Plant Significance to Human Being:

Poisonous Plants and Fungi

Proponents:

Danes, Darwen

Dang-ay, Claudene May

Del Rosario, Evita

Domingo , Chariz

Dumepnas, Juliet Mae

Group 3

November 24, 2015

Introduction

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Our country is a home to diverse species of plants and fungi that we lack awareness of.

We see some plants and different fungi as futile genus, in actuality there are explicit types that

possess bizarre characteristics which make them noxious and pernicious. In our locality, many

of these plants and fungi can be found just around or in the wild.

Plants are found in every place, they might be in your yard, home or

anywhere .According to the “Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants,” children under 6

years old are especially vulnerable, they account for 85 percent of all calls to poison centers.

Fungi are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. The fungi are heterotrophic organisms

characterized by a chitinous cell wall. Sexual and asexual reproduction is happening via spores,

often produced on specialized structures or in fruiting bodies. The edible and poisonous

mushrooms are the most well-known types of fungi. Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are

examples of fungi. There are any more mushrooms that are harvested from the wild for personal

consumption such as oyster mushrooms.

Naturally, fungi play an important role in the decomposition of organic materials. Dead

wood is quickly invaded by fungi. Not only do these fungi break down the organic material but

they also help maintain soil texture.

In the Philippines, there are some poisonous fungi being reported. Amanita muscaria or

poisonous amanita, fly amanita reported to grow in Baguio and Benguet. Amanita muscaria is a

poisonous mushroom, tobacco-like in odor tasteless and alkaline. It contains muscarine,

muscarine prolongs the diastolic action of the heart and acts as a vasomotor and respiratory

depressant.

Most plants are deceptively attractive not only to insects or small animals but also to

humans. And so it is important for us to know the variety of plants that are harmful to us humans

because some common plants can pose a serious risk of illness, injury and death. Fungi on the

other hand are important as they help guarantee life on Earth by acting as decomposers, natural

recyclers and as food for us humans. But, many varieties of fungi possess poison which can

cause hallucinations, gastrointestinal illness, liver failure and death.

In the Cordilleras, many varieties of plants and fungi are known to be poisonous to us

humans. Some people are not aware of those plants that are poisonous they only see them as a

simple and useless plants that only produce oxygen to humans. There are common plants in the

surroundings that are poisonous where in humans are not aware of such as Datura suaveolens

known as Angel’s Trumpet, Atropa belladonna known as Belladonna, Caladium spp. known as

Caladium and many more.

But aside from being poisonous plants, they also have important medical benefits to

humans. For example, Belladonna is used in ointments that are applied to the skin for joint

pain(rheumatism), leg pain caused by a disc in the backbone pushing on the sciatic

nerve(sciatica), and nerve pain (neuralgia). Belladonna is also used in plasters (medicine-filled

gauze applied to the skin) for treating psychiatric disorders, a behavior disorder called

hyperkinesis, excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis), and bronchial asthma.

In this research it aims to answer three objectives first, the significance of poisonous

plants and fungi to human beings. Second, some poisonous plants and fungi in the Cordillera

Region. Lastly, the poisonous parts of the plants and fungi.

HISTORY

History of Poisonous Plants

Since ancient times, many plants have been recognized for their poisonous properties,

and people have used them to commit murder, causing immense suffering to their victims in the

process. In the ancient world, Sometime between 3100 and 3000 BC, Menes, possibly the first

pharaoh of upper and lower Egypt, studied poisonous plants and learned of the cyanide

contained in the leaves and pits of the peach (Prunus spp.) and in the pits of cherries, apricots,

bitter almonds and, as previously stated, in apples. The Egyptians knew of many other plant

poisons as well, including opium (Papaver somniferum) and mandrake (Mandragora

officinarum), the latter belonging to the Solanaceae or nightshade family.

In 399 BC, the 70-year-old Greek philosopher Socrates was sentenced to death by

suicide by drinking a concoction of water hemlock (Cicuta aculate, of the family Apiaceae, also

known commonly as cowbane). The ancient Romans made use of plant poisons as well. Nero’s

official poisoner was Locusta, who helped wealthy women eliminate their husbands, usually

using the leaves and berries of belladonna (Atropa belladonna), also known as “deadly

nightshade,” another member of the Solanaceae family. One of Locusta’s alleged clients was

Agrippina, the sister of Caligula, who hired Locusta to kill her third husband, Claudius, so that

her son Nero could become emperor. Around 331 BC, to make sure the road was clear for

Nero, Locusta likewise killed Claudius’ son Brittanicus (Nero’s half-brother), this time using

cyanide.

Between about 132-83 BC, Mithradates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, an ancient area on

the south coast of the Black Sea, sought protection from poisoning by taking small amounts of

poisons to generate a resistance to them. It is from this practice that we get the word

“mitridatize,” meaning to render a person immune to a poison. According to Aulus Cornelius

Celsus in De Medicina, Mithradates is said to have created a daily antidote of poisonous plants

to protect himself from such poisons. Mithradates was also said to have tested many plant

poisons on condemned criminals.

In the middle ages, the works of ancient scholars formed the basis for most knowledge

of poisonous plants, including The Book of Venoms written by Magister Santes de Ardoynis in

1424. Such treatises were comprehensive but often confusing due to the use of so many

different names for the same plants, a problem that still exists to this day, since many plants

share the same common names.

As light dawned in the renaissance, plant poisons came into even more widespread use,

particularly in the area of Naples, where poisoners favored aconite (Aconitum, also known as

wolfbane and monkshood), belladonna, hemlock (Cicuta aculate), jimson weed (Datura

stramonium), and strychnine (Strychos nux vomica). The notorious Borgia family used them for

their own nefarious reasons, primarily to advance their political goals. Rodrigo and his son

Cesare were adept at poisoning with a variety of deadly substances. Cesare’s younger sister

Lucrezia was close to her brother and was accused of many poisonings that were far more likely

to have been committed by her brother. In 1589, Giovanni Battista Porta wrote Neopoliani

Magioe Naturalis, a treatise on poisoning with plant substances, including aconite, almonds

(cyanide), and yew seeds (Taxus baccata).

In 17th century England, there were several failed attempts to poison Queen Elizabeth,

one with opium (Papaver somniferum). Elizabeth, whose mother Anne Boleyn had once tried to

poison her father (Henry VIII), took action against possible poisonings by having her food

tasted, her clothing checked for poisons, and by being mitridatized.

In early 19th century London, Thomas Wainewright used strychnine to remove several

heirs, including his own uncle, so that he could inherit large sums of money. He was eventually

caught and sent to a penal colony in Tasmania. By the latter part of the century, strychnine was

relatively easy to obtain, and poisoning had become a fashionable crime of the rich, who now

had their lives insured, making them easy targets for their less than loving heirs. Strychnine was

a favorite, and Thomas Cream of England was executed in 1892 for using it to poison

prostitutes.

