PLT Study Guide

5/22/2018 PLT Study Guide

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Study Topics

Practice Questions Directly from the Test Makers

Test-Taking Strategies

www.ets.org/praxis

Principles of Learning and Teaching(PLT): Grades 59 and 712

Test Codes: 0623/5623, 0624/5624

Revised 2013

The Official

Study Guide

The

Praxis

Series

eBooks

This ebook was issued to Aaron Wise, order #8876236438. Unlawful distribution of this ebook is prohibited.


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Study Guide forPrinciplesof Learning and Teaching:Grades 59 and 712

A PUBLICATION OF ETS



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Copyright 2013 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved.

ETS, the ETS logo, LISTENING. LEARNING. LEADING., and GRE are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (ETS) in the United S

and other countries. SAT is a registered trademark of the College Entrance Examination Board. PRAXIS and THE PRAXIS SERIES are trademarks of



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Table of ContentsPraxisStudy Guide for thePrinciples of

Learning and Teaching: Grades 59 and 712



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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Test and Suggestions for Using This Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2Background Information on The Praxis Series Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 3

Study Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chapter 4

How to Answer Constructed-Response Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 5

Case Histories and Constructed-Response Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Chapter 6

Scoring Guides and Sample Responses to the Constructed-Response

Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chapter 7

Dont Be Defeated by Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Chapter 8Multiple-Choice Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 9

Right Answers and Explanations for the Multiple-Choice Practice Questions . . . . . . 92

Chapter 10

Are You Ready? Last-Minute Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Appendix A

Study Plan Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Appendix B

For More Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114



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Chapter 1Introduction to the Testand Suggestions for Using

This Study Guide



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CHAPTER 1

2 PraxisStudy Guide for thePrinciples of Learning and TeachingTests

Introduction to Principles of Learning and Teaching

The Principles of Learning and Teachingtests are designed to assess a beginning teachers knowledge

of a broad range of job-related topics. Such knowledge is typically obtained in undergraduate courses in

educational psychology, human growth and development, classroom management, instructional design and

delivery techniques, evaluation and assessment, and other areas of professional preparation. Assessment

professionals at Educational Testing Service (ETS), with the assistance of a national advisory committee,

have aligned the content of these tests with several state and national standards documents including those of

INTASC (Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium). In developing assessment material

for the Principles of Learning and Teachingtests, ETS works in collaboration with teacher educators,

higher education content specialists, and accomplished practicing teachers to keep the test updated and

representative of current standards and practices.

There are four different Principles of Learning and Teachingtests covering four different but overlapping

grade ranges:

Early Childhood (Test Codes 0621/5621)

Grades K6 (Test Codes 0622/5622)

Grades 59 (Test Codes 0623/5623)

Grades 712 (Test Codes 0624/5624)

While the four tests cover the same topics and include materials common to all grade ranges, each test also

features some material addressing the topics in ways appropriate to its particular grade range.

This guide covers two of the four PLT tests: Principles of Learning and Teaching: Grades 59 and 712

(0623/5623 and 0624/5624).

The format and contents of the test

Format

Two case studies, each with two short-answer constructed-response questions

Seventy multiple-choice questions; Test takers have two hours to complete the test



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CHAPTER 1

PraxisStudy Guide for thePrinciples of Learning and TeachingTests 3

Contents

A broad outline of the categories of topics covered in the PLT tests follows. Chapter 3 has a detailed outline

of the topics covered under each category. The percentage shown below indicates approximately how much

of your score is based on the topic category.

I. Students as Learners (30%)

II. Instructional Process (30%)

III. Assessment (20%)

IV. Professional Development, Leadership and Community (20%)

Suggestions for Using This Study GuideWhy should you use this study guide?

This test is different from a final exam or other tests you may have taken for other courses, because it is

comprehensivethat is, it covers material you may have learned in several courses during more than one

year. It requires you to synthesize information you have learned from many sources and to understand the

subject as a whole.

This test is also different from the SATor other assessments of your reading, writing, and mathematical

skills. You may have heard it said that you cant study for the SATthat you should have learned these

skills throughout your school years, and you cant learn these skills just before you take the exam. You

canpracticetaking the SAT and skills tests like it; you can become more adept at applying your reading,

writing, and mathematical skills to the particular format of tests like the SAT.

However, the Principles of Learning and Teachingtests assess a domain of knowledgeand understanding

that is more than a set of skills. Therefore, you should review for and prepare for it, not merely practice

answering the sample questions included in this study guide. A thorough review of the material covered

on the test will significantly increase your likelihood of success.

Moreover, studying for your licensing exam is a great opportunity to reflect on and develop a deeper

understanding of pedagogical knowledge and methods before you begin to teach. As you prepare to takethe test, it may be particularly helpful for you to think about how you would apply the study topics and

sample exercises to the clinical experience in schools that you obtained during your teacher preparation

program. Your student teaching experience will be especially relevant to your thinking about the materials

in the study guide.



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CHAPTER 1


How can you best use the Study Topics chapter of this study guide?

Become familiar with the test content.Learn what will be tested, as covered in chapter 3. It is quite

likely that you will need to study in most or all of the areas. After you learn what the test contains, you

should assess your knowledge in each area. How well do you know the material? In which areas do you

need to learn more before you take the test?

Familiarize yourself with test taking. Chapters 5 and 7 are is designed to answer frequently asked

questions about the Principles of Learning and Teachingtests, such as whether it is a good idea to guess

on a test. You can simulate the experience of the test by taking the practice test in chapter 5 (constructed-

response) or chapter 8 (multiple-choice) within the specified time limits. Choose a time and place where

you will not be interrupted or distracted. Then you can use chapter 6 to see sample responses to the

constructed-response test and how they were scored; or you can use chapter 9 to score your multiple-

choice responses. The scoring key in chapter 9 identifies which topic each question addresses, so you can

see which areas are your strongest and weakest. Look over the explanations of the questions you missed

and see whether you understand them and could answer similar questions correctly. Then plan any

additional studying according to what youve learned about your understanding of the topics.

Register for the test and consider last-minute tips. Review the checklist in chapter 10 to make sure

you are ready for the test.

What you do between the first step and these last steps depends on whether you intend to use this book to

prepare on your own or as part of a class or study group.

Using this book to prepare on your own

If you are working by yourself to prepare for a Principles of Learning and Teachingtest, you may find it

helpful to use the following approach:

Fill out the Study Plan Sheet in appendix A. This worksheet will help you to focus on what topics you

need to study most, identify materials that will help you study, and set a schedule for doing the studying.

The last item is particularly important if you know you tend to put off work.

Identify study materials. Most of the material covered by the test is contained in standard introductory

textbooks in the field. If you do not own introductory texts, you may want to borrow some from friends

or from a library. Use standard introductory textbooks and other reliable, professionally prepared

materials. Dont rely heavily on information provided by friends or from searching the Internet. Neither

of these sources is as uniformly reliable as textbooks.

Work through your study plan. Work through the topics and questions provided in chapter 3. Be able

to define and discuss the topics in your own words rather than memorizing definitions from books.



