly emphasized, and according to what have

1 This inevitably brings in mind the similarities in the approaches existed during the medieval times and the guilts’ organisation and scope as

described by Richard Sennet’s book The Craftsman, 2009 and in that way creates a link between the transition and transformation of the crafts

as an act done with the hands, in German Handwerk, to the digital era.





been discussed in the second chapter, it dismantles the hierarchies and recognizes the unique knowledge

that stem from each of the individuals which are participating in the design process.

Accordingly, BIM is seen as:

… a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. A BIM

is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis

for decisions during its life cycle; defined as existing from earliest conception to

demolition. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at

different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify

information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder.

(buildingSMART alliance, 2015)

where

…collaboration describes the cooperation of complementary partners with a high level

of trust and reciprocal support. An important objective of collaboration is the creation

of collective knowledge in order to develop solutions for complex problems.

Collaborative processes are frequently highly creative, and all partners are of equal

standing. (Schapke et al., 2018)

3.1.2. Information Exchange – interoperability

In order to create a common place in which the design actions can take place, it is necessary to establish

among others the ways in which the information is going to be stored, who is going to have access and

when, to who is the information relevant and so on.

In order to ensure a constant flow of relevant information, BIM methodology follows a structure based

on different standards that is common to all stakeholders. In that way, quality assurance is maintained

and the work of the design teams and the stakeholders becomes easier since the information management

follows certain rules which are common and known to all of them.

Building is the result of a complex process in which different companies are participating. In addition,

the planning process is divided in several different phases, which are in their turn executed by different

teams and companies. Finally, the collaborations between the different companies involved are or may

be alliances that are new, and their bonds are not based on long-term collaboration on older projects.

(Borrmann et al., 2018)

In this diverse landscape, collaboration and information exchange is therefore a complex task.

Information accessibility by the different stakeholders is based on two main properties. The first is that

the stakeholders have access to the information pool, and second that the information is machine

readable. But in an integrated design approach, that seems not to be enough. Integrated design requires

not only precise information management rules but it also needs to be ensured that the information

exchanged from one stakeholder to the other it can be used without the need for further manual

processing and additionally that the information that has been transferred has remained unchanged and

complete. That means that interoperable information exchange is a crucial aspect of BIM integrated





design. Since different stakeholders use different software tools and consequently different formats,

there is a need for a common language where the information can be exchanged without been lost or

altered.

Creating a common framework in which data exchange formats is of great importance in the

Architecture, Engineering, Construction (AEC) sector. To this aim, there are not only the native formats

of each software house, but also agreements on formats that are ensuring the quality of the information

transference and that constitute the “universal” language of BIM. One of them, the .ifc format developed

by the buildingSMART organisation is aligned with the goal of creating an interoperable communication

channel in which the information is contained and can be exchanged between the different software

inside the building industry.

Despite the efforts, it is still hard to say that there are no interoperability issues. The variety of

information and the continuous growing number of digital tools, as well as the information that they are

producing may still not be fully readable from another software, although the exchange format is

common.

To assure that the information that the relevant information is remaining updated, interoperable and

accessible to everyone is a very important and difficult task. The common place where information is

gathered is called Common Data Environment (CDE).

The use of CDE constitutes a common depository of information, which by following certain rules set

by standards is facilitating the retrieval, control, update and dissemination of information to all the

stakeholders. In addition, it helps to reuse the already existed information while at the same time reduces

the time and cost needed in order to create coordinated information to the team.

Figure 2 - Schema of the traditional information exchange and the CDE,

https://bimportal.scottishfuturetrust.org





According to the British Standard Institution (BSI) the CDE is:

The single source of information for any given project, used to collect, manage and

disseminate all relevant approved project information. Stored digitally, this is where

information is shared collaboratively in a logical, accessible way to help all key parties

gain access to information. This means that, firstly, information is readily accessible

(using universal naming conventions) and is not duplicated, and secondly, information

has both a defined purpose and owner. (BSI, 2020)

For a CDE to succeed its scope, there is a need of a clear definition of roles and responsibilities between

the project’s team, a clear definition of the workflows. Moreover, there is a need for a common use of a

common glossary of terms, definitions, data architectures and file formats, while at the same time it

needs to be ensured that information is available and accessible anytime from anywhere.

