POLI 111: INTRODUCTION TO THESTUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Session 8-Political Culture

Lecturer: Dr. Evans Aggrey-Darkoh,Department of

Political ScienceContact Information: aggreydarkoh@ug.edu.gh

Session Overview

• Political thinkers have over the years acknowledged theimportance of attitudes, values, and beliefs of people

• However, such thinkers did not see them as part of apolitical culture of a country. This position has changedsignificantly

• It is against this background that this session helps us inappreciating the extent to which beliefs, symbols,values and attitudes influence the political process of acountry

• These systems of beliefs, symbols, and values determinehow a people interpret the proper role of governmentand how that government itself is organized

• Political thinkers have over the years acknowledged theimportance of attitudes, values, and beliefs of people

• However, such thinkers did not see them as part of apolitical culture of a country. This position has changedsignificantly

• It is against this background that this session helps us inappreciating the extent to which beliefs, symbols,values and attitudes influence the political process of acountry

• These systems of beliefs, symbols, and values determinehow a people interpret the proper role of governmentand how that government itself is organized

Session Outline

• This session introduces the beliefs and attitudes ofpeople towards objects of politics.

• Specifically, the session discusses:– Topic One: What is Political Culture?– Topic Two: The Civic Culture– Topic Three: History and Methods of Political

Culture– Topic Four: Changing Political Cultures

• This session introduces the beliefs and attitudes ofpeople towards objects of politics.

• Specifically, the session discusses:– Topic One: What is Political Culture?– Topic Two: The Civic Culture– Topic Three: History and Methods of Political

Culture– Topic Four: Changing Political Cultures

Topic OneWHAT IS POLITICAL CULTURE?

Topic OneWHAT IS POLITICAL CULTURE?

Introduction

• Each society imparts its own characteristic set ofnorms and values to its people and the people inturn have distinct sets of ideas about how thepolitical system is supposed to work, about whatgovernment may do to them and for them, andabout their own claims on the political system andtheir own obligations to it

• Each society imparts its own characteristic set ofnorms and values to its people and the people inturn have distinct sets of ideas about how thepolitical system is supposed to work, about whatgovernment may do to them and for them, andabout their own claims on the political system andtheir own obligations to it

Definitions

• Sydney and Verba (1963) have also defined political culture asthe system of empirical beliefs, expressive symbols, andvalues, which define the situation in which political actiontakes place

• According to Andrew Heywood, culture, in its broadest sense,is the way of life of a people

• To Heywood, sociologists and anthropologists tend todistinguish between ‘culture’ and ‘nature’, the formerencompassing that which is passed on from one generation tothe next generation by learning, rather than through biologicalinheritance

• Political scientists, however, use the term in a narrower senseto refer to a people’s psychological orientation

• Political culture to Heywood is the pattern of orientations topolitical objects such as parties, government, and theconstitution, expressed in beliefs, symbols, and values

• Sydney and Verba (1963) have also defined political culture asthe system of empirical beliefs, expressive symbols, andvalues, which define the situation in which political actiontakes place

• According to Andrew Heywood, culture, in its broadest sense,is the way of life of a people

• To Heywood, sociologists and anthropologists tend todistinguish between ‘culture’ and ‘nature’, the formerencompassing that which is passed on from one generation tothe next generation by learning, rather than through biologicalinheritance

• Political scientists, however, use the term in a narrower senseto refer to a people’s psychological orientation

• Political culture to Heywood is the pattern of orientations topolitical objects such as parties, government, and theconstitution, expressed in beliefs, symbols, and values

Definitions (cont’d)

• Jackson and Jackson have argued that culture includesintellectual development in many areas including art,architecture, cuisine, literature, music, and politics

• It delineates distinctive attributes of groups and societies, massesand elites, nations and states

• Political culture is just one aspect of overall culture of a nation ora state

• To Jackson and Jackson therefore political culture refers to thebroad patterns of values and attitudes that individuals andsocieties hold towards political objects

• These political objects include political institutions such as theexecutive, the legislature, the bureaucracy, the judiciary,political parties, pressure groups and the individual’s view ofhimself or herself as a political actor and in relation to others

• Political culture creates norms- beliefs about how people shouldbehave and these norms in turn influence social behavior

• Jackson and Jackson have argued that culture includesintellectual development in many areas including art,architecture, cuisine, literature, music, and politics