In 1910 England, Dr. Harvey Crippen, a homeopath, was having an affair with Ethel Le

Neve. His wife disappeared, and Ethel moved into his home, raising suspicions about the

whereabouts of Mrs. Crippen. Scotland Yard intervened, and Crippen was ultimately found

guilty and hanged for murdering his wife with hyoscine, the plant alkaloid found in henbane

(Hyoscyamus niger) and various other plants of the Solanaceae or nightshade family.

The 20th century saw advances in technology that made the processing of poisons much

easier. Any educated person could learn about plant poisons, obtain the plants (sometimes in

their own back yards), manufacture the poisons, and commit murder. Cyanide, hyoscine, and

strychnine were still popular and widely used, but designer poisons and more obscure plant

poisons were appearing as well, forcing toxicologists to find new ways to detect these toxic

substances. One such “new” poison was ricin, an extract of the castor bean (Ricinus communis)

used for centuries in Africa.

Some plants that are normally used for medicinal purposes are toxic when administered

in large doses, and another doctor in England, Dr. Shipman, was found guilty of murdering 15

patients with diamorphine, an opium derivative (Papaver somniferum) used to alleviate pain.

However, as of 2005, it was believed he may have murdered as many as 265 patients.

It is interesting to note that the highly legally-obtainable tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum),

which has been snorted, chewed, and smoked for centuries, is a member of the deadly

Solanaceae family. It is probably one of the most deadly of plant poisons. In addition to the

diseases it causes to the human body when used recreationally, it is also a poisonous plant in

its own right. Smoking and chewing tobacco can result in optic neuropathy (vision deterioration

and blindness), and ingesting parts of the plant can result in coma and death.

History of Poisonous Fungi

Poisonous mushrooms gained notoriety even in antiquity for their part in destroying

innocent or not so innocent lives. Especially famous was the reputed poisoning of a Roman

emperor. The fungal toxins, and the dishes into which the toxins may have been introduced,

have been the subjects of considerable speculation. Some cultures, especially the Greeks and

Anglo-Saxons, long retained a suspicion of fungi as foodstuffs. Antidotes against poisoning

(mostly emetics composed of pungent substances) were probably effective primarily against

early-onset gastrointestinal difficulties. They would have been of little use against the

toxic Amanita species, whose symptoms may not appear for several hours after ingestion.

Mycotoxins were a threat in both food and forage. Much has been written in modern

times regarding probable connections between mycotoxins and events in medieval,

Renaissance, or colonial times, including instances of mass hallucinations, changes in

birthrates, charges of witchcraft, etc. The impact of mycotoxins in Europe undoubtedly rose in

the Middle Ages, with the spread of cultivation of rye, an excellent host for ergot (Claviceps

purpurea). But ancient peoples probably also suffered from ergot as well as from the effects

of Fusarium, Penicillium, or Aspergillus mycotoxins and from allergens of common fungi.

Dramatic claims have also been advanced to explain several events in antiquity. Some, such as

the notion that fungi turned the Etruscans into homosexuals, are best relegated to the realm of

unintentional humor, but other claims bear close examination.

The ancients were well aware that foodstuffs, including grains, could become moldy, but

they had no notion of microorganisms per se. To appreciate the probable impact of toxigenic

microorganisms in the ancient world, it is essential to understand in some detail the norms and

limits of ancient storage and transport of grains. What we know of these practices comes partly

from historical and archaeological data and partly from modern experimentation that seeks to

duplicate ancient storage conditions.

Ancient peoples took deliberate and elaborate measures to exclude moisture and

provide adequate ventilation in their granaries because they knew that failure to do so would

result in spoilage. Small-scale storage in pits may have sometimes purposely excluded air and

succeeded in creating anaerobic conditions for long-term storage, but there are indications that

success was mixed. Storage pits in moist climates or seasons were probably common sources

of contaminated grain. Modern experiments have shown that toxigenic fungi can be recovered

from such pits, and colonization of the grain by such fungi could be extensive. The British in

particular have shown an enthusiasm for duplicating the storage methods of their ancestors,

sometimes finding so little deterioration that some skepticism seems warranted. Recent findings

may dispel modern myths about old crops; for example, the notion that covered wheat (such as

spelt, whose hull is retained on the kernel at harvest) is more protected from pathogens than

"naked" wheat (such as modern bread wheat, which lacks such a hull on harvested kernels) has

been strongly called into question by some modern research.

Poisonous fungi. The Greeks and Romans were highly aware that some mushrooms

were poisonous (Ainsworth 1986, Buller 1915, Houghton 1885). The Greeks early associated

fungi with toxins (e.g., the "evil ferment" postulated by Nicander) and attempted to devise

remedies for those who had ingested poisonous mushrooms. Buller relates incidents described

in classical Greek literature (Eparchides, Hippocrates) concerning fatal and nonfatal poisonings

by fungi. Ainsworth (1993b) credits Euripides with a reference to mycetism (eating a poisonous

fungus mistaken for an edible one) killing a woman and her two children. The civilizations of

preclassical and classical antiquity were not sufficiently developed scientifically to arrive at

consistently useful criteria for distinguishing toxic and edible species.

Remedies were varied, including pungent mustard, bird dung, and vinegar, mixed into

various concoctions, several of which were effective emetics (Houghton 1885). Hippocrates and

Nicander both provided an assortment of remedies against poisonous fungi, and Celsus, a

contemporary of Augustus, recommended boiling fungi with the young twig of a pear tree to free

them of toxic properties (Phillips 1982). Dioscorides (first century AD) thought that certain

substrata that fungi grew on or near (serpents’ dens, rotten rags, rusty nails, etc.) would make

them poisonous and recommended as a cure the usual dose of vinegar and bird dung.

Houghton (1885) traced the genesis and transmittal of such ideas throughout ancient

commentaries.

Dioscorides and Galen (b. AD 130) had great influence on medical thought up through

the Renaissance, including the writings of the herbalists of the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries (Buller 1915). On the whole, Galen took a negative view of fungi in the diet, with the

possible exceptions of the meadow mushroom (modern name Agaricus campestris) and

Caesar’s mushroom (Amanita caesarea, which is edible but which, because it belongs to a

genus with so many toxic species, is best avoided by all but the most expert mycologists).

Further excerpts from or summaries of Dioscorides, Celsus, Pliny, and Galen are provided by

Phillips (1982), and Buller (1915) briefly references Roman writers of the second and third

centuries AD who documented cases of poisoning by fungi.