Project- and information management play therefore an important role towards the structuring of the

information inside the CDE. To do so, the formation of the CDE should follow one general accepted

format. The one mostly used is according to the Specification PAS 1192-2, published by the BSI.

Figure 3 - Structure of data inside the CDE according to PAS 1192-2, (Kensek, 2018)

The CDE by centralising the information storage as well as by creating packages of information and

workflows supports the easier coordination of the huge amounts of information that is present in the 3D

digital models.





3.1.3. Simulation and Computation

The use of computer in architecture and design is seen as a tool, which contributes the designers towards

their attempts to solve complex problems and allows them to compute faster complex and repetitive

operations. Digital computer then, is seen as

…essentially, the same as a huge army of clerks, equipped with rule books, pencil and

paper, all stupid and entirely without initiative, but able to follow exactly millions of

precisely defined operations. There is nothing a computer can do which such an army

of clerks could not do, if given time. (Alexander, 1976)

The way in which the digital tools are embedded inside the architectural design process, is

focused not on the necessity or trend to use the computer itself, but it’s use should be clearly

articulated and focused on in which ways this army of clerks could be helpful to solve those

design problems. (Alexander, 1976)

As explained in the previous chapter, the solution of a design problem is very much depended

on the perspective in which the designer approaches, frames and analyses the nature of the

problem. The use of the digital tools therefore can bring to a misleading formulation of purpose

and focus of a problem which is not the main – or the original design problem which should be

solved. The main purpose should be not just to use the digital tool, but first to know what and

in which way this tool is going to help the designer solve the problem which has been defined

in an earlier stage.

The importance then of using the computer according to (Rittel, 1976) lies in the fact that it can

make possible what could not be treated by the unarmed natural human brain.

In this context, BIM can play an important role towards the management and preparation of the

data that need to be computed. BIM capacity to store, re-use and extract information directly

from the geometrical 3D model, is raising on one hand the productivity while at the same time

it reduces the errors by avoiding the constant manual re-entering of information. By following

standard formats and data architectures commonly accepted by other platforms, the information

can be easily used in order to compute or simulate the performance of the building, either inside

the same software by the use of plug-ins, or in cloud.

3.2. Life Cycle Assessment

The building industry is responsible for the consumption of more than the 40% of the world’s primary

energy (PE), while at the same time is causing the one third of the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG).

(UNEP SBCI, 2009)

These numbers are considering the whole life cycle of the building: from its construction including the

to the operational and the demolition phase. Consequently, the energy consumption and GHG

production is very much influenced by the decisions taken during the design phase of the building. The

design stage is the initial stage in which the analysis of the design problems is starting to give shape to

the first solutions of it. It is crucial then, that during the design stage there should be taken in





consideration measures towards the reduction of the energy and material resources. The design stage is

of particular importance because it is setting the rules, priorities and the way the building will operate,

maintained and demolished. During the design phase, the interdependencies of the construction,

operation and demolition stages are decided. In that sense, the design stage can be seen as wicked

problem, whose solutions are influencing and have an impact on the construction operation and

demolition stages, while at the same time, those solutions may cause new problems on the life cycle of

the building.

There have been regulations regarding the energy efficiency of the building during its operation stage,

which successfully managed to reduce the its environmental impact. Therefore, there is a raising interest

in the embodied energy during the production and disposal of the building elements. European

regulations will require that from the beginning of 2021, all new buildings will need to have operational

energy demand close to zero. As a result, the embodied energy will become even more significant.

(Hollberg, 2016)

In the first section of this subchapter, there will be presented the LCA methodology and framework.

Later, there will be presented the some of the most common tools which are allowing for a smoother

calculation of the LCA, and on the last part, there will be discussed the advantages that the integration

of LCA in BIM environment. In addition, there will be highlighted relevant workflows towards this

goal, which there will be developed and tested in the next chapter.

3.2.1. LCA Specifications

The increased interest towards the analysis and reduction of the environmental impact of the building

industry, has led to the development of different methodologies. One of them is the Life Cycle

Assessment which is focus on the analysis of the environmental impacts of products, goods and service.

LCA is based following the standard ISO 14044 of 2006. According to the ISO standard, the LCA

analysis assists in the identification of opportunities in order to:

• improve the environmental performance of products and services at various stages of their life

cycle

• inform the decision making

• provide a selection of relevant indicators of environmental performance

• make an environmental product declaration, or help towards the marketing of the product by

implementing an ecolabeling scheme

To do so, the LCA is taking in consideration among others the use of resources and environmental

consequences of releases during the life cycle, from raw material, through production, construction,

operation, disposal or/end reuse. This life cycle is commonly known as cradle-to-grave.

