plantas prometedoras

7/29/2019 plantas prometedoras

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Some Promising Insecticidal PlantsI n a d d i t i o n t o t o ba c co , p y r e t h r u m a n d t h e r o t e n o n e -b ea r i n g p l a n t s o f t h e g en e r a D e r r i s a n d L o n c h o c a r p u s ,s ev e n t e en o f w h i c h a r e d i s c u s se d i n t h i s p a p er , h a v ebeen f o u n d p r o m i s i n g a s s o u r c e s o f i n s e c t i c i d e s .

R. C . ROARKu. s. Department of Agriculture

I n t r o d u c t i o nNEARLY 1,200 species of plants havebeen reported in the literature to be ofpossible insecticidal value (29), but ofthese only a few--tobacco, pyrethrumand the rotenone-bearing plants D e r r i sand L o n c h o c a r p u s - - a r e used extensively.It is the purpose of this paper to callattention to some of the other plants thatseem to have sufficient insecticidal prop-erties to justify further research toascertain their possibilities in insect con-trol. Although the entomologist now has

DDT, benzene hexachloride, chlordane,hexaethyl tetraphosphate and other syn-thetics with which to fight pests, he needsadditional weapons in order to wage waragainst an increasing number of insectenemies. The synthetics are specific intheir action on insects, proving to behighly toxic to some species and practi-cally iner t to others. No one insecticideanswers all purposes. In the develop-ment of new insecticides, those derivedfrom plan ts deserve careful considerationbecause they are highly effective againstmany of our worst insect enemies, areharmless to other plants and are rela-tively non-toxic to warm-blooded animals.The plants mentioned in this revieware those which appear to be especiallypromis ing for use as insecticides. How-ever, so litt le research has been done withplant constituents as insecticides thatmany additional plants will doubtless befound usefu l in the control of pests. Asearch for new insecticides among plants

will amply repay the investigator whotakes care to avoid the numerous pitfallsin such an undertaking (36).Plants contain not only toxic materialsvaluable as contact or stomach poisonsto insects, but also substances useful assynergists (sesamin), wetting and emul-sifying agents (saponins), adhesives(rosin oil) and stabilizers (tannin) to be

used with pyrethrum, rotenone or otherinsecticides.In the following discussion the plantsare treated alphabetically, according tofamily and to genus. A more logicalarrangement would be according to thechemical nature of the insecticidal con-stituents in the plants, but the limitedinformation on the chemistry of thesecompounds does not permit this classifi-cation. Also, insufficient work has beendone with these plants to permit theirgrouping according to their action oninsects.A p o c y n a c e a e

H a p l o p h y t o n c i m i c i d u m A. DC., calledthe cockroach plant, has been used sincetime immemorial in Mexico for killingcockroaches, flies, mosquitoes, fleas, liceand other insects. The reports by in-vestigators on the insecticidal value ofthis plant differ greatly, probably be-cause its chemical composition may varywith growing conditions, such as alti tudeand soil. Plummer (34) in 1938 re-ported the dried leaves to be toxic to theMexican frui tfly . Wate r extracts of thestems of plants grown in Arizona were437


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438 :ECONOMIC BOTANYh i g h l y t o x i c a s b o t h s t o m a c h a n d c o n t a c ti n sec t i c i de s when t e s t ed aga i ns t adu l th o u s e fl ie s. C r u d e " a l k a l o i d " f r o m t h i sp l a n t p r o v e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t m o s ti n sec ts on wh i ch i t was te s t ed . Fo r ex -a m p l e , i t w a s a s t o x i c a s p y r e t h r u m t ot he squash bug and t he b l i s t e r bee t l e .Other e f for t s to i so la te the toxic cons t i tu-en t s we r e unsucces s f u l ( 11 , 16 ).

A s t e r a c e a eHeliopsis longipes ( A . G r a y ) B l a k e

g r ows i n t he v i c i n i t y o f Mex i co Ci t yw h e r e t h e r o o t s a r e e m p l o y e d i n t h ep r epa r a t i on o f i n sec t i c i de s f o r l oca l u se .A spec i m en o f t he r oo t s was s en t t o t heB u r e a u o f E n t o m o l o g y a n d P l a n t Q u a r -a n t i n e a t B e l ts v i ll e , M a r y l a n d , u n d e r t h en a m e Erigeron af f in is D C . , b u t w h e n a

b o t a n i c a l s p e c i m e n w a s r e c e i v e d s o m et i m e l a t e r i t was i den t i f i ed a s Heliopsislongipes b y S . F . B l a k e o f t h e B u r e a uo f P l a n t I n d u s t r y , S o il s, a n d A g r i c u l -t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g .