• It delineates distinctive attributes of groups and societies, massesand elites, nations and states

• Political culture is just one aspect of overall culture of a nation ora state

• To Jackson and Jackson therefore political culture refers to thebroad patterns of values and attitudes that individuals andsocieties hold towards political objects

• These political objects include political institutions such as theexecutive, the legislature, the bureaucracy, the judiciary,political parties, pressure groups and the individual’s view ofhimself or herself as a political actor and in relation to others

• Political culture creates norms- beliefs about how people shouldbehave and these norms in turn influence social behavior

Huntington’s View

• Samuel P. Huntington posits that culture is soimportant that the world politics is entering a newphase where the new conflict will be one of clash ofcivilization

• He continues that nation-states will remain the mostpowerful actors in world affairs, but the principalconflicts of global politics will occur between nationsand groups of different civilizations

• The clash of civilization will dominate global politics• The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle

lines of the future

• Samuel P. Huntington posits that culture is soimportant that the world politics is entering a newphase where the new conflict will be one of clash ofcivilization

• He continues that nation-states will remain the mostpowerful actors in world affairs, but the principalconflicts of global politics will occur between nationsand groups of different civilizations

• The clash of civilization will dominate global politics• The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle

lines of the future

A Generalized Conception

• Following from the above definitions, one can infer thatpolitical culture is the orientation of the people interms of their beliefs, attitude, symbols and valuestowards the object of politics in a state

• It consists of the empirical beliefs about expressivepolitical symbols and values and other orientations ofthe members of the society toward political objects.

• It is a product of the collective history of a politicalsystem and the life histories of the individuals whocurrently make up the system

• It is rooted both in public events and privateexperiences and embodies a society’s central politicalvalues

• Following from the above definitions, one can infer thatpolitical culture is the orientation of the people interms of their beliefs, attitude, symbols and valuestowards the object of politics in a state

• It consists of the empirical beliefs about expressivepolitical symbols and values and other orientations ofthe members of the society toward political objects.

• It is a product of the collective history of a politicalsystem and the life histories of the individuals whocurrently make up the system

• It is rooted both in public events and privateexperiences and embodies a society’s central politicalvalues

Factors that Influencethe Politics of a Nation

• The politics of a nation is influenced by manyaspects of society:– economy– religion– traditions– social structure of the country– people’s perceptions of the role of

government—the proper relationship betweenrulers and ruled

• The politics of a nation is influenced by manyaspects of society:– economy– religion– traditions– social structure of the country– people’s perceptions of the role of

government—the proper relationship betweenrulers and ruled

Political Culture and Public Opinion• Both political culture and public opinion look at

attitudes towards politics• The aim of political culture is to tap basic general

feelings towards politics and government• Public opinion on the other hand, focuses on views

about specific leaders and policies• While political culture looks at the underpinnings

of legitimacy, the gut feelings that sustain apolitical system, public opinion seeks responses tocurrent questions

• The methodology of political culture and publicopinion also overlap

• Both political culture and public opinion look atattitudes towards politics

• The aim of political culture is to tap basic generalfeelings towards politics and government

• Public opinion on the other hand, focuses on viewsabout specific leaders and policies

• While political culture looks at the underpinningsof legitimacy, the gut feelings that sustain apolitical system, public opinion seeks responses tocurrent questions

• The methodology of political culture and publicopinion also overlap

Topic TwoTHE CIVIC CULTURETopic TwoTHE CIVIC CULTURE

Gabriel Almondand Sydney Verba on Civic Culture

• Almond and Verba, pioneers in the field, conductedthe first such cross-country study of political culturein 1959, publishing their results in the civic culturefours year later

• Based on surveys conducted in the United States,Britain, West Germany, Italy and Mexico, thislandmark study tried to identify the political culturein which liberal democracy is most likely to surviveand develop

• In other words, Almond and Verba set out toidentify the political culture that most effectivelyupheld democratic politics

• They interviewed about 5000 people in theaforementioned countries

• Almond and Verba, pioneers in the field, conductedthe first such cross-country study of political culturein 1959, publishing their results in the civic culturefours year later

• Based on surveys conducted in the United States,Britain, West Germany, Italy and Mexico, thislandmark study tried to identify the political culturein which liberal democracy is most likely to surviveand develop

• In other words, Almond and Verba set out toidentify the political culture that most effectivelyupheld democratic politics