The LCA method follows four stages according to the following schema:





Figure 4 - Stages of LCA Analysis, ISO 14044:2006

The goal and scope definition are parts of the first stage. The aim of this stage is to set the boundaries

and level of detail of the analysis, as well as its intentions. The second stage focuses on the inputs and

outputs of the data according to the product or service taken under examination. In other works, the

inventory stage involves the collection of the data that are necessary in order to arrive to the wished

result of the defined study. The third phase is providing further information in order to assess the

inventory results in an attempt to further understand what the impact of the system is. The last stage is

focusing on formulating conclusions, recommendation and decisions-making in accordance to the goals

and scope definition. (ISO 14044:2006)

LCA is system boundaries is structured according to the EN 15978:2011. The calculation regarding the

embodied energy and impact in the building materials is divided in following five main modules and

they describe the embodied energy of the materials according to different stages, from production to

end-of-life and reuse. The main point of simplification in LCA is determining the system boundaries. In

system boundary of the LCA analysis is defined by the choice of the different cycle modules of the

materials.

Figure 5 - LCA material modules, EN 15978:2001

The data for each one of the about modules comes is shared by the companies that are producing the

products or services and are published in the Environmental Production Declaration (EPD). Despite the

precision of the values included in the EPDs of each material, there is still some information which is

rarely included according to the different modules.

The modules A1-A3 during the product stage of a material account for the largest amount of embodies

energy, and therefore are compulsory in during the analysis. The module A4, depends on the distance





between the construction site and the production site of the material. This information is usually unknow

during the early design phases. The data for the modules A5, B1-B3, B5 and C1-C2 are usually not

available and therefore the modules are neglected. In addition, the integration of the module D is

optional, but nevertheless its recommended in order to provide a holistic picture including the recycling

potential of the materials. (Hollberg, 2016)





3.2.2. Existing tools about LCA calculation

The LCA calculation results a very complex and time-consuming task. In order to assist this process,

there have been developed different tools. Some of those tools need a deep background knowledge about

the LCA calculation and are therefore addressed to experts.

In addition, most of the tools that are running outside the BIM environment are requesting a manual

input of the geometrical and material data, which can easily cause errors. At the same time, BIM

embedded tools require a higher level of detail of the information, which at the early stages is not always

available. Despite the number of existing tools, none of them is allowing for optimisation. This remains

a big issue since the LCA analysis should be made in order to evaluate and optimise the design solution

in order to achieve a better performance of the building and not just for documentation purposes.

(Hollberg, 2016)

Figure 5 - Existing Computer supported LCA Tools (Hollberg, 2016) and input from existing

BIM – LCA Tools (Cristine Bueno, 2016) cited by (Genova, 2018).





3.2.3. Dynamic LCA in BIM environment

The LCA analysis due to its complexity presents an interesting and worth investigating task to be

executed by the computer. The integration of the LCA in BIM environment can help the designers to

reduce the time they need, while at the same time allows them to have a holistic view of the

interdependencies between the form, materiality, function and sustainable planning. Including the LCA

in the early design stage, it offers more space for changes and investigation for optimal solutions, as

shown in the Figure 5. In addition, by re-using and automatically extracting information that are

incorporated in the geometry of the model such as the Bill Of Quantities (BOQ), the designer can easier

and faster investigate more alternative solutions. By parametrizing the process, it will allow the

designers to have a real-time feedback of the environmental impact of their design proposals and in that

way, they will be able to focus on the optimisation of their design and also investigating more alternative

solutions in shorter time.

