Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in ... labor force participation in Pakistan is...
Transcript of Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in ... labor force participation in Pakistan is...
• Despiteincreasesinrecentyears,femalelaborforceparticipationinPakistan,at25%,iswellbelowratesforcountrieswithsimilarincomelevels.Evenamongwomenwithhighlevelsofeducation,laborforceparticipationlags:onlyaround25%ofwomenwithauniversitydegreeinPakistanareworking.
• Thislowfemalelaborforceparticipationrepresentsamajorlossofpotentialproductivity.Italsohasimportantimplicationsforwomen’sempowerment,asworkingwomenaremorelikelytoplayaroleinhouseholddecisionmakingcomparedwithnonworkingwomeninthesamevillagesoreveninthesamefamilies.
• ThestudyfoundthatmanywomeninPakistanwouldliketowork;therearemultiplereasonswhytheydonot.Oneofthekeyreasons—onwhichpolicycouldhaveaneffect—isthatwomenfacerestrictionsontheirphysicalmobilityoutsidethehome.
• Severalinterconnectedfactorsrestrictwomen’smobilityoutsidethehome,amongthem(i)social,cultural,andreligiousnorms;(ii)safetyandcrime;and(iii)thequalityofavailabletransportservices.
Policy Brief on female laBor force ParticiPation in Pakistan1
introduction
InPakistan,womenworkprimarilyinthehomeoronthefarm.Theirparticipationinworkoutsidetheseareas,particularlyinformalemployment,isextremelylow.ItispossiblethatsomeformsofworkbyPakistaniwomenmaybeundercountedinsurveys,asalargeproportionofsurveyrespondentsmaybeworkinginagricultureordoinginformalworkathome,whichisnotcountedandreportedaswork.However,thestudyanalysisofthe2007PakistanTimeUseSurveysuggeststhatthisisnotamajordriverofthepatterns.2ThesurveyevidenceclearlyindicatesthataverylowproportionofPakistaniwomenworkoutsidethehome,wherebest-paidworkopportunitiesabound.
female laBor force ParticiPation trend
FemalelaborforceparticipationinPakistanisstillwellbelowlevelsinothercountrieswithsimilarincomes(Figure1),despitegrowingbymorethanhalfoverthepast2decades.Evenamongwomenwithahighlevelofeducation,laborforceparticipationislow—onlyabout25%ofPakistaniwomenwhohaveauniversitydegreeworkoutsidethehome.
Women’slowlaborforceparticipationresultsinasignificantpotentiallossofproductivity.Tobesure,femalelaborforceparticipationinPakistanhasgrownalongsidegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)overtime(Figure2),witheconomicgrowthbringinginopportunitiesandworkingwomencontributingtooverallproduction.
1 Thisbrief,preparedbySakikoTanakaandMaricorMuzones,summarizestheFemale Labor Force Participation in Asia: Pakistan Country Study,preparedbyProfessorEricaFieldandPostdoctoralAssociateKateVybornyfromDukeUniversityundertheAsianDevelopmentBank’sResearchandDevelopmentTechnicalAssistance8620onEconomicAnalysisforGenderandDevelopment.
2 ThePakistanTimeUseSurvey2007(samplesize19,000households)isrepresentativeofallfourmajorprovincesinPakistan.Thesurveyincludesquestionstomeasuretheimpactofwomen’slaborforceparticipationontheirwell-beingsuchashoursofmarketwork,workathome,andrest.
ADBBRIEFSno. 70
OCTOBER 2016
key messaGes
ISBN978-92-9257-625-7(Print)ISBN978-92-9257-626-4(e-ISBN)ISSN2071-7202(Print)ISSN2218-2675(e-ISBN)PublicationStockNo.ABF168495-2
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ADBBRIEFSNO.70
morelikelyabletoinsistonworking).Butthefactthattheeffectpersistsevenwhencomparingwomeninthesamehouseholdsuggeststhatworkhasanempoweringeffect.Ray(2000)observesthatinhouseholdssurveyedinanationallyrepresentative1991sample,children’soverallshareofhouseholdearningswasonlyslightlylessthanthatofwomen.Hearguesthatbecauseofculturalorreligiousrestrictionsagainstwomenworkingoutsidethehome,householdsinPakistanrelymoreonchildlabor,especiallythatofboys—afindingthatsuggeststhatincreasingfemalelaborforceparticipationmightdecreasechildlabor.