• They interviewed about 5000 people in theaforementioned countries

Gabriel Almond and Sydney Verbaon Civic Culture (cont’d)

• The authors sought to measure national politicalattitudes by testing three important variables:– What impact the people felt government had on

their lives– What obligation they felt they had toward

government– What they expected from government

• The authors sought to measure national politicalattitudes by testing three important variables:– What impact the people felt government had on

their lives– What obligation they felt they had toward

government– What they expected from government

Types of Political Culture• Participant political culture: People understand that they

are citizens and they pay attention to politics– They are proud of their country’s political system and are

generally willing to discuss it– They believe that they can influence politics to some

degree and claim they would organize a group to protestsomething unfair

– They show a high level of political competence (knowinghow to accomplish something politically), and politicalefficacy (feeling that they have at least a little politicalpower)

– They maintain that they take pride in voting and believepeople should participate in politics

– A participant political culture is clearly the ideal soil inwhich to sustain democracy

• Participant political culture: People understand that theyare citizens and they pay attention to politics– They are proud of their country’s political system and are

generally willing to discuss it– They believe that they can influence politics to some

degree and claim they would organize a group to protestsomething unfair

– They show a high level of political competence (knowinghow to accomplish something politically), and politicalefficacy (feeling that they have at least a little politicalpower)

– They maintain that they take pride in voting and believepeople should participate in politics

– A participant political culture is clearly the ideal soil inwhich to sustain democracy

Types of Political Culture (cont’d)• Subject political culture: People in this culture understand that they

are citizens and pay attention to politics, but they are involved in amore passive way

• Citizens see themselves as subjects of a government rather than asparticipants in the political process– They follow political news but are not proud of their country’s

political system and they feel little emotional commitment towardit

– They feel uncomfortable in speaking about politics; to them it isnot a good topic for conversation

– They feel they can influence politics only to the extent of speakingwith local official

– It does not occur to them to organize a group. Their sense ofpolitical competence and efficacy are lower; some even feelpowerless

– They maintain that they vote, but they do so without enthusiasm– Democracy has more difficulty sinking roots in a culture where

people are used to thinking of themselves as obedient subjectsrather than as active participants

• Subject political culture: People in this culture understand that theyare citizens and pay attention to politics, but they are involved in amore passive way

• Citizens see themselves as subjects of a government rather than asparticipants in the political process– They follow political news but are not proud of their country’s

political system and they feel little emotional commitment towardit

– They feel uncomfortable in speaking about politics; to them it isnot a good topic for conversation

– They feel they can influence politics only to the extent of speakingwith local official

– It does not occur to them to organize a group. Their sense ofpolitical competence and efficacy are lower; some even feelpowerless

– They maintain that they vote, but they do so without enthusiasm– Democracy has more difficulty sinking roots in a culture where

people are used to thinking of themselves as obedient subjectsrather than as active participants

Types of Political Culture (cont’d)• Parochial political culture:

– Citizens are only vaguely aware of the existence of centralgovernment

– They normally identify with the immediate locality, hencethe term parochial

– They take no pride in their country’s political system andexpect little of it

– They pay no attention to politics, because they have littleknowledge of it, and rarely speak about political matters.

– They have neither the desire nor the ability to participate inpolitics

– They have no sense of political competence or efficacy andfeel powerless in the face of existing institutions

– Attempting to grow democracy in a parochial politicalculture is very difficult, requiring not only new institutionsbut also a new sense of citizenship

• Parochial political culture:– Citizens are only vaguely aware of the existence of central

government– They normally identify with the immediate locality, hence

the term parochial– They take no pride in their country’s political system and

expect little of it– They pay no attention to politics, because they have little

knowledge of it, and rarely speak about political matters.– They have neither the desire nor the ability to participate in

politics– They have no sense of political competence or efficacy and

feel powerless in the face of existing institutions– Attempting to grow democracy in a parochial political

culture is very difficult, requiring not only new institutionsbut also a new sense of citizenship

Topic ThreeHistory and Methods of Political CultureTopic ThreeHistory and Methods of Political Culture

The Origins of Political Culture• Culture has been used as an explanatory variable for

as long as humans have been studying politics.However, the scientific field of political culture wasestablished in the United States in the 1950s

• Before that time, scholars often linked values andattitudes to behavior in national character studies.