Let us turn now to the deliberate use of poison in dishes containing edible fungi (boleti),

allegedly the means by which Agrippina rid herself of her troublesome husband, the emperor

Tiberius Claudius. Because Roman emperors of that era were deified when deceased, Nero,

the son of Agrippina and Claudius, later quipped that mushrooms were the food of the gods

(Grant 1970). A similar incident at a banquet at which mushrooms (edible suilli) were served

ended the life of Annaeus Serenus, the prefect of Nero’s guard. For the death of Claudius,

Graves (1958) blamed "juice of the lethal amanita phalloides, added to the amanita caesarea,

an edible mushroom of which Claudius was extravagantly fond." However, some writers believe

that the feast that killed Claudius was based on poisonousAmanita species. Molitoris (2002)

seems to echo this view, and Grimm-Samuel (1991) vigorously defends it. Grant (1975) also

seems to subscribe to this notion, adding that "accidental loss of life frequently occurs in Italy

due to confusions between the harmless mushroom boletus edulis and the fatal amanita

phalloides." But this degree of confusion seems unlikely, given that B. edulis has a hymenium of

pores, whereas A. phalloides is a gilled mushroom. It is much more likely that young A.

phalloides might be mistaken for immature edible A. caesarea. (The account given by

Toussaint-Samat [1992] should be disregarded, as it confuses A. phalloides with A.

muscaria and moreover misapplies the common name "Caesar’s mushroom" to A. muscaria.)

Poisonous fungi were actually only a small part of the arsenal of drugs and poisons

employed in ancient Rome (Cilliers and Retief 2000). And despite multiple commentaries from

ancient and modern sources implicating poison, usually from mushrooms, Marmion and

Wiedemann (2002) argue that Claudius was not poisoned at all, but simply suffered "sudden

death from cerebrovascular disease."

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM (Objectives)

1) What are some poisonous plants and fungi in the Cordilleran Region?

2) What are the significance of the poisonous plants and fungi to human beings?

3) What are the poisonous parts of the plants and fungi?

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study will redound to the benefits of the society considering that the

plants and fungi are everywhere, either edible or poisonous. These plants and fungi play an

important role to the people, to science and to the environment. The researchers discovered

that some poisonous plants can be beneficial to human and animals. They can be used as

treatment to diseases. Thus, this study cautious the community that they will not just destroy

every plants and fungi they will see because despite of their danger they also are helpful to

society.

This study also shows how to identify poisonous plants and fungi to those are not

through their physical characteristics. Some species contain the toxin chemical in a certain parts

of the plants and fungi and others have them in all their parts. This research is a great help to

the people of Cordillera for they will be aware of the poisonous plants and fungi to avoid the

toxic potential of these poisonous when they get ingested.

DISCUSSION

POISONOUS PLANTS

One importance of poisonous plants to humans is that they were utilized as a method of

capturing prey. It was used by many tribes of South America, hunters use darts poisoned with

the plant curare in their blowguns. In fact, the word toxic is derived from the ancient Greek word

toxikon, meaning “arrow poison”. Poisonous plants are also one of the ingredients in making

poisons where in humans and animals are victims of this poison. Some poisonous plants are

also used for medicinal purposes but it has a dosage and limitation.

Many plants are poisonous in the Cordilleran Region where in humans are not even

aware of. In this chapter it aims to discuss what are the poisonous plants and fungi in our region

and their poisonous parts.

Brugmansia candida

The taxonomy of Angel's trumpet

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Spermatophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida 

Order: Solanales 

Family: Solanaceae 

Genus: Brugmansia Pers.

Species: Brugmansia X candida

Angel's trumpet is a type of flower that resembles a long lily, with large white blooms.

Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, and it is a

member of the solanaceae family of plants, along with tomatoes, eggplants, and potatoes. The

flowers and leaves of this plant are poisonous if ingested in large amounts. In smaller amounts

that are properly prepared, it has hallucinogenic as well as medicinal properties. All parts of the

plant are poisonous especially the seeds and leaves.

Brugmansia are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched

trunks. They can reach heights of 3–11 m (10–36 ft). The leaves are alternately arranged along

the stems, generally large, 10–30 cm (4–12 in) long and 4–18 cm (2–7 in) across, with an entire

or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet"

refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, 14–50 cm (6–20 in) long and 10–35 cm

(4–14 in) across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or

red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may

be single, double, or more.

Angel's trumpet is UNSAFE for everyone. The entire plant is poisonous, but the leaves

and seeds contain the most poison. Taking angel’s trumpet can cause confusion, dilated pupils,

intense thirst, dry skin, flushing, fever, high or low blood pressure, fast heartbeat, difficulty

breathing, hallucinations, nervousness, loss of memory, convulsions, paralysis, coma, and

death.

In Ayurvedic medicine, this plant is used to treat asthma, malaria and earaches. To treat

asthma, the leaves are burned and the smoke is inhaled. The fruit is burned with cow dung and

crushed for treating malarial fevers, and an oil prepared from the flower mixed with other herbs

can be used directly in the ear for pain relief. Angel's trumpet can also be used in salves to treat

burns and pain from rheumatism.

ANGEL'S TRUMPET DOSING

The appropriate dose of Angel's trumpet depends on several factors such as the user's

age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information

to determine an appropriate range of doses for Angel's trumpet. Keep in mind that natural

products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow

relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or

other healthcare professional before using.

Atropa belladonna

The taxonomy of Atropa belladonna

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Anthophyta

Class: Equisetopsida 

Order: Solanales 

Family: Solanaceae 

Genus: Atropa

Species: A. belladonna

Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial, often growing as a subshrub,

from a fleshy rootstock. Belladonna is a plant. The leaf and root are used to make medicine.

The bell-shaped flowers are purple with green tinges and faintly scented. The fruits are berries,

which are green, ripening to a shiny-black.

The name “belladonna” means “beautiful lady,” and was chosen because of a risky

practice in Italy. The belladonna berry juice was used historically in Italy to enlarge the pupils of

women, giving them a striking appearance. This was not a good idea, because belladonna can

be poisonous. Belladonna is poisonous in all parts especially its fruits and roots.

Though widely regarded as unsafe, belladonna is used as a sedative, to stop bronchial

spasms in asthma and whooping cough, and as a cold and hay fever remedy. It is also used

for Parkinson’s disease, colic, motion sickness, and as a painkiller.

Belladonna is used in ointments that are applied to the skin for joint

pain(rheumatism), leg pain caused by a disc in the backbone pushing on the sciatic

nerve(sciatica), and nerve pain (neuralgia). Belladonna is also used in plasters (medicine-filled

gauze applied to the skin) for treating psychiatric disorders, a behavior disorder called

hyperkinesis, excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis), and bronchial asthma.

BELLADONNA DOSING

The appropriate dose of belladonna depends on several factors such as the user’s age,

health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to

determine an appropriate range of doses for belladonna. Keep in mind that natural products are

not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions

on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional

before using

Dieffenbachia spp.

The taxonomy of Dieffenbachia spp.