Moreimportantly,womeninPakistandonottakeuppaidemploymentbecauseofmobilityrestrictionsresultingfrombothculturalandsocialnormsandsecurityconcerns.
Almost40%ofwomenwhoarenotworkingreportthatthemainreasonforthisisthatmalefamilymembersdonotpermitthemtoworkoutsidethehome.Another15%saythatitisbecausetheythemselvesdonotwanttoworkoutsidethehome.Amongwomenwhosaythattheywouldbewillingtowork,aboutathirdsaythattheywouldbewillingtoworkonlywithintheirownhome.Particularlytellingisthat,ofthosewhodowork,30%workintheirownhome.Eventhosewomenwhodoleavehometoworkdonottravelasfartotheirworkplaceasmendo.
Veryfewwomenindicatethattheyare“available”towork(Figure3),andalmostnonereportactivelyseekingwork.Yet,Figure4showsthat40%ofwomenwhoarenotemployedreportthattheydidnothaveenoughtodointhepreviousday.Thesepatternsaresimilaramongnonemployedwomeninurbanandruralareas.
Paidworkmayalsobringotherimportantbenefits,particularlyinincreasingwomen’sdecision-makingpowerinthehousehold.Basedonanalysisofnationaldata,Fatima(2014)findsthatwomenwhoworkaremorelikelythanothersinthesamevillagetohaveasayinwhethertousecontraception(controllingforvillagefixedeffects),andmorelikelythanotherwomeninthesamehouseholdtohaveasayinhouseholdexpenditures(controllingforhouseholdfixedeffects).Itispossiblethatcausationrunsintheoppositedirection(thatwomenwhohaveastrongerpositioninthehouseholdare
Figure 1: Female Labor Force Participation and GNI per Capita Worldwide
Figure 2: Income and Female Labor Force Participation
Figure 3: Availability for Work
PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,LFPR=laborforceparticipationrate,GNI=grossnationalincome.Note:Labordataforages15+excludestheMiddleEast.Source:forGNI:WorldBank;forLFPR:InternationalLabourOrganization(2013).
FLFP=femalelaborforceparticipation,GDP=grossdomesticproduct.Sources:InternationalLabourOrganization(2014);WorldBank(2014).
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10
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Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in Pakistan
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Figure5showsthatresponsesdiffersignificantlywhenwomenareaskedaslightlydifferentquestion:“Wouldyouworkifyoucouldfindasuitablejob?”Approximatelyaquarterofthewomenanswered“yes.”Ifallofthesewomenworked,thiswouldconceivablydoublefemalelaborforceparticipationinPakistan.Similarproportionsofwomenanswer“yes”tothisquestioninbothruralandurbanareas,eveninthemostsociallyconservativeprovinces,whereactualfemalelaborforceparticipationisverylow(Figure6).Sothequestionremains,whatmakesa“suitable”job?
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Onepotentialexplanationforlowfemalelaborforceparticipationisthatthejobsavailabletowomenpaylowwages.Womenearnlessthanmen,andthisdifferencehasbeenpersistent(Figure7).3
Wagediscriminationisapossibleexplanationforthispatternbutisdifficulttodistinguishempiricallyfromdifferencesinskillsandexperience.Occupationalsegregationofwomenincombinationwithlowdemandintheoccupationsconsideredsuitableforwomenisanother.Cheemaetal.(2012)findthatalargepercentageoffirmshirenowomenatall,makingitconsistentwithstronggendernormsonthetypeofworktakenupandalsowithspecificcostsperceivedbyemployersforhavingwomenintheworkplace,suchasthecostofensuringtheirsecurity.Marketreturnstoeducationappeartobehighlyconvexforwomen.Basedonthedescriptivepatterns(Figure8),returnstoeducationthroughincreasedwagesareextremelylowfortheprimaryandmiddlelevelsofeducationandhigherforupperlevelsofeducation.Onlyattheverylaststagesofsecondaryandtertiaryeducationdowomen’swagesshowasignificantincrease.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatwomen’slaborforceparticipationisstillverylow,evenathighereducationallevelswherethereturnsaregreaterandwherewomenappeartobeabletoaccesshigher-levelwhitecollarjobs.During2000–2007,stillonly25%ofwomenwithanadvanceddegreeuseditinthelaborforce.