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Using this book as part of a study group

People who have a lot of studying to do sometimes find it helpful to form a study group with others who are

preparing toward the same goal. Study groups give members opportunities to ask questions and get detailed

answers. In a group, some members usually have a better understanding of certain topics, while others in

the group may be better at other topics. As members take turns explaining concepts to each other, everyone

builds self-confidence. If the group encounters a question that none of the members can answer well, the

members can go as a group to a teacher or other expert and get answers efficiently.

Because study groups schedule regular meetings, group members study in a more disciplined fashion. They

also gain emotional support. The group should be large enough so that various people can contribute various

kinds of knowledge, but small enough so that it stays focused. Often, three to six people is a good size.

Here are some ways to use this book as part of a study group:

Plan the groups study program. Parts of the Study Plan Sheet in appendix A can help to structure your

groups study program. By filling out the first five columns and sharing the worksheets, everyone will

learn more about your groups mix of abilities and about the resources (such as textbooks) that members

can share with the group. In the sixth column (Dates planned for study of content), you can create an

overall schedule for your groups study program.

Plan individual group sessions. At the end of each session, the group should decide what specific topics

will be covered at the next meeting and who will be the presenter of each topic. Use the topic headings

and subheadings in chapter 3 to select topics. Some sessions might be based on the topics outlined in

these chapters; other sessions might be based on the questions from these chapters.

Prepare your presentation for the group. When its your turn to present, prepare something thats more

than a lecture. If you are presenting material from chapter 3, write five to ten original questions to pose

to the group. Practicing writing actual questions can help you better understand the topics covered on the

test as well as the types of questions you will encounter on the test. It will also give other members of

the group extra practice at answering questions. If you are presenting material from the sample questions,

use each sample question as a model for writing at least one original question.

Take the practice tests together. The idea of chapters 5 and 8 is to simulate actual administrations

of the test, so scheduling a test session with the group will add to the realism and will also help boost

everyones confidence.



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Learn from the results of the practice test. Use chapter 6 or chapter 9 to score each others answer

sheets. Then plan one or more study sessions based on the questions that group members got wrong or

(on the constructed-response sample test) did not answer well. For example, each group member might

be responsible for a question that he or she got wrong and could use it as a model to create an original

question to pose to the group, together with an explanation of the correct answer modeled after the

explanations in chapter 9.

Whether you decide to study alone or with a group, remember that the best way to prepare is to have an

organized plan. The plan should set goals based on specific topics and skills that you need to learn, and

it should commit you to a realistic set of deadlines for meeting these goals. Then you need to discipline

yourself to stick with your plan and accomplish your goals on schedule.

Whats the best way to use the chapters on case studies and multiple-choice

questions?

Sharpen your skills on short-answer questions. Read chapter 4 to understand how short-answer

questions are scored and how to write high-scoring responses.

Read chapter 7.This chapter will sharpen your skills in reading and answering multiple-choice

questions. Succeeding on multiple-choice questions requires careful focus on the question, attention to

detail, and patient sifting of the answer choices.



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Whats the best way to use the practice-test chapters?

Answer the short-answer questions. Work on the practice cases and short-answer questions in chapter

5, then review the scoring materials and sample responses in chapter 6. This is not a test of your

writing ability, so a response in an essay format is not required. You may use short descriptions or

phrases, as long as your ideas are clear and you support your ideas with relevant examples and details

where appropriate.

Answer the practice multiple-choice questions. Work on the practice questions in chapter 8, then go

through the detailed answers in chapter 9 and mark the questions you answered correctly and the ones

you missed. Look over the explanations of the questions you missed and see if you understand them.

Decide whether you need more review. After you have looked at your results, decide if there are areas

that you need to brush up on before taking the actual test. Go back to your textbooks and reference

materials to see if the topics are covered there. You might also want to go over your questions with afriend or teacher who is familiar with the subjects.

Assess your readiness. Do you feel confident about your level of understanding in each of the subject

areas? If not, where do you need more work? If you feel ready, complete the checklist in chapter 10 to

double-check that youve thought through the details. If you need more information about registration or

the testing situation itself, use the resources in appendix B: For More Information.

It is important to remember that the sample test questions provide only a representation of the kinds of

questions you will see on the test; they are not the actual questions you will encounterwhen you take the

test. It is important, therefore, to treat the sample questions as inspiration for study and to study the ideasrepresented by the sample questions and by the topics described in chapter 3.



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Chapter 2Background Information on

The Praxis Series Assessments



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CHAPTER 2


What Are The Praxis SeriesAssessments?

The Praxis Series Assessments are designed by Educational Testing Service (ETS) to assess your

knowledge of teaching, and they are a part of the licensing requirements in many states. This study guide

covers an assessment that is a licensing requirement. Your state has adopted The Praxis Seriestests because

it wants to be certain that you have received, retained, and understood appropriate teacher preparation before

it grants you a license to teach in a classroom.

The Praxis Seriestests are part of a national testing program, meaning that the test covered in this study

guide is used in more than one state. The advantage of taking Praxis tests is that if you want to move

to another state that uses The Praxis Seriestests, you can transfer your scores to that state. Passing scores

are set by states, however, so if you are planning to apply for licensure in another state, you may find that

passing scores are different. You can find passing scores for all states that use The Praxis Seriestests in the

Understanding Your PraxisScores pamphlet, available online at www.ets.org/praxis, in your colleges school

of education, or by calling 800-772-9476 or 609-771-7395.

What Is Licensure?

Licensure in any areamedicine, law, architecture, accounting, cosmetologyis an assurance to the public

that the person holding the license has demonstrated evidence of a certain level of competence. In the case of

teacher licensing, a license tells the public that the person holding the license has demonstrated evidence that

she or he can be trusted to educate children competently and professionally.

Because a license makes such a serious claim about its holder, licensure tests are usually quite demanding.In some fields licensure tests have more than one part and last for more than one day. Candidates for

licensure in all fields plan intensive study as part of their professional preparation. In preparation for the

tests, some join study groups while others study alone. But preparing to take a licensure test is, in all cases,

a professional activity. Because it assesses your entire body of knowledge or skill for the field you want to

enter, preparing for a licensure exam takes planning, discipline, and sustained effort. Studying thoroughly is

highly recommended.

Why Does My State Require The Praxis SeriesAssessments?

Your state chose The Praxis Seriesassessments because the tests assess the breadth and depth of content

that your state wants its teachers to possess before they begin to teach. The level of knowledge, reflected in

the passing score for each test, is based on recommendations of panels of teachers and teacher educators in

each area in each state. The state licensing agency and, in some states, the state legislature ratify the passing

scores that have been recommended by panels of teachers.



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CHAPTER 2


You can find out the passing score required for The Praxis Seriesassessments in your state by looking in the

Understanding Your PraxisScores pamphlet, which is free from ETS (see page 9). If you look through this

pamphlet, you will see that not all states use the same tests and even when they do, the passing scores can

differ from state to state.

What Kinds of Tests Are The Praxis SeriesAssessments?