Figure 6 – MacLeamy curve, (Curt,2004) cited by (Hollberg, 2016)

As said previously, in order to calculate the LCA, there is the need to set the boundaries - limits of the

investigation. In other words, there is the need to set the level of detail and the LCA modules that are

taken in consideration. Accordingly, there are different research projects that are proposing different

levels of detail for the LCA calculations. The European research project EeBGuide, proposes three

different levels of LCA analysis

• the screening LCA, which is used in the initial phases

• the simplified, which is similar to the screening one, but it includes more data and it’s conducted

usually in a more advanced design stage

• the complete, which corresponds to the framework as described by the ISO 14040:2006





while the “ACADEMY” European research project promotes a fourth type of LCA analysis called

streamlined. This framework is based on the one proposed by the Society of Environmental Toxicology

and Chemistry in 1999 and it is recommended for the early design stages. (Santos et al., 2019)

According to (Santos et al., 2019), for a streamlined approach the objects of the BIM model should

contain the nine following environmental categories:

• acidification potential (AP)

• global warming potential (GWP)

• eutrophication potential (EP)

• abiotic depletion potential of materials (ADPM)

• abiotic depletion potential for fossil fuels (ADPE)

• photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP)

• ozone depletion potential (ODP)

• renewable energy (PE-Re)

• non-renewable energy (PE-NRe)





3.3. Summary

In this chapter it has been presented a synthesis of the main topics that this research project is focused

on, and that will be applied in the case study in the next chapter. The first part of this chapter was

introducing to the reader some of the main topics of the BIM methodology, with focus on the ways in

which BIM can enchance the collaborative practises. In addition, it has been presented the main

structures and standards that the data should follow, in order to allow a smoother and fast way of

exchange, read, use, store and compute the information by an inderdisciplinary team of stakeholders.

Later it was discussed the importance of interoperability and by using open formats can help towards

the collaboration among humans and among humans and computers. In addition, it was presented the

importance of the centralized depository where all the important information of the project is included

and is made accessible to all the participants. By doing so, the retrieval and sharing of information is

information becomes faster reduces the errors and frustration of the designers by avoiding them to use

information which is not relevant or obsolete. In the last section of the first sub-chapter, it was presented

how BIM can set the base for the commputation and simulation of complex data, in order to allow the

designers to inform their design and their decision making. Simulation and computational tools are seen

as a part of the dialogue which is taking place between designers and machines, and it can generate a

continues feeback loop in which the designers are contantly optimizing their design solutions.

The second part of the chapter was focus on the LCA analysis. In the begingin, the reader gains a general

overview about the importance of the LCA during the design stage, the different methodologies,

standards and the stucture that the LCA should follow. Later, there were presented the existing tools for

the LCA calcualtion, while at the same time the main the major problems arrising lack of integration of

those tools with BIM. In the last section, there was highlighted the importance of a dynamic aand open

apporach for a LCA analysis. In addition, there was presented how BIM methology can help towards

the computation, calculation, information and data exchange by taking in advantage the main

characteristics of the BIM methology.





4. CASE STUDY AND PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION

In this chapter, there will be presented the practical investigation and the development of a parametric

schema that will allow for an automated calculation of the LCA in BIM environment. The first part of

the chapter is dedicated to the description of the architecture office Snøhetta based in Oslo, together

with which this research has been conducted. Later, the case study will be introduced. In the second

part, it will be presented a system map of the process that has been followed. Moreover, there will be

presented the scripts developed in Dynamo as well as all the supporting material such as the database of

the materials that has been used and a step-by-step description of the workflow. In the last part, it will

be presented the result of the computation together with the diagrams with which the designers can

obtain a holistic view of the impact of their design proposal and allow them to optimize their design,

and therefore inform their decision making.

4.1. Description of Snøhetta

Snøhetta (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈsnøːˌhɛtɑ]) began as a collaborative architectural and landscape

workshop, and has remained true to its trans-disciplinary way of thinking since its inception. Our work

strives to enhance our sense of surroundings, identity and relationship to others and the physical spaces

we inhabit, whether feral or human-made. Museums, products, reindeer observatories, graphics,

landscapes and dollhouses get the same care and attention to purpose. Today, Snøhetta has grown to

become an internationally renowned practice of architecture, landscape architecture, interior

architecture, product- and graphic design, with more than 240 employees from 32 different nations. A

definite relationship between multiple disciplines is a driving force in all of Snøhetta’s work. This is

demonstrated through the company’s long history, where landscape and architecture work together

without division, from the earliest stage possible. We place experience at the center of our design

process, for a design that engages the senses and physicality of the body while fostering social

interaction. This allows our design to promote both individual and collective empowerment in the

communities where work. (Snøhetta,2020)

The overall philosophy of the office is based on five main piles:

• The studio space as an actor whose openness enhances the interaction and collaboration of the

employees

• The design methodology is based both on the simultaneous exploration of handicraft and

cutting-edge digital technology as a complementary agent that strives the creative process

• The collaboration between the client, user and stakeholders through workshops and charrettes.