3 Notethatallwagesarecalculatedonanhourlybasisusingtherespondent’sreportedworkhoursinthelastweek,sotheyadjustfordifferencesinworkhours.
Figure 4: Perception of Activity the Previous Day Figure 6: Willingness to Work—Ever-Married Women
Figure 5: Willingness to Work—Ever-Married Women
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.TimeUseSurvey2007.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/time-use-survey-2007
Source:NationalInstituteofPopulationStudies.2008.Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2006–07.Islamabad.https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR200/FR200.pdf
Source:NationalInstituteofPopulationStudies.2008.Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2006–07.Islamabad.https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR200/FR200.pdf
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norms and exPosure
Gendernormsclearlyhavesomeroletoplayinrestrictingwomen’slaborforceparticipationinPakistan,eitherbykeepingwomenathomeentirely,orbyconfiningtheirlaborforceparticipationonlytocertainacceptableoccupations.Menareseenastheprimarybreadwinners,andmostpeopleagreethatifjobsarescarce,employersshouldfavormen;thisistrueforwomenalmostasmuchasformen.Itholdsacross(self-identified)socioeconomicclasses.Educationmightbeexpectedtochangethisview,butinfactmoreeducatedrespondentsareonlyslightlylesslikelytoagreewiththisstatement.
Butbeyondasimplepreferenceformen’saccesstoworkopportunities,women’sworkisgenerallyactivelystigmatizedinPakistan.Womenwhogooutsidethehometoworkarenotconsidered“respectable”inmanysocialcontexts(WorldBank2006).Sincethisstigmaaffectsthewholefamily,otherdecisionmakersinthefamily—suchasthewoman’shusbandorin-laws—mayrestrictawoman’sdecisionofwhethertoworkoutsidethehome.Figure9showsthatinthevastmajorityofcases,womenreportthattheydonotevenplayaroleindecidingtoseekpaidemployment.AsFigure10shows,thedegreeofcontrolthatawomanretainsoverthedecisiontoseekemploymentisstronglycorrelatedtowhethersheparticipatesinthelaborforce.
Figure 7: Trend in Wage Gap
Figure 8: Gender Wage Gap by Education
Figure 9: Who Decides Whether a Woman Will Work?
Figure 10: Who Decides Whether a Woman Will Work? (Conditional on Women’s Participation in
the Labor Force)
PR=Pakistanirupee.Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10
PR=Pakistanirupee.Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.PakistanSocialandLivingStandardsMeasurementSurvey2005–06National/Provincial.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistan-social-and-living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2005-06-national-provincial
Source: PakistanBureauofStatistics.PakistanSocialandLivingStandardsMeasurementSurvey2005–06National/Provincial.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistan-social-and-living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2005-06-national-provincial/
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Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in Pakistan
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moBility
ThesamefactorsthatmakesomeworkplacesinPakistansafeor“appropriate”forwomenalsoaffectwomen’smobility.Asnoted,andastheexistingliteratureandsurveydataindicate,women’slimitedmobilityoutsidethehomebecauseofculturalnormsandsecurityconcernsgreatlyaffectsfemalelaborforceparticipation.Eveniftheworkenvironmentitselfisconsideredsafeandacceptable,travelingtoworkmaycreatealevelofexposurethatviolatesnorms(Ali2012,WorldBank2006).Forexample,inasmall(nonrepresentative)surveyofwomeninKarachiwhotravelregularly,85%ofworkingwomensaidtheyhadbeenharassedonpublictransportinthepastyear(ADB2014).Mostoftheharassmentwasperpetratedbymalepassengers,butaboutaquarterofwomenalsoreportedbeingharassedbyvehicledriversorconductors.Inaddition,socialtaboospreventwomenfromridingbicyclesormotorcyclesbythemselves,makingthemdependentonmalerelativestousethesemodesoftransport.
Thislimitsboththeabilityofurbanwomentoleavethehomeaswellastheabilityofruralwomentomoveoutsideoftheirvillageorevensubvillagesettlementforwork.Thesamefactorslimittheabilityofyoungerwomentoattendfurthereducationorvocationaltraining,whichcouldleadtobetterworkopportunities.