T h e r o o t s y i e l d e d a b o u t 1 p e r c e n t o fan am i d e ( 3 ) wh i ch , on t he ba s i s o f t hem i s t a k e n i d e n t i t y o f t h e p l a n t , w a s c a l l ed" a f f i n i n " . T h i s a m i d e w a s l a t e r ( 4)i den t i f i ed a s N- i sobu t y l - 2 , 6 , 8 - deca t r i eno -amide , C14H~3NO. Aff in in has the samep a r a l y z i n g a c t io n a n d t o x i c i t y to h o u s ef l i e s a s do t he py r e t h r i n s , and i s a l sot ox i c t o o t he r i n sec t s , i nc l ud i ng cod l i ngm o t h l a r v a e a n d s e v e r a l l e a f - e a t i n ginsects .

B i x a c e a eThe s t em s and r oo t s o f t he Mex i can

p l a n t Ryania speciosa Vahl . con t a i n a l ka -

FIG. 1. Dr. H. L. Haller, chemist of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology an d Plant Quarantine,~vith som e thunder god vine, Tripterygium wilfordii, grown at Glenn Dale, Md. , from cuttingsobtained by one of the Department explorers in China where the powdered roots of this specieshave long been used ,as an insecticide lJy market gardeners. (U.S.D.A.photo by Purd y).


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SOME PROMISING INSECTICIDAL PLANT S 439lo ids tox ic to many k inds o f in sec t s andto ra t s . A p r op r i e t a r y in sec t i c ide p re -pa red f rom th i s p l an t was f i r s t t e s t ed in1 9 4 3 a g a i n s t t h e E u r o p e a n c o r n b o r e rand found to g ive exce l l en t con t ro l , be -ing e ssent ia l ly equal in e ffec t iveness toD D T ( 3 3 ) . T h i s m a t e r i a l al so p r o v e dt o b e t o x i c t o t h e o r i e n t a l f r u i t m o t h o nq u i n c e ( 48 ) . T h e m e t h o d o f p r e p a r i n gan insec t i c ide f rom R y a n i a e x t r a c t a n di t s va lue fo r the con t ro l o f many spec ie so f in sec t s a re de sc r ibed by Fo lke rs et al.( I 8 ) .

Unpub l i shed re su l t s o f t e s t s made byt h e B u r e a u o f E n t o m o l o g y a n d P l a n tQ u a r a n t i n e i n d i c a t e t h a t a n e x t r a c t o fth is p la nt i s e ffec t ive aga in s t cab bageworms , me lonworms , squash bugs , cod-l ing moths an d b lack ca rpe t bee t l e l a rvae ,bu t ine f fec t ive aga ins t house f l i e s andbo th adu l t s and eggs o f the body louse .A t p re sen t the ch ie f u se o f R y a n i a as aninsec t i c ide i s fo r the con t ro l o f the Euro -p e a n c o r n b o r e r o n s w e e t c o r n i n N e wY o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y .

CelastraceaeT r i p t e r y g i u m w i l f o r d i i Hook. f . , le i

kung t ing o r thunde r -god v ine , i s w ide lyc u l t i v a t e d i n C h i n a w h e r e t h e p o w d e r e droo t s a re used ex tens ive ly fo r the con t ro lo f vege tab le in sec t s. In 1939 pow deredf r e s h s m a l l r o o t s , g r o w n f r o m i m p o r t e dChinese cu t t ings by the Un i t ed S ta t e sD e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e a t G l e n nD a l e , M a r y l a n d , w e r e f o u n d t o b e v e r ytox ic to f i r s t - in s t a r l a rvae o f the cod l ingm o t h , t h e d i a m o n d - b a c k m o t h a n d t h eimp or te d cabbage worm. A lcoho l ic ex -t rac t s o f the roo t s we re even more tox ic .S m a l l r o o t s w h e n p o w d e r e d w e r e a b o u th a l f a s t o x i c a s p y r e t h r u m t o t h e A m e r i -c a n c o c k ro a c h, b u t t h e m e d i u m a n d l a r g eroo t s we re non- tox ic (47 ) . A t t em pts toisola te the ac t ive pr inc ip le , which be longsto the c lass of es te r a lka lo ids , were un-success fu l , bu t an insec t i c ida l ly ine r t r edp i g m e n t , t r i p t e r i n e , w a s o b t a i n e d f r o mthe roo t ba rk . Th i s i s the s ame p igm en t

f o u n d i n t h e r o o t b a r k o f t h e r e l a t e dN o r t h A m e r i c a n b i t t e r s w e e t , Celas trusscandens L. (38 ) .