Two kinds of questions appear in The Praxis Seriesassessments: multiple-choice (for which you select

your answer from a list of choices) and constructed response (for which you write a response of your own).

Multiple-choice tests can survey a wider domain because they can ask more questions in a limited period of

time. Constructed-response tests have far fewer questions, but the questions require you to demonstrate the

depth of your knowledge in the area covered.

What Do the Tests Measure?

The Praxis Seriesassessments measure your understanding of knowledge important to teaching. The

multiple-choice tests measure a broad range of knowledge across your content area. The constructed-

response tests measure your ability to explain in depth a few essential topics in your area.

The pedagogy tests, most of which are constructed-response, measure your understanding of concepts

fundamental to teaching. The tests do not measure your actual teaching ability, however. They measure your

knowledge of how to teach it. The teachers who help us design and write these tests, and the states that

require these tests, do so in the belief that knowledge of teaching is the first requirement for licensing.

Your teaching ability is a skill that is measured in other ways: observation, videotaped teaching, or portfolios

are typically used by states to measure teaching ability. Teaching combines many complex skills, only some

of which can be measured by a single test.

How Were These Tests Developed?

ETS began the development of The Praxis Seriesassessments with a survey. For each test, teachers around

the country in various teaching situations were asked to judge which knowledge and skills a beginning teacher

needs to possess. Professors in schools of education who prepare teachers were asked the same questions.These responses were ranked in order of importance and sent out to hundreds of teachers for review. All

of the responses to these surveys (called job analysis survey) were analyzed to summarize the judgments

of these professionals. From their consensus, we developed the specifications for the multiple-choice and

constructed-response tests. The specification for each assessment were written by a committee of practicing

teachers and teacher educators and then were reviewed and eventually approved by teachers. On the basis

of the test specifications, groups of teachers and professional test developers created test questions.



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CHAPTER 2


How Were These Tests Chosen as Part of My StatesLicensure Requirements?

When your state adopted The Praxis Seriesassessments, local panels of practicing teachers and teacher

educators met to examine the tests question by question and evaluate each question for its relevance to

beginning teachers in your state. This is called a validity study. A test is considered valid for a job if it

measures what people must know and be able to do on that job. For the test to be adopted in your state,

teachers in your state must judge that it is valid.

These teachers and teacher educators also performed a standard-setting study; that is, they went through

the tests question by question and decided, through a rigorous process, how many questions a beginning

teacher should be able to answer correctly. From this study emerged a recommended passing score. The

final passing score was approved by your states licensing agency.

In other words, throughout the development process, practitioners in the teaching fieldteachers and teacher

educatorshave determined what the tests would contain. The practitioners in your state determined which

tests would be used for licensure and helped decide what score would be needed to achieve licensure. This is

how professional licensure works in most fields: those who are already licensed oversee the licensing of new

practitioners. When you pass The Praxis Seriesassessments, you and the practitioners in your state can be

assured that you have the knowledge required to begin practicing your profession.



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Chapter 3Study Topics



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C H A P T E R 3


Introduction to the TestThe Principles of Learning and Teachingtests are

designed to evaluate the professional knowledge of

beginning teachers. They are closely aligned withthe standards used throughout the United States

for what teachers should know and be able to do,

including those of INTASC (Interstate New Teacher

Assessment and Support Consortium).

Here is an overview of the areas of knowledge

covered in the Principles of Learning and Teaching

tests:

I. Students as Learners

Student Development and the Learning

Process

Students as Diverse Learners

Student Motivation and the Learning

Environment

II. Instructional Process

Planning Instruction

Instructional Strategies

Questioning Techniques

Communication Techniques

III. Assessment

Assessment and Evaluation Strategies

Assessment Tools

IV. Professional Development,

Leadership and Community

V. Analysis of Instructional Scenarios

The tests require you to respond in two different

ways. Some of the questions are constructed-response

questions and require you to write out brief answers.

Others are multiple-choice and require you to select

an answer from a set of four options. For both types

of questions, you will need to apply knowledge about

teaching that you have gained from your course work

and field work such as student teaching. This chapter

is intended to help you organize your preparation

for your test and to give you a clear indication about

the depth and breadth of the knowledge required for

success on the tests.

Using the topic lists that follow.You are not

expected to be an expert on the topics that follow. But

you should understand the major characteristics or

aspects of each topic and be able to relate the topic to

various situations presented in the test questions. For

instance, here is a list of topics under the category

Instructional Process.

Knows a variety of strategies for supporting

student learning

Identifies and explains uses of strategies for

supporting student learning

Modeling

Developing self-regulation skills

Scaffolding

Differentiating instruction

Guided practice

Coaching

Using textbooks and other sources as needed, make

sure you can describe each of these strategies in your

own words. Find materials that will help you identify

examples of each and situations for which each is

appropriate. On the test you may be asked direct

questions on one or more of these topics, or you may

be asked to evaluate the use or appropriateness of a

strategy in a particular context.



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Study questions.Interspersed throughout the listof topics are study questions. These questions

are intended to help you test your knowledge of

fundamental concepts and your ability to apply

fundamental concepts to typical classroom situations.

Most of the questions require you to combine

several pieces of knowledge to formulate an

integrated understanding and response. If you spend

time on these questions, you will gain increased

understanding and facility with the subject matter

covered on the test. You might want to discuss these

questions and your answers with a teacher or mentor.

Note that the questions are not short-answer

or multiple-choice. They are intended as study

questions, not practice questions. Thinking about the

answers to them should improve your understanding

of fundamental concepts and will probably help you

answer a broad range of questions on the test. For

example, the following study question appears in the

list of study topics under Planning Instruction.

Teachers are responsible for connecting scope and

sequence frameworks and curriculum goals into

classroom lessons and groups of lessons. How does

a teacher translate curriculum goals and discipline-

specific scope and sequence frameworks into unit

and lesson plans with objectives, activities, and

assessments appropriate for the students being

taught? Give an example of a curriculum goal and

then write a lesson objective, one activity, and an

idea for an assessment of student learning that would

accomplish that goal.

Let us apply this study question to the test topics. If

you think about the relationships among curriculum

goals, scope and sequence frameworks, and unit and

lesson plans, you have probably prepared yourself to

answer multiple-choice questions similar to the one

below, which asks you to link a curricular goal with

the most appropriate performance objective.

The goal of a particular mathematics

curriculum is for students to use computational

strategies fluently and estimate appropriately.

Which of the following objectives for students

best reflects that goal?

(A) Students in all grades will use calculators

for all mathematical tasks.

(B) Students in all grades will be drilled daily

on basic number facts.

(C) Students in all grades will know

the connections between the basic

arithmetic operations.

(D) Students in all grades will evaluate the

reasonableness of their answers.

The correct answer is (D). To evaluate the

reasonableness of their answers, students must

understand the computational strategies involved

in mathematical solutions before they are able to

estimate or to evaluate estimated answers.