• The commitment to social and environmental sustainability





• The transpositioning which allows the participants to break from the professional roles and

switch perspectives as an attempt to foster a greater sense of possibility, to free themselves from

habitual thinking and build empathy for others involved in the process. (Snøhetta,2020)

4.1.1. The HouseZero – Harvard Center for Green Buildings and Cities - Case study description

The case study is based on the retrofitting of headquarters of Harvard Center for Green Buildings and

Cities at the Harvard Graduate School of Design in Cambridge. The operation is focused on the

transformation of a pre-1940s building into a living-laboratory and an energy-positive prototype for

ultra-efficiency that will help to understand buildings in new ways. (Snøhetta, 2020)

The goals of the project retrofit has the followign performing goals:

• zero delivered energy to heating and cooling

• 100% natural ventilation

• 100% daylight autonomy (No daytime electric light)

• Zero carbon emissions, including embodied energy in materials

The building is concieved as a self regulating organism which can adjust itself seasonally and even

daily in order to reach thermal comfort for its occupants. By implementing the feedback from 285

sensors which allow to collect almost 17 million data points each day, the building can be self-adjust

in response to both the internal and external variables such as outdoor air temperature or rain, and

indoor CO2 levels and air temperature.

In addition, the goal of the building is not to sacrifice spacial qualities for performance purposes. In

this sence, the building is seen as a holistic system which is self regualted by the interaction between

the human experience and sensory participation, together with cutting-edge technologies and

innovative applications. This synergy has as a result a harmonic co-existance between history of the

place, human-centric sustainable architecture, and environmental sustainability.

Figure 7 - From left to right: state of the building before the intervention, picture of the building after the

retroffiting / All rights reserved by Snøhetta and the Harvard Centre for Green Buildings and Cities





4.2. LCA calculation in BIM during the design stages

It has been discussed that there is the necessity for the implementation of the LCA analysis in the early

design phases. This will give the possibility for an overall better performance of the building in terms

of its embodied impact.

The design stage is the moment where the first information is examined by the designer. In this stage,

the designer by analysing those inputs is trying by providing different variations to create different

solutions which will respond in a better or worse way to the goals that are set. This comparative

evaluation of different solutions is crucial part during the design stage. This process is based on the

following general process schema:

Figure 8 – Main workflow to follow during the design process





Figure 9 - Design stage and production of variants based on the optimization of their embodied

energy - (Hollberg, Hildebrand and Habert, 2018)

This stage and in order to optimize the design solution, there is a need for the production and examination

of different variations. The variant-based design approach is the only way to optimize the enevironemtal

performance of the building systematically. This requires additional effort and time but by using a

parametrized schema and a real time calculation and feedback this effort is greatly reduced. Other than

that, the variant-based approach requires also the willingness and openess from the designer’s side to

question, revise the design decisions already taken. This method is usually employed in architecture

offices. (Hollberg, Hildebrand and Habert, 2018)





Figure 10 – System map of the workflow for the LCA calculation in Revit

The goal of this practical investigation is to establish a workflow with which the LCA calculation can

be automated and dynamically updated inside Revit by the use the visual programming tool Dynamo.

In order to do so, there have been followed the next steps:

• Identify the scope and the boundaries of the analysis

• Check the characteristics of the 3D model, and adjust it in order to facilitate the analysis

• Map the materials used in the model from the native library of Revit

• Research for a material database from which the data can be used in order to compute the

calculations

• Create project parameters that would facilitate the filtering process of the revit elements

according to variation number and layers

• Creation of project parameters with the nine environmental categories for the LCA calculation

in order to allow the automated assignment of the calculated values to each object in the model





4.2.1. Material Database

As discussed previously, the scope of this practical application is to create an automated and dynamic

workflow inside Revit with which the designer can obtain a holistic overview of the design process. In

this sense, the embodied energy calculation of the materials are becoming an actor which is playing an

important role during the decision making of the designer and as a concequence of the design of the

building itself.

Firstly, there was the need to find a material database in digital format, that would allow for an automated

integration in the workflow. Most of the databases found during the this research stage, were single EPD

files in .pdf format, related to specific products by specific companies. For the purpose of this research,

there have been used the database created by ÖKOBAUDAT.