C he n o p o d ia c e a eA n a b a s i s a p h y l l a L. , ind igenous to the

s t eppes o f the Casp ian reg ion , con ta ins

FIG. 2. Roots of the th und er god vine.Chemists and entomologists of the U. S. Depart-ment of Agriculture are investigating the possi-bility of preparing an insecticide from suchroots. (U.S.D .A. pJtoto by Pt~rdy).a mix tu re o f a lka lo ids , ch ie f ly anabas inewhich is a l iquid isomer of n icot ine and


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440 ECONOMIC BOTANYclosely resembles it in pharmacologicaland insecticidal properties. About 15years ago the Russians marketed in thiscountry an insecticide called "ana basinesul fa te", 40 per cent solution, which wasprepared from Anabasis and containedall the alkaloids natu ral ly present in thatplant, including about 32 per cent of theanabasine. Tests made by American andRussian entomologists with this commer-cial insecticide showed it to equal orexceed a 40 per cent nicotine-sulfate solu-tion in toxicity to several kinds of aphidsand other soft-bodied insects (35, 37).Laboratory tests with pure anabasine(7) showed it to be more toxic than nico-tine to cabbage aphids, nasturtiumaphids, pea aphids and citrus red mites,but less toxic than nicotine to celery leaftiers, large milkweed bugs and spidermites. Anabasine proved to be less toxicthan nicotine to codling moth larvae(39). The Russians withdrew anabasinefrom the American market about 10years ago, and at present we are withouta commercial source of this promisinginsecticide. Anabasine also is present incertain species of Nicotiana (40), espe-cially N. glauca R. Grab., the tree tobaccoof the Southwest. As much as 6.6 percent of anabasine was found in the leavesof one of the unpruned hybrids Nicotianarustica L. N. gla~tca R. Grah. (49), andcultivation of this hybrid appears to bethe best way of producing anabasine ona large scale.

EuphorbiaceaeThe seeds of Croton tiglium L., whichcontain croton oil as specified in theNational Formulary VI, are used inChina as an insecticide. Spies (41) in1933 reported that an acetone extractof the seeds was more toxic than derrisextract to goldfish ; also that croton resin

was more toxic than rotenone. A chemi-cal study of the resin showed that itstoxicity is due to the presence of hy-droxy l groups. Croton resin is highly

vesicant, resembling poison ivy. Al-though complete methylation of the hy-droxyl groups yielded a resin free fromvesicant action, the product was also non-toxic (17, 42-44).Ricinus communis L., the castor-beanplant, has long been reputed to have in-secticidal value. In 1940 Holzcker (24)announced a proprietary insecticidalspray material prepared from the leaves,but the value of this has never been estab-lished. MeIndoo (30) reviewed thelitera ture and concluded that the reportsof the efficacy of this plant in killing in-sects were greatly exaggerated. Hallerand McIndoo (23) called attention to thefact that, although ricin, a protein, andricinine, an alkaloid, are poisonous tovertebrates, little is known of their effecton insects. Both these principles occur inthe seeds as well as in other parts of thecastor-bean plant. Ricin was found tobe non-toxic and ricinine to be highlytoxic to codling moth larvae ; both provedvalueless when tested against house flies.Haller and McIndoo concluded that it ispossible that an insecticidal principle ispresent in the castor-bean plant onlyunder certain conditions with respect tovariety, cultural practice and environ-ment. It would appear that the accepteduse of the castor-bean plant as a sourceof insecticide awaits the isolation, identi-fication and methods of analysis of thespecific substance or substances toxic toinsects.A valuable synergist for use with py-rethrum, namely N-isobutyl undecylene-amide, is prepared from isobutylamineand undecylenic acid which is obtainedon pyrolysis of castor oil. Turkey-redoil, a useful emulsifier for insecticidaloils, is made by the action of sul furic acidon castor oil.

l~abaceaeIn 1928 the Division of Insecticide In-vestigations began work on a project tofind plants that contain insecticidal prin-


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SOME PROMISING INSECTICIDAL PLANTS 441ciples. Ext rac ts from a wide range ofplant species were tested on goldfish be-cause it had been found that plant ex-tracts non-toxic to fish are also non-toxicto insects, and this test permitted rapidscreening out of the large number ofmaterials of little promise. In pursuanceof this project the writer, in 1931, col-lected specimens of A m o r p h a f r u ti cos a L .in North Carolina which were tested bySpies (41). An acetone extra ct prepar edfrom the whole plant and tested at therate of 0.2 gram of plant per liter ofwater killed four goldfish in 278 minutes,as compared with 92 minutes for a simi-lar extract of derris (1.7 per cent rote-none).