Note that, although some questions in the test might

be presented in terms of any of the specific subjects

that are taught in K-12 classes (as in this example of

mathematics), Principles of Learning and Teaching

is not a subject-specific examination. It is one that

asks you to apply basic ideas that can be used by

teachers of any subject. The subject-specific contexts

are carefully crafted to avoid any subject information

that is too specialized for the examination population,

which includes new teachers of every subject. So for

example, if you are not a mathematics educator, dont

freeze up when you see a question expressed in terms

of a math class; just relax and answer the question

based on your general knowledge of teaching.



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C H A P T E R 3


Study Topics

All study topics are outlined, with Arabic numerals

designating each subtopic. When studying, this

numbering will make it convenient to reference the

subtopics.

I. Students as Learners (30%)

A. Student Development and theLearning Process

1. Understands the theoretical foundations of

how students learn

Knows how knowledge is constructed

Knows a variety of means by whichskills are acquired

Understands a variety of cognitive

processes and how they are developed

2. Knows the major contributions of

foundational theorists to education

Relates the work of theorists toeducational contexts

Bandura

Bruner

Dewey

Piaget

Vygotsky

Kohlberg

Bloom

Study Questions

Knowing each theorists major ideas

and being able to compare andcontrast one theory with anothercomprises basic professionalknowledge for teachers. In addition,

knowing how these ideas actuallycan be applied to teaching practiceis important professional knowledgefor teachers.

What are the major differencesbetween Jerome Bruners andJean Piagets theories of cognitivedevelopment in young children?

How might a teacher apply someof Lev Vygotskys ideas aboutscaffolding and direct instruction inthe classroom?

What does Gardners work onmultiple intelligences suggest aboutplanning instruction?

What does Abraham Maslowshierarchy of needs suggest aboutmotivation for learning in theclassroom?

3. Understands the concepts and terms relatedto a variety of learning theories

Metacognition

Schema

Transfer Self-efficacy

Self-regulation

Zone of proximal development

Classical and operant conditioning

Study Questions

Go beyond memorization ofdefinitions; try to apply the terms tothe theories behind them and thinkof applications in the classroom.

What are some specific classroom-

based examples of extrinsic andintrinsic motivators for students?

Make sure you can recognize thedifferences between lower-order andhigher-order thinking in classroomactivities, using Blooms taxonomyas a guide.

What is an example of a schema andwhat good is it?

What is scaffolding and why is itimportant for both teachers and

students?4. Knows the distinguishing characteristics

of the stages in each domain of humandevelopment (i.e., cognitive, physical, socialand moral)

Describes the characteristics of a typicalchild in each stage and each domain

Recognizes typical and atypical variancewithin each stage and each domain



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C H A P T E R 3


5. Understands how learning theory and humandevelopment impact the instructional process

Defines the relationship betweenlearning theory and human development

Provides examples of how learningtheory is impacted by humandevelopment

Uses knowledge of learning theory tosolve educational problems

Uses knowledge of human developmentto solve educational problems

Study Questions

When responding to case studies, you will beasked to perform the following kinds of tasksrelated to the area of human development

and the learning process: Identify and describe strengths

and/or weaknesses in the instructiondescribed in the case, in terms ofits appropriateness for students at a

particular age

Propose a strategy for instructionthat would be appropriate forstudents at the age described in thecase

B. Students as Diverse Learners

6. Understands that a number of variablesaffect how individual students learn and

perform

Identifies a number of variables thataffect how students learn and perform

Learning style

Gender

Culture

Socioeconomic status

Prior knowledge and experience

Motivation Self-confidence, self-esteem

Cognitive development

Maturity

Language

Provides examples of how variablesmight affect how students learn andperform

Study Questions

Give a specific example from yourown classroom experience of theeffects of differences in learning

styles on how people understand andexpress what they know.

What is an example of the waycultural expectations from aparticular geographical region orethnic group might affect howstudents learn or express what theyknow?

What does the research reveal aboutgender differences and how theymight affect learning?

7. Recognizes areas of exceptionality and their

potential impact on student learning Identifies areas of exceptionality

Cognitive

Auditory

Visual

Motor/physical

Speech/language

Behavioral

Explains a variety of waysexceptionalities may impact student

learning8. Understands the implications and application

of legislation relating to students with

exceptionalities on classroom practice

Identifies the provisions of legislationrelevant to students with exceptionalities

Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA)

Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (IDEA)

Section 504, Rehabilitation Act

(504) Explains how the provisions of

legislation relating to students withexceptionalities affect classroom practice

9. Recognizes that the process of Englishlanguage acquisition affects the educationalexperience of English language learners(ELL)



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C H A P T E R 3


Study Questions

Know the major types of challengesin each category (e.g., dyslexiaunder Learning Disabilities),

know the major symptoms andrange of severity, and know themajor classroom and instructionalissues related to each area.

Know the basic rights orresponsibilities that the legislationestablished.

10. Recognizes that the process of Englishlanguage acquisition affects the educationalexperience of English language learners(ELL)

11. Knows a variety of approaches

for accommodating students withexceptionalities in each phase of theeducation process

Recognizes students withexceptionalities require particularaccommodations.

Knows how to modify instruction,assessment, and communicationmethods to meet a recognized need

Study Questions

When responding to case studies, you will

be asked to perform the following kindsof tasks related to the area of students asdiverse learners:

Identify and describe a strength and/orweakness in

a lesson plan for meeting needs ofindividual students with identifiedspecial needs, as described in thecase

the interaction described in the casebetween the teacher and students

in terms of culturally responsiveteaching

Propose a strategy for

helping the students with attentiondeficit problems described inthe case stay on task (e.g., inlistening to a lecture, following ademonstration, doing written work)

improving performance of studentsin the case who do not performwell on homework, originalcompositions, or other assignments

helping students in the case forwhom English is not the firstlanguage build literacy skills and/orimprove in academic areas

meeting the needs of a wide rangeof students (especially students with

learning difficulties and studentswho are accelerated)

building positive relationships witha student the case shows is veryturned off to school

adapting instruction and/or

assessment for an individual studentwith identified needs described inthe case

helping the students described in thecase see issues from different pointsof view

C. Student Motivation and LearningEnvironment

12. Knows the major contributions offoundational behavioral theorists toeducation

Relates the work of behavioral theoriststo educational contexts

Thorndike

Watson

Maslow

Skinner

Erikson

13. Understands the implications of foundationalmotivation theories for instruction, learning,and classroom management

Defines terms related to foundationalmotivation theory

Self-determination

Attribution

Extrinsic/intrinsic motivation

Cognitive dissonance

Classic and operant conditioning

Positive and negative reinforcement



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Relates motivation theory to instruction,learning, and classroom management

Study Questions

Go beyond memorization of definitions; try

to apply the terms to the theories behindthem and think of applications in theteaching situation.

14. Knows principles and strategies forclassroom management

Knows how to develop classroomroutines and procedures

Knows how to maintain accurate records

Knows how to establish standards ofconduct

Knows how to arrange classroom space

Recognizes ways of promoting apositive learning environment

15. Knows a variety of strategies for helpingstudents develop self-motivation

Assigning valuable tasks

Providing frequent positive feedback

Including students in instructionaldecisions

De-emphasizing grades

Study Questions

Why is each of the principles above agood practice for teachers to cultivate andmaintain in terms of its effect on student

learning? How can each help you to bea more effective teacher? What are thecharacteristics of effective implementationof each of these practices? How can youstructure your instructional planning toinclude these?