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Magnoliophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida  

Order: Alismatales 

Family:Araceae

Genus: Dieffenbachia 

Species: Dieffenbachia spp.

Dieffenbachia is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Araceae. It is native to

the New World Tropics from Mexico and the West Indies south to Argentina. It is widely

cultivated as an ornamental, especially as a house plant, and has become naturalized on a few

tropical islands.

Dieffenbachia is a perennial herbaceous plant with straight stem, simple and alternate

leaves containing white spots and flecks, making it attractive as indoor foliage. Species in this

genus are popular as houseplants because of their tolerance of shade. The common name,

"dumb canes" refers to the poisoning effect of raphides, which can cause temporary inability to

speak; for this reason it is also known as the mother-in-law plant. Dieffenbachia was named

by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, director of the Botanical Gardens in Vienna to honor his head

gardener Joseph Dieffenbach (1796–1863).

A genus of over 2000 evergreen annuals or perennials commonly grown as indoor, or

outdoor plants, in pots, for their foliage. Leaves are large, soft and light green, often spotted, or

patterned with white or cream, to 60 cms long. . The plants grow up to two metres high, and are

erect, with stout stems, but may need staking. Flowers are usually a spathe, a large bract

enclosing a flower head or spadex, either green or white. All have attractive shiny leaves.

Berries are brightly coloured. .

Some plants have needle-like crystals of calcium oxalate, which can puncture the skin

causing much pain. . Similar plants are monsteria and calandrina. . Legend has it, that this plant

was used to prevent humans from talking by causing the tongue to swell. If leaves or stems are

chewed, it causes copious salivation , and an intense burning and irritation of the mouth, lips

and tongue. . This is followed by a watery swelling, causing difficulty in breathing and talking.

Duranta erecta

The taxonomy of Duranta erecta

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida  

Order: Lamiales

Family: Verbenaceae

Genus: Duranta L

Species: Duranta erecta L

Golden dewdrop, also known as skyflower, pigeon berry, angels-whisper, also called

Katamehedi. Duranta is an upright to drooping shrub that sometimes takes the form of a

scrambling shrub or rarely a small tree. Light-blue, lavender, or white, tubular, five-lobed flowers

are borne on terminal or axillary racemes. The yellow or yellow-orange fleshy fruits are

ellipsoidal with five lobes and grow in hanging clusters. These fruits may contain up to eight

nutlets.

 Fruit is slightly poisonous with alkaloid type reactions. Deaths have been reported from

ingestion. Study of the chloroform soluble fraction of the stem of D. erecta showed toxicity with

changes in biochemical parameters and abnormalities in liver and renal functions, with

degenerative changes on histopath examination of the cellular destruction of the liver, heart and

kidney.  It is commonly used in the treatment of Febrifuge (fruits are effective), Stimulant

(flowers are effective) and Diuretic (infusion of leaves and juice of fruits) .The fruits are used in

the treatment of malaria and intestinal worms. The leaves are used in the treatment of abscess.

Nerium oleander

The taxonomy of Nerium oleander

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida  

Order: Gentianales

Family: Apocynaceae

Genus: Nerium L.

Species: Nerium oleander L. 

Nerium oleander   is an evergreen shrub or small tree in

the dogbane family Apocynaceae, toxic in all its parts. It is the only species currently classified

in the genus Nerium. It is most commonly known as oleander, from its superficial resemblance

to the unrelated olive Olea. It is so widely cultivated that no precise region of origin has been

identified, though southwest Asia has been suggested. 

Oleander grows to 2–6 m (6.6–19.7 ft) tall, with erect stems that splay outward as they

mature; first-year stems have a glaucous bloom, while mature stems have a grayish bark.

The leaves are in pairs or whorls of three, thick and leathery, dark-green, narrow lanceolate, 5–

21 cm (2.0–8.3 in) long and 1–3.5 cm (0.39–1.38 in) broad, and with an entire margin.

The flowers grow in clusters at the end of each branch; they are white, pink to red 2.5–5 cm

(0.98–1.97 in) diameter, with a deeply 5-lobed fringed corolla round the central corolla tube.

They are often, but not always, sweet-scented. The fruit is a long narrow capsule 5–23 cm (2.0–

9.1 in) long, which splits open at maturity to release numerous downy seeds.

Oleander is a plant. Its use as a poison is well known. In fact, oleander is reportedly a

favorite suicide agent in Sri Lanka, where oleander poisonings exceed 150 per 100,000 each

year. That’s a high number. Approximately 10% of these ingestions are fatal.

Despite the danger, oleander seeds and leaves are used to make medicine. Oleander is used

for heart conditions, asthma, epilepsy, cancer, painful menstrual

periods, leprosy, malaria, ringworm, indigestion, and venereal disease; and to cause abortions.

A fixed combination of oleander leaf powdered extract, pheasant's eye fluid extract, lily-

of-the-valley fluid extract, and squill powdered extract has been used for treating mild heart

failure. Oleander is sometimes applied to the skin to treat skin problems and warts. Injecting a

specific oleander product (Anvirzel) into the muscle is POSSIBLY SAFE when administered by

a healthcare professional.

Oleander is LIKELY UNSAFE for anyone to take by mouth. It can cause a burning

sensation in the mouth, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, headache, stomach pain,

serious heart problems, and many other side effects. Taking the oleander leaf, oleander leaf

tea, or oleander seeds has led to deadly poisonings.

OLEANDER DOSING

The appropriate dose of oleander depends on several factors such as the user's age,

health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to

determine an appropriate range of doses for oleander. Keep in mind that natural products are

not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions

on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional

before using.

Cryptostegia grandiflora

The taxonomy of Cryptostegia grandiflora

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Spermatophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida  

Order: Gentianales

Family: Apocynaceae

Genus: Cryptostegia R. Br.

Species: Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br

Cryptostegia grandiflora, commonly known as rubber vine, is a woody-

perennial vine that is native to south-west Madagascar. It is also a significant weed in

northern Australia, sometimes regarded as the worst weed in all of Australia. It has also been

introduced to most other tropical and subtropical regions by man, because of its

attractive flowers and the fact that its latex contains commercial qualityrubber (hence the name).

It is now aturalized in the Caribbean, East Africa, Mauritius, India, Southeast

Asia, Indonesia, Latin America, the southern United States, Fiji and New Caledonia

In Folkloric, the uses of rubber vine in Madagascar, reportedly used for criminal purposes and

against vermin. Powdered leaves, mixed with water, when swallowed can cause persistent

vomiting after half an hour; death in 15 hours. In Madhya Pradesh, root paste is applied

externally on chest to cure asthma. No reported folkloric medicinal use in the Philippines.

Amaryllis spp.

The taxonomy of Amaryllis spp.

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Spermatopsida  

Order: Asparagales

Family: Amaryllidaceae

Genus: Amaryllis L. .