Ejaz(2007)findsthatfemalelaborforceparticipationispositivelyassociatedwithvehicleownershipinthehousehold,despitethefactthatotherhouseholddurablesarenegativelyassociated.ThismaysimplycapturetheU-shapedrelationshipbetweenwealthandfemalelaborforceparticipation,butitmayalsoreflectamobilityeffect—womenwhosefamiliesowncarscantraveltoworkmoreeasilywithoutencounteringharassmentorstigma.SeveralrecentstudiesonsocialandeconomicissuesinPakistanneverthelessshedlightonthisissuealthoughtheydonotspecificallyfocusonwomen’slaborforceparticipation.4
Figure11showsthatevenwomenwhosaytheyarecurrentlyavailableforworkarefarmorerestrictedintheirworklocationthanmen.Aboutathirdofthesewomensaytheyareonlyavailabletoworkwithinthehome,whichseverelyrestrictstheopportunitiestheycouldtakeup.Oftheremainingwomen,mostareavailableonlywithintheirownvillageortown.Inrecentyears,women’savailabilityoutsidethehomehasincreased;theiravailabilityisalsomuchgreaterformoreeducatedwomen(Figure12).
Figure13showsthatdistrictswithhigherlevelsofwomen’smobilityhavemuchhigherfemalelaborforceparticipation.Thecategoriesonthex-axisarebasedonthedistrict-levelaverageofotherwomen
4 JacobyandMansuri(2011),intheirstudyofcasteandclaneffectsoneducationinPakistan,findthatparentsaremuchlesslikelytosendtheirgirlstoschooliftheschoolislocatedacrosscasteboundarieswithinavillage;Cheemaetal.(2012)findthatmanyhouseholdswerewillingtonominatefemalemembersforvocationaltraining,buttransporttothevenueofthetraininghasbeenanimportantconstraintwheretherisksforsafetyandlossofreputationinvolvedinphysicallytravelingtothelocationisabindingconstraint.
(excludingtherespondent’sownobservation)whotraveledoutsidethehomeanywhereforanypurposeinthepreviousday.Awomanismorelikelytoworkindistrictswhereotherwomentravelmore.
Onemightexpectthatwomeninurbanareaswouldbemorelikelytowanttoworkoutsidethehome,andtobemoremobile.Infact,thisisnotthecaseinPakistan.Womeninurbanareasaresomewhatlesslikelytoindicatethattheyareavailableforwork.Inaddition,iftheyareavailable,theyindicatesomewhatlesswillingnesstoworkoutsidethehome(Figure14).Unwillingnesstotakecertaintypesofworkislikelydueinparttothenewchallengesthaturbanizationcancreateforwomen’smobility—travelingtoworkcanmeangreateranonymity,publicexposure,andcrowdingwithstrangers.
Figure 11: Locations Available for Work (Conditional on Availability)
Figure 12: Locations Available for Work (Conditional on Availability): Women
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2007.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2010.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.
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Policy recommendations
Thestudysuggestsanumberofkeypolicyareasthatmayaffectfemalelaborforceparticipationeitherdirectlyorindirectlythroughincreasingwomen’sphysicalmobility.Interventionsintheseareasneedtoberigorouslytestedasmanyarenotstudiedadequately.Tosufficientlyinformthebestpolicies,programdesigns,andspendingallocationsforenhancingPakistan’sfemalelaborforceparticipation,asetofstudiesneedstobeconductedtoquantifytheirbenefitsandcosts.TheinterventionsmayeitherattempttochangetheexistingnormsinPakistanoreasekeyconstraintsbyworkingaroundthoseexistingnorms.Policyinterventionsthatdothelattercouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationintheshortterm,andbydoingso,coulddevelopthepotentialtochangethenormsinthelongtermthroughsocialexposure.Policychangescouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationinthefollowingareas:
• changing norms
Evidencefromothercountriessuggeststhatexposuretovisiblerolemodelsofwomenworkingorinleadershiprolescanchangenorms,suchasFogliandVeldkamp(2011).Twopolicyinterventionsinparticularmaybeconsideredtotargetnormsdirectly:(i)initiativesthatbringwomenintopublicleadershippositionssuchastheongoingRuralSupportProgrammesNetwork,inwhichtheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andotherinstitutionaldonorsassisteffortstoinvolvePakistaniwomeninlocalcivilsocietyleadership.RigorousresearchcurrentlybeingundertakenbyGhazalaMansuriandcollaboratorsseekstotesttheimpactofsucheffortsonwomen’sempowermentandsocialnorms;and(ii)mediainterventionstopromoteamorepositiveimageofwomen’swork,andthentestedandevaluated.Thespreadofmediahasbeenshowntohavepositiveeffectsonwomen’sempowerment.Inparticular,JensenandOster(2009)findthattheintroductionofcabletelevisionacrossnewareasofruralIndianotonlylessenedtheacceptabilityofdomesticviolenceandsonpreference,butalsoincreasedwomen’sautonomy.