What are the choices a teacher has whenmaking decisions about the pacing and

structuring of a lesson?

What factors can change the pace andstructure of a lesson as it unfolds?

How can you prepare in advance foradjusting the pace and the structure of alesson?

When responding to case studies, youwill be asked to perform the following

kinds of tasks related to the area of studentmotivation and the learning environment:


revising a lesson that is described

in the case for improving studentengagement and motivation

improving motivation throughmeans other than negative strategiesdescribed in the case addressingbehavioral problems that aredescribed in the case


a lesson plan or instructionalstrategy described in the case withthe intention of building a positive

classroom environment

II. Instructional Process (30%)

A. Planning Instruction

16. Understands the role of district, state,and national standards and frameworks

in instructional planning

Understands the theoretical basis ofstandards-based education

Knows resources for accessing district,

state, and national standards andframeworks

Understands how standards andframeworks apply to instructionalplanning

17. Knows how to apply the basic concepts ofpredominant educational theories

Understands the basic concepts ofcognitivism

Schema

Information processing

Mapping

Understands the basic concepts of sociallearning theory

Modeling

Reciprocal determinism

Vicarious learning



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Understands the basic concepts ofconstructivism

Learning as experience

Problem-based learning

Zone of proximal development Scaffolding

Inquiry/discovery learning

Understands the basic concepts ofbehaviorism

Conditioning

Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

Reinforcement

Punishment

Knows how to apply the basic concepts

of behaviorism, constructivism, sociallearning theory, and cognitivism toinstructional contexts

Study Questions

Teachers are responsible forconnecting scope and sequenceframeworks and curriculum goalsinto classroom lessons and groupsof lessons. How does a teacher

translate curriculum goals anddiscipline specific scope andsequence frameworks into unit

and lesson plans with objectives,activities, and assessmentsappropriate for the students beingtaught? Give an example of acurriculum goal and then write alesson objective, one activity, andan idea for an assessment of studentlearning that would accomplish that

goal.

How do behavioral objectives andlearner objectives and outcomes fitinto a teachers planning for units

and lessons?

What criterion or criteria does a

teacher use to decide when to useeach of these techniques?

Why is it so important for a teacherto plan carefully for transitions?What are the risks if transitions arenot thought through and executedwith care?

18. Understands how scope and sequence affectinstructional planning

Defines and provides examples of scope

Defines and provides examples of

sequence Understands the relationship between

scope and sequence and standards of

learning

Understands the role of scope andsequence in curriculum planning

19. Knows how to select content to achievelesson and unit objectives

20. Knows how to develop observable andmeasurable instructional objectives inthe cognitive, affective, and psychomotordomains

Distinguishes among the differentlearning domains

Knows how to apply Blooms taxonomyto the development of instructionalobjectives

Knows how to describe observablebehavior

Knows how to describe measurableoutcomes

21. Is aware of the need for and is able toidentify various resources for planningenrichment and remediation

Identifies when remediation is

appropriate

Identifies when enrichment isappropriate

Identifies a variety of resourcesfor locating, adapting, or creatingenrichment and remediation activities

22. Understands the role of resources andmaterials in supporting student learning

Identifies and explains the uses of avariety of resources and materials thatsupport student learning

Computers, the Internet and otherelectronic resources

Library collection (books,magazines, pamphlets, referenceworks)

Videos, DVDs



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Artifacts, models, manipulatives

Guest speakers and communitymembers

Study Questions

What should a teacher consider whenplanning to incorporate various resourcesinto a lesson design?

What are the advantages of these differentresources?

When responding to case studies, you will

be asked to perform the following kindsof tasks related to the area of instructionalplanning:

Identify and describe a strengthand/or weakness in specific activities

that are described in the casePropose a strategy for

teaching critical thinking skills in aspecific lesson described in the case

achieving effectiveness with groupwork in a particular situationdescribed in the case

helping students stay on task in thesituation described in the case

helping students learn materialpresented through various media

introduced in the case assigning students to group work

appropriate to the case

bringing closure to a lesson thatstops abruptly as presented in thecase

improving student interaction duringclass discussion as described in thecase

addressing a missed opportunityduring instruction that is describedin the case

23. Knows how to develop lessons as part ofthematic and/or interdisciplinary units

Understands the basic concepts ofthematic instruction

Understands the components of thematicunits

Selecting a theme

Designing integrated learningactivities

Selecting resources

Designing assessments

Understands the basic concepts ofinterdisciplinary instruction

Understands the components ofinterdisciplinary units

Collaborating

Generating applicable topics

Developing an integrative framework

Planning instruction for eachdiscipline

Designing integrative assessment

24. Recognizes their role in collaboratingwith instructional partners in instructionalplanning

Identifies a variety of instructional

planning partners

Special education teachers

Library media specialists

Teachers of the gifted and talented

IEP team members

Para educators

Describes the roles each partner plays in

collaborative activities

Study Questions

What are some specific instructionalgoals in a particular content area that

would be associated with each ofthese cognitive processes?

How are these cognitive processesconnected with the developmentallevel of students?

How are these processes different

from each other?

What are some ways that teacherscan stimulate each of these cognitiveprocesses in a lesson?

What are the primary advantagesof each of these strategies? In

general terms, describe the kindsof situations or the kinds of goalsand objectives for which each of



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these strategies is appropriate. Whatkinds of information about students

learning styles and achievementlevels does each of these offer?When would you NOT use aparticular instructional strategy?

B. Instructional Strategies

25. Understands the cognitive processesassociated with learning

Critical thinking

Creative thinking

Questioning

Inductive and deductive reasoning

Problem solving

Planning Memory

Recall

26. Understands the distinguishing features ofdifferent instructional models

Describes a variety of instructionalmodels

Direct

Indirect

Independent

Experiential

Interactive

27. Knows a variety of instructional strategiesassociated with each instructional model

Identifies instructional strategies

associated with direct instruction

Explicit teaching

Drill and practice

Lecture

Demonstrations

Guides for reading, listening,

viewing Identifies instructional strategies

associated with indirect instruction

Problem solving

Inquiry

Case studies

Concept mapping

Reading for meaning

Cloze procedures

Identifies instructional strategiesassociated with independent instruction

Learning contracts Research projects

Learning centers

Computer mediated instruction

Distance learning

Identifies instructional strategiesassociated with experiential and virtual

instruction

Field trips

Experiments

Simulations Role play

Games

Observations

Identifies instructional strategiesassociated with interactive instruction

Brainstorming

Cooperative learning groups

Interviews

Discussions

Peer practice Debates

28. Knows a variety of strategies forencouraging complex cognitive processes

Identifies complex cognitive processes

Concept learning

Problem solving

Metacognition

Critical thinking

Transfer

Knows instructional activities specific tothe development of complex cognitiveprocesses

Distinguishing fact from opinion

Comparing and contrasting

Detecting bias

Predicting

Categorizing



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Analyzing

Sequencing

Summarizing

Inferring

Decision making

Evaluating

Synthesizing

Generalizing

Study Questions

Why is each of these actions a

principle of effective instruction?