Species: Amaryllis L. spp.

Amaryllis is a small genus of flowering bulbs, with two species. The better known of the

two, Amaryllis belladonna, is anative of the Western Cape region of South Africa, particularly the

rocky southwest area between the Olifants River Valley to Knysna. For many years there was

confusion among botanists over the generic names Amaryllis and Hippeastrum, one result of

which is that the common name "amaryllis" is mainly used for cultivars of the

genus Hippeastrum, widely sold in the winter months for their ability to bloomindoors.

Plants of the genus Amaryllis are known as belladonna lily, Jersey lily, naked lady,

amarillo, Easter lily in Southern Australia or, in South Africa, March lily due to its propensity to

flower around March. This is one of numerous genera with the common name "lily" due to their

flower shape and growth habit. However, they are only distantly related to the true lily, Lilium.

Eating the bulbs (and leaves, though they are less toxic) can cause abdominal pain,

cardiac arrhythmias, and convulsions. The plants are more likely to be eaten by pets than

children, but the alkaloid poison lycorine is considered toxic to humans, too.

Euphorbia milii

The taxonomy of Euphorbia milii

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Malpighiales

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Genus: Euphorbia L.

Species: Euphorbia milii Des Moul

The common names allude to the legend that the crown of thorns worn by Christ at the

time of his crucifixion was made from stems of this plant.  Interestingly, the stems of this plant

are pliable and can be intertwined into a circle.  There exists substantial evidence that the

species, native to Madagascar, had been brought to the Middle East before the time of Christ.

The Crown of Thorns is a woody, spiny, climbing succulent shrub with shoots reaching

a height of 6 feet.  Leaves are found primarily on young growth, and the plant may defoliate

completely if put under moisture or temperature stress.  Subsequent growth will bear new

leaves.  The plant flowers nearly all year, and especially in the winter.  The flowers are small

and inconspicuous, but the brightly colored modified leaves (bracts) found just beneath the

flowers are quite attractive.  Most Crown of Thorns plants in cultivation have red bracts.  A

variety with yellow bracts exists, but is not very popular.

The latex may produce a severe dermatitis on susceptible individuals, much like poison

ivy.  Generally poisonous if ingested in large amounts, the latex undoubtedly contributes to the

protection of the plants from herbivores (plant consuming organisms).  The latex of some

species has been used for arrow poisons and to stupefy fish for capture.  Euphorbias are not

planted near stocked pools since the exudate from broken roots can be fatal to fish.  Despite its

poisonous properties, in the past the latex had been used for medicinal purposes.  The common

name for the family, Spurge, comes from the same root as purge or expurgate, alluding to its

properties if taken internally.

Euphorbia milii serves as a potted ornamental in many different countries. Tropical

residents also use it for hedges or as a strategically placed cynosure in landscaping.

Euphorbia milii plays a role in folk medicine. The Chinese use it as a cure for cancer, and some

Brazilians believe that it can cure warts.

Euphorbia milii can curb the spread of schistosomiasis, a disease of the liver. Its latex

has ingredients that can kill snails of the genera Indoplanorbis and Biomphalaria, which are

vectors (alternate hosts) of the flatworms which cause this disease.

Mirabilis jalapa

The taxonomy of Mirabilis jalapa

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Caryophyllales 

Family: Nyctaginaceae 

Genus: Mirabilis L.

Species: Mirabilis jalapa L.

Mirabilis jalapa also called Alas cuatro or Four o’clock is an erect, nearly or quite

smooth, branched plant, about 20 to 80 centimeters in height. Leaves are narrowly ovate, 4 to

10 centimeters long. Involucres are crowded, calyxlike, about 1 centimeter long or less, with one

flower. Perianth is white, purple, or yellow, 3 to 4 centimeters long, with a cylindrical tube which

is slightly enlarged and upward, and with a spreading limb. Fruit is narrowly ovoid, about 8

millimeters long, black and finely ribbed.

The Four-O'Clock plant is a popular flowering ornamental plant which often has different

colored flowers on the same plant. The roots and seeds of the plant contain a toxin called

trigonelline which can cause skin irritation upon contact with the skin or gastrointestinal

symptoms if eaten. The seeds may produce hallucinogenic effects if smoked or eaten.

In Folkloric, Juice of leaves is soothing when applied to areas of urticarial. In India and

Java bruised leaves used as poultices for boils and abscesses, and the juice used for uterine

discharges. Juices of leaves used internally for gonorrhea. Infusion of leaves used as a diuretic

and for dropsy. Roots used as mild purgative, emetic and cathartic. Leaves are anti-

inflammatory. Decoction used for abscesses. Leaf juice used for wounds.

Cannabis sativa

The taxonomy of Cannabis sativa

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Rosales 

Family: Cannabaceae

Genus: Cannabis L

Species: Cannabis sativa L.

Cannabis sativa is an annual herbaceous plant in the Cannabis genus, a species of

the Cannabaceae family. People have cultivated Cannabis sativa throughout recorded

history as a source of industrial fibre, seed oil, food, recreation, religious and spiritual moods,

and medicine. Each part of the plant is harvested differently, depending on the purpose of its

use.

Cannabis sativa, also known as hemp, is a species of the Cannabinaceae family of

plants.

Cannabis is also known as Ganja, grass, Hashish, Hemp, Indian hemp, marijuana, Pot, reefer,

weed, five fingers, mary jane .Cannabis contains the chemical compound THC (delta-9

tetrahydrocannabinol), which is believed to be responsible for most of the characteristic

psychoactive effects of cannabis.

The dried leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant are known as marijuana, which can

be smoked (through a pipe or bongor hand-rolled into a joint) or taken orally with food (baked in

cookies).

The resinous secretions of the plant are known as hashish, which can be

smoked or eaten. The fiber of the cannabis plant is cultivated as industrial hemp with uses in

textile manufacturing. The resins in the leaves are psychoactive in mammals, including humans.

These plants are cultivated indoors and outdoors for human use. The plants can overwinter as

seed in warmer parts of the country. The most common form that may be accidentally ingested

by humans and pets is marijuana that has been left in houses for illegal human use. here are

eight medical conditions for which patients can use cannabis:

Cancer,Glaucoma,HIV/AIDS,Muscle spasms,Seizures,Severe pain,Severe nausea and

Cachexia or dramatic weight loss and muscle atrophy (wasting syndrome)

POISONOUS FUNGI

False death cap or Amanita citrina

The taxonomy of Amanita citrina

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita citrina

The cap of this widespread amanita is normally a yellow green of pale lemon, but it can

be also a whitish. The young toadstool is entirely covered by the universal veil, but this soon

ruptures so that the cap carriers up with it a number of torn pieces as brown map-like patches.