Inasmuch as several other plantsproved much more toxic to goldfish thanAmorpha f ru t icosa , it was not investi-gated furth er. In 1937 Moore (32) re-ported, on the basis of positive Durhamtests, that rotenone is present in theroots, stems, bark and seeds of this plantfrom Nebraska. In 1939 Hal ler collecteda sample of roots in Louisiana whichwere found to contain no rotenone (25).In 1942 Fea the rly of the Oklahoma Agri-cultural and Mechanical College sug-gested that, inasmuch as this plant iswidely distributed throu ghou t the Missis-sippi River Valley, its seed might serveas a source of rotenone during the waremergency. Seed collected by Fea the rlyand others from widely different loca-tions was examined in the Bureau . Al-though all the samples gave a positiveDurham test and Gross-Smith-Goodhuetest, no rotenone or any of the rotenoidscould be isolated from any sample. Anew glycoside, called "amorphin",C33H4o016 (m.p. 151-151.5 ~ C.), was iso-lated from the seed and was found toreact positively to the color tests for rote-none (1, 2).

Brett (9) of the Oklahoma Agricul-tural Experiment Station has recentlyreported the results of a study of theinsecticidal properti es of A m o r p h a which

reside largely in resinous pustules on thepods. Tests on 29 species of insects andmites showed that the extract acted asboth a stomach and a contact poison, andthat it was also repellent to house fliesand horn flies for more than 12 hourswhen sprayed on cattle. Among theinsects which are the most susceptibleto the insecticidal principle, called"amorpha", are chinch bugs, cottonaphids, pea aphids, chrysanthemumaphids and spotted cucumber beetles.Amorpha had no effect on the skin, butpoisoned a guinea pig which was fed anamount equivalent to four grams of pods.

L i l i a c e a eThe seed of the lily Schoenocaulo~officinale (Schlecht. & Cham.) A. Gray,sabadilla, has been used as all insecticidesince the sixteenth century, but untilrecently this material was employedmainly for the destruction of lice on manand domestic animals (15). The short-

age of rotenone caused by the outbreakof war in 1939 stimulated the testing ofsabadilla against insects injurious to foodcrops, and lately it has been sold on alarge scale for the control of hemipterousinsects, such as squash bugs, chinch bugs,harlequin bugs and L y g u s bugs (26).Entomologists at the University ofWisconsin have been leaders in the in-vestigation of the insecticidal possibili-ties of sabadilla and have patented amethod of increasing its toxicity, whichconsists in heating the powdered seed inkerosene or other solvent to 150 ~ C. forabout one ho ur . If the material is to beused in dusting-powder form the pow-dered seed is heated without a solvent( 5 ) .

During 1945 and 1946 annual importsof sabadilla seed into the United Statesamounted to 120,000 pounds, mostlyfrom Venezuela.

P e d a l i a c e a eThe seeds of Sesam um ind4cum L. ( S .orientale L.) yield sesame oil, an edible


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442 ECONOMIC BOTANYsemi-drying oil which is of interest to theentomologist because it contains sesamin,a powerful synergist for the active prin-ciple of pyrethrum flowers when testedon house flies. The value of sesamin forthis purpose has been demonstrated (21,22). Sesamin alone (0.2 per cent) inrefined kerosene killed only 4 per cent ofthe flies, pyrethrum alone (0.05 per cent)killed 19 per cent, and a mixture of the

FIG. 3. A fru iti ug plant of sesame, Sesa,m,~,.~dieum, on the grounds of the Division ofAgriculture for Littoral, west of Guayaquil,Ecuador. Ses~mm seeds have for ge nerat ions1)een the source of an edible oil in the Orient .The oil contains an ingredient, sesamin, thatstrongly activates the well known insecticide,pyrethrum. (U.S.D.A. photo b!l Mitchell).two in these concentrations killed 84 percent. Sesame oil was an ingredient ofthe pyrethrum liquefied-gas aerosolbombs of which 40,000,000 were used bythe armed forces during World War II.The original formula called for 2 per