What tools and techniques can ateacher plan to use to accomplisheach one?

What strategies can a teacheremploy to monitor student

understanding as a lesson unfolds?

What evidence should the teacherobserve in order to know whether tore-teach a topic, move more quickly,or go back to material previouslycovered?

When responding to case studies,you will be asked to perform thefollowing kinds of tasks related tothe area of instructional planning:

Identify and describe a strengthand/or weakness in

a unit plan that is describedin the case-specific strategiesused in instruction (e.g., usinglecture, using class discussion)

a sequence of lessons describedin the case designed to achievea goal or set of objectives

one or more writtenassignments given to students in

the case Propose a strategy for

meeting what may appear to beconflicting goals or objectives

described in the case

incorporating activities that

will have students describedin the case draw on their ownexperiences to understand theinstruction

stimulating prior knowledge inthe situation described in thecase

29. Knows a variety of strategies for supportingstudent learning

Identifies and explains uses of strategiesfor supporting student learning

Modeling

Developing self-regulation skills

Scaffolding

Differentiating instruction Guided practice

Coaching

30. Knows basic strategies for promoting

students development of self-regulatoryskills

Knows how to supports students in

Setting goals

Managing time

Organizing information

Monitoring progress

Reflecting on outcomes

Establishing a productive workenvironment

31. Understands the design of different groupconfigurations for learning

Describes different group configurations

Whole-class

Small-group

Independent learning

One-on-one

Pair/share

32. Understands the use and implications ofdifferent grouping techniques and strategies

Explains the uses, strengths andlimitations of a variety of groupingtechniques

Cooperative learning

Collaborative learning



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Heterogeneous grouping

Homogeneous grouping

Multi-age grouping

Grouping by gender

33. Knows how to select an appropriate strategyfor achieving an instructional objective

34. Understands the concept of monitoring andadjusting instruction in response to studentfeedback

Explains the instructional purposes ofmonitoring and adjusting instruction

Knows strategies for monitoring andadjusting instruction

35. Recognizes the purpose of reflecting upon,analyzing and evaluating the effectiveness of

instructional strategies36. Knows the characteristics of different

types of memory and their implications forinstructional planning and student learning

Distinguishes among the different typesof memory

Short-term

Long-term

Considers the characteristics and effects

of memory on student learning whenplanning instruction

37. Recognizes the role of teachable moments ininstruction

Defines and provides examples of ateachable moment

Understands the uses of the teachablemoment

Study Questions

What are some examples of

appropriate situations for groupingstudents heterogeneously? Whatare some for grouping students

homogeneously? Besides groupingby performance level, what are othercharacteristics that a teacher shouldsometimes consider when groupingstudents?

C. Questioning Techniques

38. Knows the components of effectivequestioning

Allowing think/wait time

Helping students articulate their ideas

Respecting student answers

Handling incorrect answers

Encouraging participation

Establishing a non-critical classroomenvironment

Promoting active listening

Varying the types of questions

39. Understands the uses of questioning

Explains and provides examples ofdifferent purposes of questioning

Developing interest and motivatingstudents

Evaluating students preparation Reviewing previous lessons

Helping students set realisticexpectations

Engaging students in discussion

Determining prior knowledge

Preparing students for what is to belearned

Guiding thinking

Developing critical and creativethinking skills

Checking for comprehension orlevel of understanding

Summarizing information

Stimulating students to pursueknowledge on their own

40. Knows strategies for supporting students inarticulating their ideas

Explains and provides examples ofstrategies for supporting students inarticulating their ideas

Verbal and non-verbal prompting

Restatement

Reflective listening statements

Wait time

41. Knows methods for encouraging higher

levels of thinking

Explains and provides examples ofmethods for encouraging studentshigher levels of thinking



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Guiding students to

Reflect

Challenge assumptions

Find relationships

Determine relevancy and validity ofinformation

Design alternate solutions

Draw conclusions

Transfer knowledge

42. Knows strategies for promoting a safe andopen forum for discussion

Knows basic techniques for establishing

and maintaining standards of conductfor discussions.

Engaging all learners

Creating a collaborativeenvironment

Respecting diverse opinions

Supporting risk taking

Study Questions

What is wait-time? What doesresearch suggest about wait-time?

How might a teacher promotecritical thinking among students in adiscussion?

How can a teacher encouragestudent-to student dialogue in aclass discussion?

What kinds of classroommanagement procedures and ruleswould tend to make class discussionmore productive?

How does the developmental levelof students affect the way a teachermight handle classroom discussion?

In what kinds of discussions or

situations should a teacher namea specific student before asking a

question? When is it best not toname a specific student?

D. Communication Techniques

43. Understands various verbal and nonverbalcommunication modes

Explains and provides examples of

Body language

Gesture

Tone, stress, and inflection

Eye contact

Facial expression

Personal space

44. Is aware of how culture and gender canaffect communication

45. Knows how to use various communicationtools to enrich the learning environment

Audio and visual aids

Text and digital resources

Internet and other computer-based tools

46. Understands effective listening strategies Explains and provides examples of

active listening strategies

Attending to the speaker

Restating key points

Asking questions

Interpreting information

Providing supportive feedback

Being respectful

Study Questions

What are some ways that a teachersraising his or her voice might beinterpreted differently by studentswith different cultural backgrounds?

What are specific examples ofgestures and other body languagethat have different meanings indifferent cultures? (For example,looking someone directly in the

eye, disagreeing openly during adiscussion, pointing)

What is an example of a question in

a particular content area that probesfor understanding?

What is an example of a question

that would help a student articulatehis or her ideas?

What is an example of a commenta teacher might make that wouldpromote risk-taking? Problem-solving?



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How would a teacher encouragedivergent thinking on a particular

topic?

How would a teacher encourage

students to question each other andthe teacher?