The slender stem is white, smooth and fibrous, and acquire a distinctive zoning of sprinkling. A

temporary partial veil covers the gills at first, then become detach from the margin of the cap,

and remains as a ring on the stem. The stem base is swollen and mostly buried. The white flesh

has a strong odor of new potato. From late summer onwards the fruit-buddies-appear in large

numbers among the heather and heath-berry plants, under pine, fir or birch trees; less

frequently under beech.

Scientific tests in the University of Cambridge have shown that this mushroom contains

the alpha-amanitin toxin (is a cyclic peptide of eight amino acids. It is possibly the most deadly

of all the amatoxins, toxinsfound in several species of the Amanita genus of mushrooms).

However, the amounts of this toxin were found to be very small and would not cause any

adverse effects unless the mushroom was ingested in very large amounts. The biggest danger

with this species is its marked similarity to the death cap, which is reason enough to avoid it,

even though it is edible.

Yellow-staining mushrooms or Agaricus xanthodermus

The taxonomy of Agaricus xanthodermus

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Agaricaceae

Genus: Agaricus

Species Agaricus xanthodermus

The specific epithet xanthodermus comes from the Greek for 'yellow-skinned', and this

species is the most infamous of a number of mildly toxic Agaricus species whose stem flesh

turns yellow when cut. The Yellow Stainer, however, is particularly dangerous because it looks

so much like an edible Agaricus such as the Field Mushroom, Agaricus campestris or the Horse

Mushroom, Agaricus arvensis. As a result, it is one of the most commonly consumed poisonous

mushrooms. The color change is most marked when the caps are young and fresh. No other

common white Agaricus mushroom turns so rapidly chrome yellow when bruised on its cap rim

or cut through near the stem base and so knowledgeable fungus foragers ought never to be

caught out by this poisonous toadstool. If eaten, the Yellow Stainer can cause stomach cramps,

nausea, vomiting, sweating and diarrhea. What is odd about this poisonous mushroom is that a

small minority of people can eat it with obvious ill effects whatsoever.

Entoloma sinuatum or Rhodophyllus sinuatus

The taxonomy of Entoloma sinuatum

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: : Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Entolomataceae

Genus: Entoloma

Species: Entoloma sinuatum

The generic name Entoloma comes from ancient Greek words entos, meaning inner,

and lóma, meaning a fringe or a hem. It is a reference to the inrolled margins of many of the

mushrooms in this genus.More obviously, the specific epithet sinuatum is a reference to the

sinuous or wavy nature of mature caps (and the gills are sinuate too!), while the former specific

name lividum means leaden (lead coloured) - not inappropriate for a toxic toadstool that was

once most commonly referred to in Britain as the Lead Poisoner. The toxins in Entoloma

sinuatum that cause severe stomach pains, sickness and diarrhea have not been isolated, but

the effects can be long lasting and at least one fatality has been attributed to eating these

mushrooms. Because they look quite similar to some popular edible species, a high proportion

of fungus poisoning cases in Europe are attributed to eating this mushroom species by mistake.

Destroying angel or Amanita virosa

The taxonomy of Amanita virosa

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: : Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita virosa

The common name Destroying Angel is applied also in North America to two other fairly

common members of the genus Amanita. They are Amanita bisporigera and Amanita ocreata,

which are most commonly found in in eastern North America and western North America

respectively. (In France, Amanita verna is a fairly frequent find, and it too goes by the common

names of Spring Amanita or, again, Destroying Angel.)It's worth restating that all of these pure

white Amanita fungi contain the same deadly toxins as are found in Amanita virosa, the

Destroying Angel, and Amanita phalloides, the Deathcap (or Death Cup, as it is more generally

known in North America).

Unlike Amanita phalloides, however, not only is Amanita virosa pure white, like the

supermarket button mushroom, but it also looks gorgeous and it does not have the repulsive

smell that, to anyone with a nose, should betray the evil within a mature Deathcap. Caps of the

Destroying Angel are 5 to 10cm in diameter, pure white, and without any marginal striations.

The cap is initially egg-shaped and then campanulate (bell shaped) or occasionally almost flat

but with a broad umbo, and is often tilted on the stipe. Although some young caps carry white

remains of the universal veil, they soon wash off in wet weather and are rarely seen on mature

caps.It’s gills are white, free and crowded. Stems of Destroying Angels are 9 to 15cm tall, 0.6 to

2cm in diameter, and often slightly curved; pure white and fibrous with an ungrooved, fragile ring

high up on the stipe.  The large, sack-like volva is usually buried deep in the soil.

Amanita pantherina or False blushe

The taxonomy of Amanita pantherina

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: : Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita pantherina

The specific epithet pantherina and the common name both refer to the brown-and-white

spotted appearance of the cap of this mushroom which bears some resemblance to the two-

tone coat of a Panther.Swiss-born mycologist Augustin Pyramis De Candolle (1778 - 1841)

described this species in 1815, naming it Agaricus pantherinus. (Most of the gilled mushrooms

were included initially in the genus Agaricus!) In 1871, Paul Kummer (1834 - 1912), a German

mycologist, moved the Panthercap to its present genus, naming it Amanita pantherina. The cap

of Amanita pantherina ranges from 5 to 12cm in diameter. Shiny brown or grey-brown with a

very finely striate margin, the cap is initially domed but tends to flatten as the fruitbody matures.

Pure white remains of the universal veil are dotted, usually fairly evenly, over the cap

surface.The gills is white, free and crowded, the gills of Amanita pantherina are fairly broad.The

stem of Amanita pantherina ranges from 6 to 12cm tall and is pure white with a hanging ring that

is initially quite chunky (as shown on the left) but often becomes thin and floppy in more mature

specimens. The volva is slightly swollen stem base retains the white remains of the volva,

usually as one or more woolly rings or as a helix above a narrow gutter.

Inocybe fastigiata

The taxonomy of Inocybe fastigiata

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: : Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Inocybaeae

Genus: Inocybe

Species: Inocybe fastigiata

In 1789 French naturalist Jean Baptiste Francois (Pierre) Bulliard described this

mushroom scientifically, giving it the name Agaricus rimosus. It was German mycologist Paul

Kummer who, in 1871, transferred this species to the genus Inocybe, whereupon it acquired its

currently-accepted scientific name Inocybe rimosa. This little mushroom has numerous

synonyms including Agaricus fastigiatus Schaeff., Agaricus rimosus Bull.,  Gymnopus

rimosus (Bull.) Gray, Inocybe rimosa var. rimosa (Bull. P. Kumm., Inocybe fastigiata (Schaeff.)

Quél., Inocybe schista (Cooke & W.G. Sm.) Sacc., and Inocybe umbrinella Bres.Inocybe, the

genus name, means 'fibrous head', while the specific epithet rimosa is derived from the Latin

adjective rimosus meaning 'full of cracks or fissures'. This is a poisonous toadstool.