cent of sesame oil; later this was in-creased to 8 per cent.Pinaceae

Pine oil obtained from P i n u s p a l u s t r i sMiller is all ingredient of some spraysutilized for killing and repelling flies oncattle. Pine tar and pine-tar oil havebeen used in preparations for repellingblow flies from livestock. Of part icularinterest to the chemist is the recent de-velopment of a synthetic insecticide,CloH1oC18, made by chlorinating cam-phene, which in turn is made by isomer-izing the pinene in turpentine . Thischlorinated eamphene is a light-yellowwaxy product with a very mild piny odorcontaining 67 to 69 per cent of chlorine(45). Against household insects, suchas house fly, German cockroach, blackcarpet beetle, furniture beetle, webbingclothes moth and bedbug, it displays hightoxicity. It rivals DDT in its residualtoxicity, but like DDT it has poor knock-down. Bishopp (6) reported that chlori-nated camphene (called 3956) is slightlyless toxic than DDT as a contact sprayagainst adults of the yellow-fever mos-quito, but against the body lice it is moretoxic and more persistent than DDT. Ithas given promising results against in-sects attacking cotton, and its possibili-ties as an insecticide against a wide rangeof agricultural insect pests are beinginvestigated.

RutaceaeP h e I l o d e n d r o ~ a m u r e n s e Rupr., the

Amur corktree, is a native of easternAsia, but is cultivated as an ornamentalin the United States. The fru it from atree growing on the grounds of the Capi-tol, Washington, D. C., was found to bevery toxic to mosquito larvae, house fliesand codling moth larvae, but non-toxicto southern armyworm larvae (19, 46).The toxic constituent resides in the un-saponifiable portion of the oil, but nocrystalline derivative of it could be


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SOME PROMISING INSECTICIDA L PLAN TS 443o b t a i n e d . T h e i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o nw a s m a d e t h a t t h e t o x i c c o n s t i t u e n tw h i c h , l i k e t h e p y r e t h r i n s , i s a f a s t - a c t -i n g p o i s o n , i s v e r y t o x i c t o h o u s e f l i e s i na c e t o n e s o l u t i o n b u t n o t i n k e r o s e n e .

T h e p e t r o l e u m - e t h e r - e x t r a c t o f t h eb a r k o f t h e s o u t h e r n p r i c k l y - a s h , Z a n -t h o x y l u m c l a v a - h e r c u l i s L . , c o n t a i n sa s a r i n i n w h i c h i s s t r u c t u r a l l y r e l a t e d t os e s a m i n a n d , l i k e s e s a m i n , m a r k e d l y i n -c r e as e s t h e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f t h e p y r e t h r i n sw h e n t e s t e d a g a i n s t h o u s e f li es . F o re x a m p l e , i n a s e r i e s o f t e s t s r e f i n e d k e r o -s e n e c o n t a i n i n g 0 . 0 5 p e r c e n t o f p y r e t h -r i n s k i l l e d a n a v e r a g e o f 2 5 . p e r c e n t o ft h e f li e s a f t e r 2 4 h o u r s , a s a r i n i n ( 0 .1 8p e r c e n t ) k i l l e d 14 p e r c e n t , a n d a m i x -t u r e o f t h e t w o k i l le d 8 8 p e r c e n t ( 2 0 ) .I n a d d i t i o n t o a s a r i n i u t h e b a r k o f th es o u t h e r n p r i c k l y - a s h c o n t a i n s a s u b s t a n c eh i g h l y t o x i c t o h o u s e f l ie s w h i c h r e s e m -b l e s p y r e t h r u m i n i t s a c t i o n ( 2 7 ) .

S i m a r o u b a c e a eT h e w a t e r e x t r a c t o f t h e w o o d o f t h et r e e s Aeschrio~t. excelsa ( S w a r t z ) K u u t z e ,

J a m a i c a q u a s s i a , a n d Q u a ss ia a m a ra L . ,S u r i n a m q u a s s i a , f i n d s s o m e u s e i n a g r i -c u l t u r e as a n a p h i c i d e ( 1 0 ) . I t w a s c o n-c l u d e d o n t h e b a s i s o f a c a r e f u l s t u d y o ft h e i n s e c t i c i d a l p r o p e r t i e s o f q u a s s i a( 3 1 ) t h a t b e c a n s e o f i t s l o w a c t i o n a na q u e o u s e x t r a c t o f q u a s s i a i s m u c h l e s sr e l i a b l e t h a n n i c o t i n e s u l f a t e ; m o r e o v e r ,i t i s n o t a g e n e r a l i n s e c t i c i d e f o r a l la p h i d s . T h e c h e m i s t r y o f q u a s s i a h a sa ls o b e e n s t u d i e d ( 1 2 - 1 4 ) . M e G o v r a net al . ( 2 8 ) m a d e l a b o r a t o r y i n s e c ti c i d a lt e s t s o f a c r y s t a l l i n e c o m p o u n d e x t r a c t e df r o m q u a s s i a w o o d , q u a s s i n , o n t h e g r e e np e a c h a p h i d , t h e h o u s e fl y , t h e M e x i c a nb e a n b e e t l e a n d t h e A m e r i c a n c o c k r o a c h ,a n d f o u n d i t t o h a v e li t tl e i f a n y t o x i c i t yt o t h e s e i n s e c t s .