• making more Workplaces ‘suitable’
SexualharassmentintheworkplaceiswidespreadinPakistan.InKarachi,whichisgenerallythoughttobethecitywithsocialnormsmostfavorabletowomen’swork,96%ofthefemalerespondentsinastudyof10privateand10publicinstitutionsreportedthateithertheyortheircolleagueshadfacedsexualharassmentintheworkplace(Sadruddin2013).ExistingjobopportunitiescanthereforebemademoreacceptableforwomeninPakistanbyimprovingtheworkplaceenvironment.In2010,Pakistanpassedanewlawagainstsexualharassmentintheworkplace.Sadruddin’sstudyshowedthatonly2%ofrespondentswereawareofthislaw.Publiclistingsalsoindicatethatveryfewworkplaces,whetherpublicandprivate,havesofarcompliedwiththesetwobasicrequirementsofthelaw—discussingthepolicyinamanagementmeeting,andpostinginformationaboutthelawintheworkplace.
Usingthislegislationasabasis,theInternationalLabourOrganizationandotheragenciesareimplementingprogramstoimproveworkplaceenvironment.Evaluatingtheimpactoftheseprogramsontherecruitmentandretentionofqualifiedfemaleworkerswillbeveryuseful.
• increasing demand for female Workers in sectors with attractive Jobs
Anumberofpromisingkeypolicyleverscouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationevenwithoutamajorchangeinnormsrestrictingthekindofworkappropriateforwomen.Onthedemandside,policiescanbetargetedtoincreaselabordemandinparticulartypesofjobsinwhichwomenaremorelikelytowork.Alsolikelytohaveastrongereffectonfemalelaborforceparticipationistoexpand
Figure 13: District-Level Female Mobility and Employment
Figure 14: Locations Available to Women for Work (Conditional on Availability)
Note:X-axisshowspercentageofothersurveyedwomeninthedistrict(excludingownobservation)whotraveledforanypurposeonthereferenceday.Source:PakistanTimeUseSurvey2007.
Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2010.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.
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demandinparticulartypesofmanufacturing(suchastextileandapparel)andwhite-collarjobs(suchasinprofessionalservices),giventherestrictionsonacceptableworkplaceenvironmentsforwomenandthefactthatthereishigherlaborparticipationofwomenwiththehighestlevelsofeducation.Allofthesepolicyinitiativesrequireawiderangeofinterventionsacrossdifferentpolicyareas,suchasimprovingthereliabilityofelectricitysupply,butafulldiscussionofthemisbeyondthescopeofthispaper.
• education: Preparing Women for Jobs they are Willing to take up
Inthecontextofthesocialnormsdiscussedearlier,white-collarworkisconsideredmoreacceptableforwomeninPakistan.Sinceeducationincreasestheiraccesstothesejobs,secondaryandtertiaryeducationwouldbeparticularlyimportantforincreasingwomen’slaborforceparticipation.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatmuchoftheexistingresearchoneducationhasfocusedprimarilyonprimaryandmiddlelevelsofeducation,withlittleresearchandpolicyattentiongiventowomen’saccesstohigherlevelsofeducation.
Lowerlevelsofeducationarealsoimportantandshouldcontinuetobeanareaoffocus.Educationhasmanypurposesbeyondpreparingpeopleforthelabormarket,andattainmentandqualityarealsorequiredattheprimaryandmiddlelevelsforyoungwomentoprogresstohigherlevels.Inaddition,educationatanylevelmaychangethenormsrestrictingwomen’sworkandmobility.