When responding to case studies,you will be asked to perform the

following kinds of tasks related tothe area of communication:


the teachers oral or writtencommunication with students in the

case (e.g., feedback on assignments,interaction during class)


improving the self-image ofa student described in thecase or the students sense of

responsibility for his or herown learning

involving all students in a classdiscussion described in thecase in a positive way, showingrespect for others

helping a student described in

the case to develop social skillsin a specified situation

III. ASSESSMENT (20%)

A. Assessment and evaluationstrategies

47. Understands the role of formal and informalassessment in informing the instructionalprocess

Defines and provides uses and examplesof formal and informal assessment

modes

Explains a variety of ways the resultsof formal and informal assessment areused to make educational decisions

48. Understands the distinctions among thedifferent types of assessment

Defines and provides uses and examplesof formative, summative, and diagnosticassessment

49. Knows how to create and select an

appropriate assessment format to meetinstructional objectives

Knows how to create assessments in avariety of formats

Is able to select an assessment format tomeet a specific instructional objective

50. Knows how to select from a variety ofassessment tools to evaluate studentsperformance

Knows a variety of assessment tools,

their uses, strengths and limitations

Rubrics

Analytical checklists

Scoring guides

Anecdotal notes

Continuums

Is able to select an assessment toolappropriate for quantifying the resultsof a specific assessment

51. Understands the rationale behind and theuses of students self and peer assessment

Defines and provides uses and examples

of student self-assessment modes Defines and provides uses and examples

of peer assessment modes

Explains the strengths and limitations ofself and peer assessment modes

52. Knows how to use a variety of assessmentformats

Describes and provides uses, strengths,and limitations of a variety ofassessment formats

Essay

Selected response

Portfolio

Conference

Observation

Performance

Is able to select an assessment formatappropriate to a specific educationalcontext



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B. Assessment Tools

53. Understands the types and purposes ofstandardized tests

Explains the uses of the different types

of standardized test

Achievement

Aptitude

Ability

Recognizes the data provided by thedifferent types of standardized tests

54. Understands the distinction between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scoring

Explains the uses of norm-referenced

and criterion-referenced tests

Explains data provided by a norm-referenced and a criterion-referencedtest

55. Understands terminology related to testingand scoring

Defines and explains terms related totesting and scoring

Validity

Reliability

Raw score

Scaled score

Percentile Standard deviation

Mean, Mode and Median

Grade-equivalent scores

Age-equivalent scores

56. Understands the distinction between holisticand analytical scoring

Describes holistic scoring and analytical

scoring

Identifies an educational context foreach

57. Knows how to interpret assessment resultsand communicate the meaning of thoseresults to students, parents/caregiver, and

school personnel

Understands what scores and testingdata indicate about a students ability,aptitude, or performance

Is able to explain results of assessments

using language appropriate for theaudience

Study Questions

What are the characteristics, uses,advantages, and limitations of eachof the formal and informal types ofassessments above?

When might you use holisticscoring?

Under what circumstances would

anecdotal notes give a teacherimportant assessment information?

How might a teacher effectively usestudent self-evaluations?

What are some examples ofinformal assessments of prior

knowledge that a teacher can easilyuse when a new topic is introduced?

What kind of assessmentinformation can a teacher gatherfrom student journals?

What is a structured observation in

a classroom setting?

When responding to case studies,you will be asked to perform thefollowing types of tasks related to

the area of assessment:


assessing progress for studentsdescribed in the case who areworking toward specified goalsor objectives

assessing class progress towardachievement of specified goalsor objectives

gathering information to useto help understand classroom

performance that is differentfrom what was expected at thebeginning of the year

assessing language fluency of

a student for whom English isnot the first language



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Propose a hypothesis or explanationfor

a students strengths and/orweaknesses as a learner based

on the evidence presented what might be important to

explore in working with astudent described in the case

who is having difficultiesacademically, socially, oremotionally

IV. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT,LEADERSHIP & COMMUNITY (20%)

58. Is aware of a variety of professionaldevelopment practices and resources

Profession literature Professional associations

Workshops

Conferences

Learning communities

Graduate courses

Independent research

Internships

Mentors

Study groups

59. Understands the implications of research,views, ideas and debates on teachingpractices

Knows resources for accessing research,views, ideas and debates on teachingpractices

Interprets data, results, and conclusionsfrom research on teaching practices

Is able to relate data, results, andconclusions from research and/orviews, ideas and debates to a variety of

educational situations60. Recognizes the role of reflective practice for

professional growth

Defines the purposes of reflectivepractice

Knows a variety of activities thatsupport reflective practice

Reflective Journal

Self and peer assessment

Incident analysis

Portfolio

Peer observation

Critical friend

61. Is aware of school support personnel whoassist students, teachers, and families

Guidance counselors

IEP team members

Special education teachers

Speech, physical and occupationaltherapists

Library media specialists

Teachers of the gifted and talented Para educators

62. Understands the role of teachers andschools as educational leaders in the greatercommunity

Role of teachers in shaping andadvocating for the profession

Perceptions of teachers

Partnerships with parents and familymembers

Partnerships with the community

63. Knows basic strategies for developingcollaborative relationships with colleagues,administrators, other school personnel,parents/caregivers, and the community tosupport the educational process

Knows the elements of successfulcollaboration

Developing an action plan

Identifying the stakeholders

Identifying the purpose of thecollaboration

Supporting effective communication

Seeking support

64. Understands the implications of majorlegislation and court decisions relating tostudents and teachers

Equal access

Privacy and confidentiality



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First Amendment issues

Intellectual freedom

Mandated reporting of childneglect/abuse

Due process Liability

Licensing and tenure

Copyright

Study Questions

Be able to read and understandarticles and books about currentviews, ideas, and debates regardingbest teaching practices.

What types of help or learning caneach of these resources offer a newteacher?

What are the titles of twoprofessional journals of particularinterest to you in your chosen field

of teaching that you might subscribeto?

What is/are the professionalassociation(s) that offer professionalmeetings and publications andopportunities for collaborativeconversation with other teachers?

What might be a professionaldevelopment plan for the first twoyears of a teachers career thatwould support his or her learningand growth?

When responding to case studies,

you will be asked to perform thefollowing kinds of tasks related tothe area of the larger community:

Identify and describe a strengthand/or weakness in

the communication with parents

used by a teacher described inthe case

the approach used by a teacherdescribed in the case to involve

parentsPropose a strategy for

using parent volunteers duringa lesson that is described in acase

involving all parents or othercaregivers in helping studentsin areas specified in the case

helping the family of a studentdescribed in the case work withthe students learning or other

need



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Chapter 4How to Answer Constructed-Response Questions



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How to Answer Constructed-Response Questions

The goal of this chapter is to provide you with background information, advice from experts, and close

examination of sample questions and responses so that you can improve your skills in writing short answers

(constructed-response answers) to the questions related to case studies. In the last chapter, you were

given strategies for how to read, analyze, and take notes on case studies and how to relate each question

to a particular section or concept in the case study. This chapter focuses on producing your response

making sure you understand what the question is asking and then using advice from experts to formulate a

successful response.

Understanding Case Study Structure

Lets begin our approach to answering case-based constructed-response questions by looking at the way the

case study scenarios in Principles of Learning and Teachingare structured.

Why case studies are used on this test

ETS uses case studies as the basis for this assessment of a beginning teachers professional and pedagogical

knowledge for several important reasons.

Professional educators frequently use case studies of teaching situations as a method for

representing the complex domain of professional practice. Carefully constructed, case studies

can simulate actual teaching contexts, issues, and challenges. They also provide a platform for

thinking about theoretical and practical pedagogical concerns, making them a professionally

credible method for assessing an educators knowledge.

Case studies allow the presentation of sufficient detail about a particular teaching situation or

series of classroom events. By identifying strengths and weaknesses in the teaching presented,

case studies provide a medium in which hypotheses, conclusions, and suggestions for strategies

that might accomplish particular pedagogical goals can be thoughtfully supported and explained.