ÖKOBAUDAT, is and online platform developed by the German Federal Ministry of the Interior,

Building and Community. The scope of the platform is to promote the sustainability inside the AEC

sector. ÖKOBAUDAT contains a material database in .xls format, with life cycle assessment datasets

on building materials, construction, transport, energy and disposal processes. All the data contained in

the platform are publicly available and free of charge. The database contains both generic datasets and

specific enviromental declaration datasets from different companies. The database is compliance with

the DIN EN 15804 regulations. (BBSR, 2020)

4.2.2. Mapping of materials between ÖKOBAUDAT and Revit native library

First important step was to create the link between the .xls database and the native material library of

Revit. Since the major part of the information contained in the ÖKOBAUDAT database, there should

be a carefull examination that the right materials have been mapped in Revit material library.

Figure 11 - ÖKOBAUDAT Excel Database

https://www.bmi.bund.de/EN/home/home_node.html

https://www.bmi.bund.de/EN/home/home_node.html





In order to create the link between the external database and the material library in BIM, there hs been

created a material shared parameter inside Revit named as Material ID. After the correspondence

between the materials has been set, it has been assigned the unique ID number of each material from the

external database to the Revit material library.

Figure 12 - Material ID mapping in Revit

This procedure needs to be done with extra care because every error both in the ID Number and the

material correspondence between the English and German description of the material can have a huge

influence in the final LCA calculation.





4.2.3. Alternative solutions for the exterior walls

For the proof of concept of this research, there have been developed in total three different fassade

solutions. The first one, is the as-built solution provided by the architecture office and the other two are

developed by myself. A more detailed description of the materiality of the three variations can be seen

in the following figures. For all three variations the vapor barrier layer is not taken in consideration. In

order to calculate the quantities of the materials for all three variations, there was the necessity to design

all the different layers as different walls. In addition, in order to substruct the embodied energy of the

existing wooden structure, there has been designed also the wooden frame from which then the quantities

had been automatically extracted.

Figure 13 - Three fassade material variations

The three fassade variations are focusing on how different construction techniques may affect the

quantities of embodied material energy. In the first (from thee left), the architects choice was focused

on the use of natural materials that can be recycle. A ventilated fassade is contributing to the overall

energy performance of the building, while at the same time the reclaimed and re-use of the wooden

structure contributes to the minimize the embodied energy of the building envelop.

In the second variation, the intention was to re-use the existing wooden structure in order to lay on it the

interior and exterior layes. For the exterior layer it had been chosen the sandwich panel. This material

is mostly used in industrial buildings, but the production companies are offering a lot of exterior

finishings with different materials that could be used also for office and commercial buildings. The

advnatage of such a system is that the sandwich panels are acting both as insulation and as finishing

layer. The fact that are prefabricated gives the possibility for a faster conclusion of the construction

phase with the use of less energy, while at the same time it can be dissassembled and re-used or repaired

easily. For the interior finishing, there had been chosen a two-layer plasterboard.





For the third variation, there had been chosen a “traditional” construction with the use of load-bearing

partitions out of concrete, bricks for the non structural enclosure, mineral wool insulation and plaster as

interior and exterio finishings.

4.2.4. LCA parameters and filter parameters

In order to facilitate and automate the filtering process of the different elements during the LCA

calculation in Dynamo, there have been inserted different shared parameters assigned to the wall

elements that were the main object of examination in this study.

By developing a script in Dynamo, it had been automatically created a set of parameters regarding the

function of the walls i.e. if the different layers have load-bearing function, insulation et cetera. Using

the same method and by developing a Dynamo script, there has been inserted the LCA categories that

they need to be calculated. Lastly, there has been created a parameter with contains the number of the

variation in which the element is part of. In that way, later in the calculation and data export it can be

obtained a report with the LCA values for every variation per function of the wall.

Figure 14 - Screenshots from the Revit properties of the model





4.2.5. Dynamo scripts

The main scope of the development of the Dynamo scripts, was to create an open system which can

communicate, extract, compute and report different data between the designer, external databases and

the data extracted from the model. For the present research the focused was based on the LCA

calculation, but it could be also applied for other calculations such as the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and

others. By creating an open system in which data flow and feedback loops are created between the

machine and the human, if offers the designer the possibility to have a control on the whole design

impact, while at the same time gives them the possibility to produce more alternative solutions by a

continious optimization process. The results of the calculations are using the potential of the digital

computer to compute and combine huge amound of data faster, while at the same time the data can be

given back to the designer in an organized form by which she can interpret, evaluate and proceed with

the decision making. For simplification purposes1, the elements taken into examination have been

reduced. The development of the scripts though can be used in order to calculate all the different

elements present in the Revit models.