Thequalityandrelevanceofvocationaltrainingforwomenshouldalsoberigorouslyassessed,consideringthehighdegreeofoccupationalsegregationinPakistanandthelowfemalelaborforceparticipationlevelsatmiddlelevelsofeducation.Anumberofthecross-sectionalstudieshavemaderecommendationstoexpandvocationaltrainingforwomen,butthereseemstobelittlesupportforthisbasedontheirempiricalfindings.
• security and criminal Justice
Interventionsfocusedonsecurity,criminaljustice,andcrimeandpublicsafetyareclearlycriticalindeterminingfemalelaborforceparticipation.Theissuesofphysicalsafetytheyaddressareinterlinkedwithnormsthataffectwomen’smobilityandlaborforceparticipation.Indeed,ifwomenareconfidentthattheycantraveltoandfromworksafely,theymaybemuchmorelikelytoconsidertakingupworkoutsidethehome.
Improvingpublicsafetyforwomeniscrucialtoimprovetheirmobility.Institutionally,women’srepresentationisalsoimportant;whenwomengetintoleadershippositions,crimesagainstwomenarereportedmorefrequently(Iyeretal.2012).IfandwhenthelocalgovernmentsystemisrevivedinPakistan,thiswouldbeanotherreasontokeepthewomen’sreservationsinthatsystem.
• transportation
Publictransportationandcityinfrastructuredevelopmentisanotherpolicytoolparticularlyrelevantforenhancingwomen’smobilityinPakistan.Theycouldalleviatesomeoftheproblemswomenfaceinpursuingworkopportunities.Givenstrongnormsalmosteverywhereinthecountryagainstwomenridingbicyclesormotorbikesalone,mostwomendependentirelyonpublictransporttocommute.Yetthereisnostate-providedtransportationinmostcities,anditiscompletelyabsentfromruralareas.Inrural,peri-urban,andurbanareas,theexistingpublicandprivatetransportservicesarecrowdedwithmen;inasocietywhereclosecontactbetweenthesexesistaboo,ridingthemisamajorsocialobstacleforwomen.
ThecurrentADB-supportedexpansionoftransportservicesinPakistanprovidesanopportunitytobuildanevidencebasefortestingitsefficacyinenhancingwomen’smobilityandlaborforceparticipation.BetterevidenceonwhatworksandthemagnitudeofitsimpactcouldbeveryimportantininformingfuturepoliciesandprogramstobeimplementedbyPakistan’sgovernment,ADB,andotherdevelopmentpartners.GivenADB’sextensiveengagementintheongoingexpansionofpublictransportationinPakistan,itisuniquelypositionedtoencouragethegovernmenttoconsiderthefindingsfromongoingrigorousresearchandtosupportresearchersandgovernmenttoworktogetherinquantifyingthesocialandeconomicbenefitsoftheseinvestmentsingeneralandinparticularforwomen,aswellasidentifyingwaystomaximizethosebenefits.
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Cheema,A.,A.Khwaja,F.Naseer,andJ.Shapiro.2012.PEOPPhase1BaselineHouseholdSurveyReport.Mimeo,CenterforEconomicResearch inPakistan.Lahore.
Ejaz,M.2007.DeterminantsofFemaleLaborForceParticipationinPakistan:AnEmpiricalAnalysisofPSLM(2004–05)MicroData.Lahore Journal of Economics.SpecialEdition(September2007).pp.203-235.
Fatima,D.2014.Education,EmploymentandWomen’sSayinHouseholdDecision-MakinginPakistan.CREB Working Papers. Lahore:LahoreSchoolofEconomics.
Fogli,A.,andL.Veldkamp.2011.NatureorNurture?LearningandtheGeographyofFemaleLaborForceParticipation.Econometrica.79(4).pp.1103-1138.
InternationalLabourOrganization.2014.GlobalEmploymentTrends.Geneva.
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Jensen,R.andE.Oster.2009.ThePowerofTV:CableTelevisionandWomen’sStatusinIndia.Quarterly Journal of Economics.124(3).pp.1057–1094
Ray,R.2000.ChildLabor,ChildSchooling,andTheirInteractionwithAdultLabor:EmpiricalEvidenceforPeruandPakistan.World Bank Economic Review.14(2):pp.347–67.
Sadruddin,M.M.2013.SexualHarassmentatWorkplaceinPakistan:IssuesandRemediesabouttheGlobalIssueatManagerialSector.Journal of Managerial Sciences.7(1).pp.113–125.
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