Q u a s s i n a n d r e l a t e d c o m p o u n d s f r o mq u a s s i a a r e s o l u b l e i n w a t e r a n d h a v e a ni n t e n s e l y b i t t e r t a st e . T h e s e p r o p e r t i e ss u g g e s t t h e i r u s e i n t r e e i n j e c t i o n t o c o n -t r o l i n s e c t p e s t s f e e d i n g o n t h e s a p .

P l a n t s w h o s e ro o t s w e r e w a t e r e d w i t h ad i l u t e s o l u t i o n o f q u a s s i n w e r e f r e e o fa p h i d s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e q u a s s i n w a st a k e n u p a n d t r a n s l o c a t e d t h r o u g h o u tt h e p l a n t . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e dw h e n s o l u b l e s e l e n i u m c o m p o u n d s w e r ea d d e d t o c u l t u r e s o f w h e a t . T h e a d v a n -t a g e o f q u a s s i n f o r t h i s p u r p o s e i s i t sn o n - t o x i c i t y t o m a n .

$ o l a n a c e a eB o w e n ( 8 ) f o u n d t h e d r i e d le a v e s o f

t h e A u s t r a l i a n p l a n t D u b o i s i a h o p w o o d i iF . M u c l l . t o c o n t a i n 3 . 3 p e r c e n t a n d t h el a r g e r s t e m s 0 . 5 p e r c e n t o f n o r n i c o t i n e .T h i s a l k a l o i d a l s o i s f o u n d i n m a n y s p e -c ies o f N i c o t i a n a . S m i t h a n d S m i t h ( 4 0 )e x a m i n e d 2 9 w i l d s p e c i e s o f t h e l a t t e rg e n u s f o r a l k a lo i d s a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t f i v es p e c i e s c o n t a i n e d n o r n i c o t i n e o n l y , a n d1 8 c o n t a i n e d a m i x t u r e o f n o r n i c o t i n ea n d n i c o t i n e w i t h t h e f o r m e r p r e d o m i -n a t i n g i n m o s t c as es . C e r t a i n A m e r i c a nt o b a cc o s u s e d i l l t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f lo w -n i c o t i n e c i g a r s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o c o n -t a i n a s m u c h a s 0 . 7 p e r c e n t o f n o r n i c o -t i n e , a n d o n e - e i g h t h o f t h e t o t a l a l k a l o i d si n c e r t a i n s a m p l e s o f c o m m e r c i a l n i c o t i n es u l f a t e s o l u t i o n w a s n o r n i c o t i n e .

N o r n i c o t i n e i s m o r e t o x ic t h a n n i c o t i n et o t h e n a s t u r t i u m a p h i d a n d t h e p e aa p h i d ; a b o u t e q u a l l y t o x i c t o t h e c a b b a g ea p h i d , t h e c i t r u s r e d m i t e , a n d t h e s p i d e rm i t e ; a n d l es s t o x i c t o t h e c e l e r y l e a ft i e r, th e la r g e m i l k w e e d b u g ( 7 ) a n dc o d l i n g m o t h l a r v a e ( 3 9 ) .

L i t e r a t u r e C i t e d1. Acree, F., Jr., Jacobson, M. and Haller,H .L . Am orphin, a glycoside in Amorphafruticosa L. Jour. Org. Chem. 8: 572-5 7 4 . 1 9 4 3 .2. - - , Jaco bson , M . an d H aller, H . L .Amorpha fruticosa contains no roteuone.Science 99(2562) : 99-1 00. 1944.3. and - - Anamide posessing insecticidal properties

9 from the roots of Erigeron affinis DC.Jour. Org. Chem. 10: 236 -242 . 1945.4. and Thestruc ture o f afllnin, the insecticidal amide