The main organizational scheme of the scripts are divided in three main bodies:

The first is focusing with the integration of the necessary parameters in the Revit model, that would then

assist towards the calculation and data extraction parts that are taking place in the next bodies.

Figure 15 - Dynamo scripts for the automated insertion and deletion of parameters in Revit

The second is focusing on the integration of data from an external database, in this case the Excel

ÖKOBAUDAT database. In addition, in this second step, the correspondance between the materials

1 The simplification of the elements examined in the model through the Dynamo scripts was mainly caused by the lack of time that this research

project had to be concluded.





used in the model and their LCA values that are present in the Excel database is taking place. In the last

part of this script, the quantities of each material is extracted from the Revit model, and calculated with

the value of the single measure unit that is written in the external database. The last step, is to assign

back to the objects in the Revit model the final values of the LCA calculations.

Figure 16 - Dynamo script for the insertion of external database, material mapping, LCA

calculation and report of the values back in objects in the model

The third and last script is focused on the extraction of the final LCA values present at the Revit model.

The goal is to create a final report in Excel, which presents the final LCA values of each fassade variation

and the values of each functional layer of the wall. In addition, by creating this automated report and the

comparative diagrams, the designers can obtain a faster and holistic view of the best performance of the

solutions that they provided.

Figure 17 - Dynamo script for the data report in Excel format





4.2.6. Reports and optimization

After running the LCA calculation using the script in Dynamo, the following data has been obtained in

Excel format. From there, there can be set different combinations in order to analyse and compare the

different solutions according to the goal of the designer. For the purpose of this research, the interest

was based on the overall evaluation of the embodied energy of each variation and in addition the

Figure 19 - Comparative diagram of the overall performance and impact for each variation

Figure 18 - Comparative Report of the final LCA values





The following digrams were produced in Excel and they can automatically updated by re-running the

Dynamo script. The new values are overwritting the older ones and therefore the designers can get an

updated version of the diagrams, that will allow them to compare and evaluate the different solutions.

Figure 20 - GWP Charts for each of the three variations





4.3. Summary

This chapter was focused on the practical examination and development of a set of scripts that would

allow the deisngers throught a arametric schema to compute faster and easier sets of repetitite and

complex calculations such as those that the LCA requires. In addition, this workflow creates a dialogue

between the deisnger and the computer, which by providing a feedback in form of calculations and

diagrams gives the possibility to the deisngers to un derstand the impact of their decisions and giving

them the possibility to optimize their design till they will arrive to a satisfactory solution.

In the first part, there was presented the architectural office with which this research has been developed

with. In addition, there was described the design metholody and philosophy of the office with focus on

the collaborative aspects. Later, there has been presented the case study, its design strategy and goals.

In the second part of this chapter, there has been discussed the methodology and workflow that has been

followed. More precisly, there has been presented the system map with the description of the main

process schema, as well the map of the different steps that have been followed. Later, there has been

discussed more precisly the external database that has been used, followed by a step-by-step description

of the workflow and of the design variations. In addition, there has been described the Dynamo scripts.

At the end, the final reports with the calculations, together with comparative diagrams has been

presented.

The overall goal of this research is to see how the computer as a tool can be part of a collaborative

dialogue between the designers or-and other human and non human actors. In this sense, the use of

computer according to (Alexander, 1976) is to examine a much larger range of alternatives than a

designer would have the time or patience or insight to examine. It should be underlined, that the

evaluation and the decision making that this comparative evaluation of different variations cannot be

made by the computer. According to (Rittel, 2010),

...it is easily seen that design in the sense of forming judgments can never be simulated

by a computer, because in order to program that machine you would have to anticipate

all potential solutions and make all possible deontic judgments ahead of time before the

machine could run. But if you did all that you wouldn't need the computer because you

would have had to have thought up all solutions ahead of time. Therefore it is almost

ridiculous to claim that there will be a designing machine if design is thought of in this

sense.





5. CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this thesis was to bring under the same roof the disciplines of architecture, design

research and BIM. Those disciplines complement each other, and their processes and methods are using

the same line of thought and similar structures. In addition, the scope of the thesis was to create a

workflow which is considering the ways in which designers and architects work inside the BIM

environment. In that way, the process of knowledge production and dissemination is following the

advancements and novelties and new tools that technology offers, as a drive towards innovation in

architecture. This recognises the evolutionary transformation processes in architecture since its origin.

Architecture and material culture in general are the external manifestations of knowledge, which is

produced by and for a certain place and time in history. The knowledge and the processes out of which

the object had been created and constructed reside inside the material object itself. Accordingly, in this

project is has been explained how a new digital process and a parametric tool can infuse the production

of architecture.

This project started by the definition of how architects and designers work and the nature of the problems

they are dealing with. On the main problems that architecture and humanity is facing nowadays is the

consumption of natural resources, the rise of the temperature and population. Those problems are

defined as wicked problems and in order to provide solutions it is necessary to analyse the different

implications of the problem from different perspectives. In addition, problems of such complexity

require different methods and tools in order to be able to provide better solutions in shorter time. Digital

and computational tools can provide the platform where designers and architects design, and BIM is

very much based on this idea.

Another crucial aspect of complex problem-solving is collaboration. Collaboration requires the active

participation and involvement of different stakeholders. During the collaboration process, all

participants need to present their subjective views in a dialectic fashion. Collaborative practices are

based on the respect and recognition of the contribution of each member. As explained in the chapter

three, BIM is built around those principles and uses standards and data structures that can facilitate the

collaborative practices and to compute, store, share and exchange big amounts of information. In

addition, it has been discussed that the digital tools are useful, and they can be more profitable when the

designers know the reason why they are using them.

Digital tools allow to designers and participants to compute faster complex information in order to

evaluate and decide which solution is better. Digital tools therefore create a dialogue between the

designer and the computer, by providing a feedback loop. This allows the designers to reflect and

provide new inputs in their processes. This circular-causality feedback loop is of great importance during

the design stage because it helps the designers to arrive to optimal solutions by a continuous re

elaboration and optimization of their design.

For the purpose of this research, it had been chosen the examination of how a development of a dynamic

and open system in BIM can facilitate and inform the decision making during the design stage. To this

end, the dynamic calculation of the LCA in BIM environment had been chosen, since the LCA according

to the author presents a complex sets of data calculation, which in order to be developed it need the





collaboration of different participants such as energy and environmental planning experts, building

physics experts et cetera.

During this research, it was developed a dynamic script by using the visual programming language tool

Dynamo inside Revit software. These tools allow the designers by setting a set of parameters in the

model to obtain automatic calculations of the environmental impact of the materials that have been used

in their design. In addition, this system produces and automated report in an open format, in which a set

of charts are created in order to allow the designers to evaluate the different solutions. The reports and

charts are automatically updated when the LCA values in the model are changed. Lastly, this tool can

be applied also for other kinds of calculations such as the integration of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis

or others. The development of this tool, creates an open system in which the designers can have a holistic

view of their design, while at the same time the dynamic feedback provides them the quantitative data

in order to evaluate their design, by combining the qualitative data of the space that their design

produces.

By providing dynamic tools, the designers can save both time and money, while at the same time they

can invest their time and creativity in a research to provide alternative solutions that have a better

performance. In addition, digital tools embedded in the BIM environment, enhance the collaboration

between different stakeholders while at the same time it creates a common place in which information

is stored, retrieved, exchanged and shared.

The main challenges during this project were firstly the short time in which this research should be

developed and concluded. In addition, the experience of working from home was a decisive factor which

slowed further the development of this project.

This research can be further developed by implementing as mentioned above together with the LCA

data, other sources of analysis. It is worth to further examine the introduction both of qualitative and

quantitative information inside the model and test it in a real case example. In addition, the workflow

can be further optimized by including automated methods of the material mapping between the external

database and the Revit native material library.

As closing remark, it is important to mention about the “dangers” of the digital tools in the field of

architecture. Those dangers are caused by the misuse of the tools and the purposes that they fulfil. It

should be clearly stated that despite the development of machine learning and artificial intelligence, the

role of the designer is still actual and of great importance. This role can not be substituted by

technological tools, since involved a plethora of data that are unique and present in each individual,

including emotions, memories, intuition, ethics.





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