Case studies encourage questions that demand application of knowledge across a broad range

of professional knowledge basesdevelopmental psychology, motivation, communication

strategies, pedagogical methods and strategies, instructional design principles and strategies

rather than simple recognition and recall of facts without a meaningful context.

Simulations of teaching situations like those presented in the Principles of Learning and Teachingcase study

scenarios offer the opportunity to ask questions that may have several acceptable answers. The open-ended

questions that follow each case study encourage the beginning teacher to make observations and synthesize

knowledge much as he or she will have to in the day-to-day work of teaching. Because the open-ended

questions can be satisfactorily answered from a variety of pedagogical perspectives, they acknowledge that

teachers have extremely varied backgrounds and experiences with students, and that there are often many

possible effective responses in a given teaching situation.



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Teacher-based and student-based cases

You will encounter cases consisting of teacher-based and student-based elements. The first type

focuses on the teaching practice of one or more teachers. The case will present sufficient information about

the teaching context, goals, objectives, lesson plans, assignments, teaching strategies, assessments, and

interactions with students to enable you to identify the issues involved in the case and to respond fully to

the questions about the teachers practices. However, the information is carefully restricted to only what is

required to understand the issues and respond to the questions; additional information might be interesting

to have but is not essential for understanding and responding. A response that says the question cannot

be answered because more information is needed is not acceptable; all information required to respond is

presented in the case.

The student-based elements focus on one or more students, with information about the student

backgrounds, where appropriate, and student strengths and weaknesses. In addition, there may be examples

of student work as well as excerpts of conversations between students, teachers, parents, or others. Excerpts

of a class discussion in which a student participated may also be provided. As with teacher-based elements,

the information provided is what you need to understand the issues involved and to respond to the questions.

You might want to know more about the student, but all the information you need to respond fully to each

question is presented.

Although any given case may on balance be student-based or teacher-based, most cases often have

questions that deal with both teachers and students as learners.

All case studies are approximately the same length, 800850 words, and each is followed by two questions

requiring a constructed response. This means that for each question, you need to write one or twoparagraphs to answer the question. The questions can be answered briefly, often with less than one page of

writing, and do not have to be in an essay format. No case-based question requires knowledge specific to

academic disciplines such as language arts, history, science, or mathematics although the classroom setting in

the case may depict any common K-12 subject.

Narrative and document-based

A narrative case presents an account of what happens within an educational setting a classroom, set

of classrooms, or a school as a whole. The case does not present the whole story about the teacher or

student, but rather a focused account of certain issues, with the information necessary to respond fully tothe questions. For example, in a student-based case, the narrative does not tell what other students in the

classroom are doing unless their actions are relevant to understanding the central student. If the focus is on a

teacher, the narrative is restricted to that part of the teachers activities and responsibilities directly related to

the case and the questions.



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A document-based case consists of a set of three or more documents that relate to the teacher or student on

whom the case is focused. Cases might include such documents as lesson or short unit plans, assignments,

student work, notes from observations by mentors or supervisors, notes from parents or counselors,

assessments, teacher journals, excerpts from student records, examples of student work, letters from parents,

and so on.

As with student-based or teacher-based elements, many cases often combine narrative and document-based

elements.

How the Tests Are Scored

If you understand where your test goes and how experts award your scores, you may have a better context

in which to think about your strategies for success. The process used to score the test is highly organized

and very deliberate. The scorers goals are to award each response the score it deserves and to ensure that allresponses are treated fairly and consistently in the scoring process.

After each test administration, test books are returned to Educational Testing Service (ETS). The multiple-

choice answer sheets are scored using scanning machines, and the pages on which constructed-response

answers appear are scanned into an electronic virtual scoring center called the Online Scoring Network

(OSN). The scoring session usually takes place over five or more days, depending on how many tests need to

be scored.

All of the scorers and scoring leaders are experienced teachers and teacher educators. Scoring leaders have

many years experience scoring the Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) questions and a proven record

training other scorers. They use a variety of electronic tools in OSN to train scorers and meticulously monitor

scoring quality. New scorers are constantly recruited, trained, and employed at each session. The experienced

scorers provide continuity with past sessions, and the new scorers help ensure that fresh perspectives are

considered. This also ensures that the pool of scorers remains large enough to cover the tests scoring needs

throughout the year.



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Preparing Training Materials, Training Scorers

The scoring leaders maintain the materials for the training portions of the scoring session. These materials

are stored in OSN. All training materials are consistent with the general scoring guide, which contains

the overall criteria for awarding a response the score of 2, 1, or 0. The leaders also maintain the question-

specific scoring guides, which link the general guide to each specific question on the test. The question-

specific guides cannot cover every possible response the scorers will see, but they do provide background

information and examples to guide scorers in making accurate judgments about the variety of answers

they will encounter.

In addition to the scoring guide documents, sample papers from actual examinee responses are chosen.

These are used to illustrate the score points as they apply to each question and to act as a training test

before the scorer is allowed to score examinee responses. To identify appropriate samples for a question,

the scoring leaders first read through many responses to get a sense of the range of answers. They then

choose a set of benchmarks, usually two papers at each score level (2, 1, and 0). These benchmarks serve

as clearly representative examples at each score level and are an important part of the score standards for

that question throughout the session. The scoring leaders also choose a larger set of test-taker responses to

serve as rangefinder papers. These represent the variety of possible responses that scorers might see. The

papers will serve as the basis for practice scoring at the scoring session so that scorers can learn how they

will apply the scoring criteria.

In addition to benchmarks and rangefinders, yet another group of responses is chosen: calibration papers.

Scorers must train on all of the materials (scoring guides, benchmarks, rangefinders) and then, before

being allowed to score examinee responses, they must pass a calibration test to ensure that they have

absorbed the training successfully. No scorer is allowed to score examinee responses without first having

passed the calibration test for that question. The process of choosing benchmark, rangefinder, and sample

responses is followed systematically for each question to be scored at the session. The samples are stored

in OSN and kept for the next session in which the question is scored. This helps further ensure consistency

in scoring over time. The entire process is supervised by a scoring director (who is like a super scoring

leader) and a group of test development professionals. Together they ensure that all scoring criteria and

quality-control processes are applied diligently and consistently across the entire PLT series.



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CHAPTER 4


Quality-Control Processes

Here are some examples of procedures that are designed to ensure that accuracy of scoring is maintained

during the scoring session.

Throughout the session, the leaders randomly check scores awarded by each scorer. If the leader

finds that a scorer is not applying the scoring criteria appropriately, that scorer is given more

training and all of the scorers previous scores are checked. Scorers who cannot learn to consistently,

accurately, and fairly apply the scoring guidelines are dismissed.

The scorers accuracy levels are also evaluated by the scoring leaders using monitoring tools in

OSN. One such tool allows the leaders to see the rate at which the scorer is working. Others help

track the accuracy of the scores.

The scoring session is designed so that many different scorers contribute to any single test takersscore. This minimizes the effects of a scorer

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