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444 ECONOMIC BOTANYfrom t f r igeron a f f in i s DC. Jour. Org.Chem. 10: 449-451. 1945.5. Allen, T. C. and Harris, H. H. Insecticideand method of making same. U. S.Pa te nt 2,390,911, Dece mber 11. 1945.6. Bishopp, F. C. New insecticides. Agr.Chem. 1( 6) : 19-22, 39-40. 1946.7. Bottg er, G. T. and Bowen, C.V . Compara-tive toxicity tests of anabasine, nornico-tine, and nicotine. U. S. Bur. Ent. &P1. Quar. E-710 , 5 pp. 1946. [Pro c-essed.]8. Bowen, C. u Insec tici dal possibili ties ofDuboisia hopwoodii . Jour. Econ. Ent.37: 293. 1944.9. Br ett, C. H. Insecticidal properties of theindigobush (Amorpha f ru~ i c osa ) . Jour.Agr. Res. 73: 81-96. 1946.10. Busbey, R. L. A bibliography of Quassia.U. S. Bur. E nt . & Ph Quar. E-483~ 56 pp.1939. [Processed.]11. Clark, E . P. The occurrence of quebrachitein the stems of Hapl ophy t on c i mi c i dum.Jour . Am. Chem. Soc. 58: 1009-1010.1936.12. . Quassin. I. The pre para tio nand purification of quassin and neo-quassin, with information concerningtheir molecular formulas. Jour. Am.Chem. Soc. 59: 927-931. 1937.

13. Qu a s s in . I I . Ne o q u a s s i n .Jou r. Am. Chem. Soc. 59: 2511-2514.1937.14. . Quassin. II I. Picras min. Jour.Am. Chem. Soc. 60: 1146-1148. 1938.15. Dicke, R . J . A contri butio n to the devel-opment of sabadilla as an insecticide.Thesis, Univ. Wiscons in. 123 pp. 1943.16. Drake~ N. L. and Spies, J. R. Mann ito lfrom Haplophy ton c imic idu~n. Jour. Am.Chem. Soc. 52: 3739. 1930.17. and Croton resin.II I. The combined acids. Jour. Am.Chem. Soc. 57: 184-187. 1935.18. ]~olkers, K., Rogers, E. and Heal, R. E.Inse ctic ides . U. S. Pa te nt 2,400,295~May 14, 1946.19. ttaller, tI. S. Insecticidal properties of thefruit of Phel lodendron spp. Jour. Econ.Ent. 33: 941. 1940.20. , LaFo rge, F. B. and Sullivan,W. N. Some compounds related to sesa-rain: their structures and their syner-gistic effect with pyrethrum insecticides.Jou r. Org. Chem. 7: 185-188. 1942.21. , and Sullivan, W. N.Effect of sesamin and related compoundson the insecticidal action of pyrethrumon houseflies. Jour. Econ. Ent . 35: 247-248. 1942.

22. Hall er, H. L., McGovran, E. R., Goodhue,L. D. and Sullivan, W. N. The syner-gistic action of sessamin with pyrethruminsecticides. Jour. Org. Chem. 7: 183-184. 1942.23. - - and McIndoo, N . E . The castor-bean plant as a source of insecticides.Jou r. Econ. Ent . 36: 638. 1943.24. Holzcker, R. Ext rac t of castor-b ean pla ntas insecticide. Science 91(2362, sup. ):14. 1940.

25. Jones, H. A. A list of plants reported tocontain rotenone or rotenoids. U. S.Bur. Ent. & Ph Quar. E-571, 14 pp.1942. [Processed.]26. Krieg er, C. H. Sabadilla. Agr. Chem.1(4) : 19-21, 32. 1946.27. LaFor ge, F. B., Haller, H. L. and Sullivan,W. N. ' The presence of an insecticidalprinc iple in the bark of southern pricklyash. Jou r. Am. Chem. Soc. 64: 187.1942.28. MeGovran, E. R., Mayer, E. L. and Clark,E. P. The toxicity of the natural bittersubstances, qu~ssin, tenulin, helenalin,and picrotoxin, and some of their deriva-tives to certain insects. U. S. Bur. Ent.& P1. Quar. E-57 2, 5 pp. 1942. [Proc-

essed.]29. McIndoo, N. E. Plant s of possible insecti-cidal value. A review of the liter atu reup to 1941. U. S. Bur. Ent. & P1. Quar.E-66 1, 286 pp. 1945. [Pr oces sed. ]30. The castor- bean pla nt as asource of insecticides. A review of theliter ature. U. S. Bur. Ent. & P1. Quar.E-66 6, 15 pp. 1945. [Pr oces sed. ]31. - - a nd S ievers, A. F . Qua ss ia ex-tract as a contact insecticide. Jour. Agr.Res. 10: 497-531 . 1917.32. Moore, R. H. Inv esti gat ions of insecti-cidal plants. Puerto Rico Agr. Exp.Sta., Rep. 1937: 67-73. 1938.