Fortunately Inocybe rimosa is thin-fleshed, making it less likely that foragers would

consider these little toadstools worth collecting for food. Several Inocybe species are known to

be deadly poisonous and difficult to identify with confidence, and so they should all be avoided

when gathering fungi for food.

Inocybe fastigiata are not considered suitable for consumption, although in some

underdeveloped countries certain species of Inocybe mushrooms are eaten Many species

contain large doses of muscarine (is a natural product found in certain mushrooms) and no easy

method of distinguishing them from potentially edible species exists. While the vast majority

of Inocybes are toxic, seven rare species of Inocybe are hallucinogenic

Amanita muscaria or Fly agaric

The taxonomy of Amanita muscaria

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita muscaria

The common name Fly Agaric is a reference to the tradition of using this mushroom as

an insecticide. In some European countries caps of Amanita muscaria are crumbled up and

placed in saucers of milk to attract house flies. The flies drink the milk, which contains toxins -

they are soluble in water and hence in milk also - dissolved from within the mushroom, and the

flies soon become drowsy, collapse and die (or they simply drown in their spiked milk drink).

The specific epithet muscaria comes from the Latin word musca, meaning 'a fly'.

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is

a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.

Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita

muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere,

generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species.

It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.

Amanita muscaria poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested

the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally it has been ingested in error,

because immature button forms resemble puffballs. The white spots sometimes wash away

during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible A. caesarea. Amanita

muscaria contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, muscimol, is known

to be psychoactive. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxin, serves as a prodrug to muscimol, with

approximately 10–20% converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is

approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid;[52][53] this is typically about the

amount found in one cap of Amanita muscaria. The amount and ratio of chemical compounds

per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further

confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10

times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.

A fatal dose has been calculated as 15 caps.[55] Deaths from this fungus A. muscaria have been

reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports, but with modern medical treatment,

fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare. Many older books list Amanita

muscaria as "deadly", but this is an error that implies the mushroom is more toxic than it is. The

North American Mycological Association has stated there were no reliably documented fatalities

from eating this mushroom during the 20th century. The vast majority (90% or more)

of mushroom poisoning deaths are from eating the greenish to yellowish "death cap",

(A. phalloides) or perhaps even one of the several white Amanita species which are known

as destroying angels. The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and

then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifiesA. muscaria. Drying may increase

potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent

muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.

Tricholoma pardinum

The taxonomy of Tricholoma pardinum

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Tricholomataceae

Genus: Tricholoma

Species: Tricholoma pardinum

In his 1762 publication Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam

nascuntur icones, nativis coloribus expressae, Jacob Christian Schaeffer included an illustration

(left) of a mushroom that looks very much like Tricholoma pardinum, although his scientific

description of the species was rather less clear. Schaeffer called this mushroom Agaricus tigrins

(at a time when most gilled fungi were placed in the genus Agaricus, since largely redistributed

across many new genera), which might therefore be considered as synonymous with

Tricholoma pardinum; however, the specific epithet tigrinus is invalid because it has been

allocated to Lentinus tigrinis, a gilled honorary member of the family Polyporaceae.Tricholoma

was established as a genus by the great Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries. The generic

name comes from Greek words meaning 'hairy fringe', and it must be one of the least

appropriate mycological genus names, because very few species within this genus have hairy

or even shaggily scaly cap margins that would justify the descriptive term. The specific epithet

pardinum comes from the Latin 'pardus' meaning leopard; it is a reference to the spotted nature

of the cap of this mushroom.

Amanita phalloides or Deathcap

The taxonomy of Amanita phalloides

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita phalloides

Amanita phalloides f. alba Britzelm is the white form of the Deathcap; but, as white

specimens commonly occur alongside the more common form, most experts agree that this is

merely a colour variant of Amanita phalloides.Amanita verna var. tarda Trimbach is also

considered by many to be a synonym for A. phalloides rather than a variety of the Spring

Amanita or Spring Destroying Angel, Amanita verna .The phallic shape of a young Deathcap

fruitbody, emerging from its volva, gave rise to its specific epithet phalloides. The common

name is sometimes written as Death Cap rather than Deathcap, and in the USA (to where this

species was almost certainly introduced from Europe) this toxic toadstool is commonly referred

to as the Death Cup.Left:

The death cap has a large and imposing epigeous (aboveground) fruiting body

(basidiocarp), usually with a pileus (cap) from 5 to 15 cm across, initially rounded and

hemispherical, but flattening with age. The color of the cap can be pale-, yellowish-, or olive-

green, the smell has been described as initially faint and honey-sweet, but strengthening over

time to become overpowering, sickly-sweet 

In dry weather fragments of the universal veil may adhere to caps of Amanita

phalloides, usually as large creamy-white patches rather than in regularly scattered 'spots' as

with Fly Agarics.Several toxins have been isolated from this poisonous toadstool, but the

constituent that damages the liver and kidneys of anyone that eats the Deathcap is known as α-

amanitin. Its potency is not reduced by either freezing or cooking the fungi before eating them.

Contained not only in certain amanitas but also in some fungi from the genera Galerina, Lepiota

and Conocybe, amatoxins initially cause gastrointestinal disorders with symptoms such as

diarrhea, nausea and stomach pains occurring within five to twelve hours. Cruelly, the systems

usually fade away for several hours or even a day or two, tricking the victim into thinking that

they are recovering. When in due course the symptoms return with a vengeance, it may be too

late: kidney and liver damage are already well underway. Without treatment, coma and eventual

death are almost inevitable. Often, people hospitalised late into an amotoxin poisoning episode

can only be saved by major surgery and a liver transplant, and even then recovery is a

precarious, painful and protracted process

Inocybe geophylla

The taxonomy of Inocybe geophylla

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Basidiomycetes

Order: Cortinatiales

Family: Cortinariaceae

Genus: Inocybe

Species: Inocybe geophylla

It is commonly known as the Earthy Inocybe, Common White Inocybe or White

Fibercap, is a poisonous mushroom of the genus Inocybe

This poisonous mushroom owes its scientific basionym to American mycologist Charles

Horton Peck (1833 - 1917) who, in 1873, gave it the scientific name Agaricus geophyllus var.

lilacinus. Three years later, in 1876, French mycologist Claude-Casimir Gillet (1806 - 1896)

renamed it Inocybe geophylla var. lilacina, its currently-accepted scientific name. Inocybe

geophylla is a deadly poisonous and fairly common species that grows in habitats where people

expect to find edible mushrooms. That makes it very dangerous indeed. The symptoms of

poisoning by this and several similar Inocybe species are those associated with muscarine

poisoning. Excessive salivation and sweating set in within half an hour of eating these fungi.

Depending on the amount consumed, victims may also suffer abdominal pains, sickness and

diarrhoea, together with blurred vision and laboured breathing.