• The conclusions of such single country studies endedwith very crude and blanket descriptions such as:– Asians are “inscrutable”– Germans are “authoritarian”– Americans are “rugged individualists”– Canadians are “peaceful, honest, and boring”

• Culture has been used as an explanatory variable foras long as humans have been studying politics.However, the scientific field of political culture wasestablished in the United States in the 1950s

• Before that time, scholars often linked values andattitudes to behavior in national character studies.

• The conclusions of such single country studies endedwith very crude and blanket descriptions such as:– Asians are “inscrutable”– Germans are “authoritarian”– Americans are “rugged individualists”– Canadians are “peaceful, honest, and boring”

The Origins ofPolitical Culture (cont’d)

• These stereotypes are often based on erroneousimpressions. In point of fact, they may tell moreabout the observer than the observed

• Historical circumstances were significant inbringing to the forefront political culture studies

• After World War II, French, British, Dutch, Italian,and then Portuguese colonies began movingtoward independent statehood, and the decisionshad to be made about what kind of political formsthese new nations could adopt

• These stereotypes are often based on erroneousimpressions. In point of fact, they may tell moreabout the observer than the observed

• Historical circumstances were significant inbringing to the forefront political culture studies

• After World War II, French, British, Dutch, Italian,and then Portuguese colonies began movingtoward independent statehood, and the decisionshad to be made about what kind of political formsthese new nations could adopt

The Origins ofPolitical Culture (cont’d)

• As a result most of the countries which emerged inAsia, Africa and South America adopted veryambitious Western-styled constitutions, politicalinstitutions, legal systems etc.

• Most of these countries in no time gave way toauthoritarian, military or one single regimes

• Most western scholars realized that the ideas andinstitutions that served their own countries hadevolved over several generations and weretherefore inappropriate for the new states

• As a result most of the countries which emerged inAsia, Africa and South America adopted veryambitious Western-styled constitutions, politicalinstitutions, legal systems etc.

• Most of these countries in no time gave way toauthoritarian, military or one single regimes

• Most western scholars realized that the ideas andinstitutions that served their own countries hadevolved over several generations and weretherefore inappropriate for the new states

The Origins ofPolitical Culture (cont’d)

• By the late 1950, many political scientists werebeginning to examine how political culture affectssupport for the community, the regime and thegovernment

• Unlike the impressions, stereotypes andgeneralizations of national character studies,political culture studies endeavored to determineobjectively what kinds of orientations are held bythe people toward which political objects andwhat impact this has on political stability

• By the late 1950, many political scientists werebeginning to examine how political culture affectssupport for the community, the regime and thegovernment

• Unlike the impressions, stereotypes andgeneralizations of national character studies,political culture studies endeavored to determineobjectively what kinds of orientations are held bythe people toward which political objects andwhat impact this has on political stability

Methods of Studying Political Culture• A number of methods have been employed by

scholars to study political culture in a scientificmanner. Below are five of such methods:– Survey Research– Examining the Opinions of the Political Elite– Content Analysis– Projective Techniques– The Literature and Films a country produces

can offer significant insight into political valuesand attitudes of its people

• A number of methods have been employed byscholars to study political culture in a scientificmanner. Below are five of such methods:– Survey Research– Examining the Opinions of the Political Elite– Content Analysis– Projective Techniques– The Literature and Films a country produces

can offer significant insight into political valuesand attitudes of its people

Topic FourCHANGING POLITICAL CULTURESTopic FourCHANGING POLITICAL CULTURES

Recent Trends of Political Culture• Governments who lead their people into calamity

have the tendency of creating and reaping mistrust• Economic problems are among the most important

factors that affect the political culture of a country• It is true to state that as the economy of a country

changes, the political culture of the people changesaccordingly

• It is a fact that the political culture of a countrychanges– It does not change as rapidly as public opinion,

but political culture at any point in time is acombination of long- remembered and deeplyheld attitudes plus reactions to current situations

• Governments who lead their people into calamityhave the tendency of creating and reaping mistrust

• Economic problems are among the most importantfactors that affect the political culture of a country

• It is true to state that as the economy of a countrychanges, the political culture of the people changesaccordingly

• It is a fact that the political culture of a countrychanges– It does not change as rapidly as public opinion,

but political culture at any point in time is acombination of long- remembered and deeplyheld attitudes plus reactions to current situations