33. Peppe r, B. P. and Carruth, L. A. A newplant insecticide for control of the Euro-pean corn borer. Jour. Econ. Ent. 3 8 :59-66. 1945.34. Plu mmer , C. C. The toxici ty of Hapl o -p h y t o n c i m i c i d u m A. DC. to frultflles.U. S. Dept. Agr. , Cir. 455, 10 pp. 1938.35. Roark, R. C. A review of inf orm ati on onanabasine. U. S. Bur. Ent. & P1. Quar.E-537 , 55 pp. 1941. [Proces sed. ]36. The examinat ion of pla nts forinsecticidal constituents. Jour. Econ.Ent . 35: 273-275. 1942.

37. A review of inf orm ati on onanabasine and nornicotine, 1938-1944.U. S. Bur. Ent. & Ph Quar. E-636, 23 pp.1945. [Pr~eessed.]


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SOME PROMISING INSECTICIDAL PLANTS 44538. Schechter, M. S. and Haller, H.L . Iden-tity of the red pigment in the roots ofTripterygium wilfordii and Celastrusscandens. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 64:

182-183. 1942.39. Siegler, E. H. and Bowen, C.V. Toxicityof nicotine, nornicotine, and anabasine tocodling moth larvae, dour. Econ. Ent .39: 673-674. 1946.40. Smith, H. H. and Smith, C. R. Alkaloidsin ce rtain species and interspecifie hy-brids of Nieotlana. Jour. Agr. ~es. 65:347-359. 1942.41. Spies, J .R . The toxicity of certain plan textracts to goldfish. II . Jour. Econ. Ent.9-6: 285-288. 1933.42. Croton resin. I. Toxicit ystudies using goldfish. Jour. Am. Chem.Soc. 57: 180-182. 1935.43. Croton resin. II . The toxicand vesicant action of certain of itsderivatives. Jour . Am. Chem. Soc. 57:182-184. 1935.

44. - - . Croton resin. IV. The petro-leum-ether-insoluble acids. Jour. Org.Chem. 2: 62-67. 1937.45. Stearns, L. A. Progress report on a newinsecticide. Soap & Sanit. Chem. 23(1) :117-119, 141 . 1947.46. Sullivan, W. N., Schechter, M. S. and HIal-ler, H. L. Insecticidal tests with Phello-dendron amurense extractive and severalof its fractions. Jour. :Econ. Ent. 36:937-938. 1943.47. Swingle, W. T., Haller, I.i.L., Siegler, E. H.and Swingle, M. C. A Chinese insecti-cidal plant, Tripterygium wilfordii, in-troduced into the United States. Science93: 60-61. 1941.48. Wheeler~ E .W. DDT and RYanex to con-trol orienta l fru it moth on quince. Jour.Econ. Ent. 38: 281-282. 1945.49. Zukov, N. I. Inheritance of nicotine andanabasine in interspeeific hybrids Nieoti-ana rustica L. N. glauca Grah. Compt.Rend. Acad. Sci. U. R. S. S. 22(3) : 116-118. 1939.

Co rk. Since their inception in 1940 underthe sponsorship of the late Charles E. Mc-Manus, former President and Chairman ofthe Board of the Crown Cork and Seal Com-pany of Baltimore, Maryland, experimentalplantings of cork oak (Quercus Suber L.) inthe warmer parts of the United States havebeen expanded to include 22 States. Thiswork has been carried on with the coopera-tion of Federal and State foresters, countyfarm agents and other governmental depart-ments. Fo r this purpose more tha n five tonsof cork acorns were gathered in Californiain the autumn and winter of 1945-1946, andfrom 1940 to 1945 the distribution of domesti-cally collected acorns increased from 500pounds to a peak of 13,800 pounds annually.All these acorns, except approximately 200pounds gathered yearly in Arizona and theSouth, were obtained in California from trees

plant ed there years ago. In addition, aeornshave been imported from Spain, Morocco andAlgeria. Acorn germination varies from50% to 80%.

Since 1940 virgin cork has been strippedfrom 516 trees of long standing, 20 of themin Arizona and the South, the others in Cali-fornia. These strip pings , made from 1940to 1945, removed 25,658 pounds of cork whichhas been manufactured into various productsand found to be of excellent quality. Secondgrowth cork of high quality has also beenremoved.

Successful experimental grafts of cork oakon both evergreen and deciduous Americanoaks have been made, and rooted cuttingshave also been used for propagation pur-poses. Pl an ti ng of acorns, however, is stillthe most effective means. ( G. B. Cooke, Sci-entific Monthly 6t: 117. i947 ).

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