Elite and Mass Cultures• The political culture of a country is not uniform and

monolithic• One can usually find within one country, differences

between the mainstream culture and subcultures anddifferences between mass and elite attitudes

• The elite usually have different political attitudesfrom the masses– They are more participatory and more interested in

politics– They are more inclined to vote, to protect

injustice, to form interest groups and associations,and even contest for political or public office

• Research has found that the more education a personhas, the more likely he or she is to participate inpolitics

• The political culture of a country is not uniform andmonolithic

• One can usually find within one country, differencesbetween the mainstream culture and subcultures anddifferences between mass and elite attitudes

• The elite usually have different political attitudesfrom the masses– They are more participatory and more interested in

politics– They are more inclined to vote, to protect

injustice, to form interest groups and associations,and even contest for political or public office

• Research has found that the more education a personhas, the more likely he or she is to participate inpolitics

Elite and Mass Cultures (cont’d)• Usually better-educated people know how to

participate in political activity– They have a greater sense of self-confidence when

writing a letter, speaking at meetings andorganizing groups

– They have the feeling that they can influence thepolitical decisions of the country

• The uneducated and the poor on the other hand lackthe knowledge and the self-confidence to do any ofthe things attributed to the elite above– They feel powerless and therefore incapable of

influencing any decision in the country– They have a firm belief that what they do can

hardly make any difference

• Usually better-educated people know how toparticipate in political activity– They have a greater sense of self-confidence when

writing a letter, speaking at meetings andorganizing groups

– They have the feeling that they can influence thepolitical decisions of the country

• The uneducated and the poor on the other hand lackthe knowledge and the self-confidence to do any ofthe things attributed to the elite above– They feel powerless and therefore incapable of

influencing any decision in the country– They have a firm belief that what they do can

hardly make any difference

Elite and Mass Cultures (cont’d)• The difference in participation in politics between the

elite and the masses is one of the greatest ironies ofdemocracy

• In theory and in law, politics is open to all in ademocracy. In practice, however, some participate morethan others

• The elite participate more than the masses• The right to vote is a mere starting point for political

participation• It does not guarantee equal access to decision making.• A mass political culture of apathy and indifference toward

politics effectively negates the potential of mass vote• An elite political culture of competence and efficacy

amplifies their influence

• The difference in participation in politics between theelite and the masses is one of the greatest ironies ofdemocracy

• In theory and in law, politics is open to all in ademocracy. In practice, however, some participate morethan others

• The elite participate more than the masses• The right to vote is a mere starting point for political

participation• It does not guarantee equal access to decision making.• A mass political culture of apathy and indifference toward

politics effectively negates the potential of mass vote• An elite political culture of competence and efficacy

amplifies their influence

Political Cultures• There are differences among ethnic, religious, and

regional groups in a country• When the differentiating qualities are strong in a

particular group, we say that group forms a subculture

• It is not appropriate to label every distinct group inthe society as having a distinct sub culture

• It is however true that some sub cultures are veryeasy to identify

• Usually groups with different language and tendenciesto break away from the rest of the population surelyqualify as a subculture– For instance the French-speaking people of Quebec,

Canada, sometimes in the past threatened to breakaway from the federation and become anindependent country

• There are differences among ethnic, religious, andregional groups in a country

• When the differentiating qualities are strong in aparticular group, we say that group forms a subculture

• It is not appropriate to label every distinct group inthe society as having a distinct sub culture

• It is however true that some sub cultures are veryeasy to identify

• Usually groups with different language and tendenciesto break away from the rest of the population surelyqualify as a subculture– For instance the French-speaking people of Quebec,

Canada, sometimes in the past threatened to breakaway from the federation and become anindependent country

Political Subcultures (cont’d)

• Where sub cultures are very distinct, the politicalsystem itself may be threatened with instability

• Countries with several sub cultures and competingloyalties are facing crisis of identification

• Even though it is very difficult to integrate allsubcultures into the mainstream culture in astate, failure to attempt such integration, the subcultures will in future claim that they no longerbelong to that country

• Where sub cultures are very distinct, the politicalsystem itself may be threatened with instability

• Countries with several sub cultures and competingloyalties are facing crisis of identification

• Even though it is very difficult to integrate allsubcultures into the mainstream culture in astate, failure to attempt such integration, the subcultures will in future claim that they no longerbelong to that country