The cap is 1–4 cm (0.4–2.6 in) in diameter and white or cream-colored with a silky

texture, at first conical before flattening out to a more convex shape with a pronounced umbo

(boss). The cap margins may split with age. The thin stipe is 1–6 cm (0.4–2.4 in) high and 0.3–

0.6 cm thick and lacks a ring. The crowded gills are annexed and cream early, before darkening

to a brownish color with the developing spores. The spore print is brown. The almond-shaped

spores are smooth and measure around 9 × 5 μm. The faint smell has been likened to

meal, damp earth, or even described as spermatic. The variety lilacina is similar in shape but

tinted lilac all over, with an ochre-brown flush on the cap umbo and the base of the stem. It has

a strong mealy or earthy odor. This variety could be mistaken for the edible amethyst deceiver

(Laccaria amethystina), although the latter species has a fibrous stipe, a fruity smell and lacks

the ochre-colored umbo.

Deaths of otherwise healthy people from eating these fungi are not reported. Anyone

with a weakened heart or with respiratory problems is much more at risk. The lilac variety is no

less toxic that its white close relative; it is a deadly poisonous mushroom and care is needed to

ensure that this toxic toadstool is never included among other violet or purplish fungi (such a

Lepista nuda, the Wood Blewit) that are being collected for human consumption.Inocybe, the

genus name, means 'fibrous head', while the specific epithet geophylla is derived from the

Ancient Greek words geo- meaning earth, and phyllon which means leaf. It hardly needs

mentiolning that the variety name lilacina is a reference to the lilac colouring on the caps of

these little mushrooms.

Like many fibrecaps, Inocybe geophylla contains muscarine. The symptoms are those of

muscarine poisoning, namely, greatly increased salivation, perspiration (sweating),

and lacrimation (tear flow) within 15–30 minutes of ingestion. With large doses, these symptoms

may be followed by abdominalpain, severe nausea, diarrhea, blurred vision, and labored

breathing. Intoxication generally subsides within two hours Delirium does not occur. The

specific antidote is atropine. Inducing vomiting to remove mushroom contents is also prudent

due to the speed of onset of symptoms.It is also dangerous to dose atropine, as that itself, can

cause toxicity and death with too large or repeated doses.

Death has not been recorded as a result of consuming this species. It is often ignored by

mushroom hunters because of its small size.

Clitocybe rivulosa

The taxonomy of Clitocybe

rivulosa

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Tricholomataceae

Genus: Clitocybe

Species: Clitocybe dealbata

The generic name Clitocybe means 'sloping head', while the specific epithet rivulosa

comes from the Latin word for a channel, river, or stream and in this instance is perhaps a

reference to the faint channels or annular ridges that tend to form on mature caps of this

mushroom. Clitocybe rivulosa is a deadly poisonous and fairly common species that grows in

habitats where people expect to find edible mushrooms. That makes it very dangerous indeed.

The symptoms of poisoning by this and several similar whited-capped Clitocybe species are

those associated with muscarine poisoning. Excessive salivation and sweating set in within half

an hour of eating these fungi. Depending on the amount consumed, victims may also suffer

abdominal pains, sickness and diarrhea, together with blurred vision and laboured breathing.

Deaths of otherwise healthy people from eating these fungi are very rare, but anyone with a

weakened heart or with respiratory problems is much more at risk.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1) The research should add poisonous plants and fungi not only in the Cordilleran Region but

also international.

2) The research should contain medical and economic uses specially the poisonous fungi.

3) The research should add more interesting facts about the plant and fungi

CONCLUSIONS

Darwen, Danes

I conclude that some toxic medicinal plants have some medicinal benefits and

significance. Certain precautions about these plants are enough to use these toxic parts of

plants as medication purposes. Amanita muscarias or fly amanita is an example of poisonous

mushroom reported to grow in Baguio. This kind of mushroom acts as a vasomotor and

respiratory depressant popular primarily for its hallucinogenic properties. Familiarity with

botanical structures of plants and fungi and information on where they grow will make them

easier to locate and identify

Dang-ay, Claudene May Segundo

Traditionally, living organisms have been divided into two kingdom: the plant Kingdom

and animal Kingdom. However, biologist are becoming increasingly conscious that this division

is not altogether satisfactory, and that it might be more reasonable to recognize at least four

major division: the animal Kingdom, the Kingdom of plants, the fungal Kingdom and the

Kingdom of bacteria and their allies. Fungi differ fundamentally from green plants in their lack of

chlorophyll, which means that are unable to photosynthesize their own organic food, but of

course in plants they can always produce or photosynthesize their own organic food.

In this research, we studied about the poisonous plants and fungi, in which we learned

that toxic plants has its significance in many ways just for example is a poisonous plants can be

a treatment of disease in humans and animals and it is very essential to mindful of their toxic

potentials. There are some poisonous plants that when you swallowed you will be paralyzed

and the worst effect is death. Furthermore, there are larger fungi: toadstool, puff balls and stink

horns. Some of the significance of a poisonous or a toxic fungi or the mushrooms is being a bait

to some insect’s especially o flies. Because of this phenomenon, our ecosystem is well

balanced, because if there is no poisonous plants and fungi around us humans and animals are

going to consume all plants and fungi and our ecosystem will fall down into nothing.

Lastly, our research which entitled poisonous plants and fungi is a big help to each and

every one because it gives learning on how important fungi and plants to human being.

Del Rosario, Evita

Plants, and also fungi are everywhere around us. They help us in many ways we cannot count.

But, we should also keep in mind that some of them are poisonous. Being able to identify the

varieties of plants and fungi that are poisonous is important because it will keep us from the

dangers of the effects of poison of plants or fungi such as hallucinations, gastrointestinal illness,

liver failure and even death. Of course, it is also important to know the location where these

plants grow and which parts of the plants is specifically poisonous. All in all, we should at least

be knowledgeable of the plants around us because it is for our own benefit.

Domingo, Chariz D.

The rapid growth of the population has a great effect to the consumption of food. The

scarcity of food will lead the people to pick any species of Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Fungi

aside from kingdom Animalia in their surrounding just to fill their stomach without the knowledge

that the species which were poisonous that can caused them. Many people in other countries

were poisoned because of the lack of information disseminating regarding these poisonous

plants and fungi.

Through this study, it was more proven that some good-looking appearance are

deceiving. We often appreciate the beauty of the nature because of its physical characteristics

without knowing the nightmare they could bring to us if we unconsciously get in-contact with

them or swallow them. This research is a great help in knowing the different parts plants that we

have to be aware off while we are hunting for our food. There are lots of plants and fungi that

were poisonous. We see them seems they’re safe yet they are dangerous because they contain

toxic chemicals. Like the species of amanita that were poisonous, they look like other edible

mushroom so we must be wise in picking our foods. Also for the plants, we must be wise in

choosing plants we eat. Knowing these poisonous plants and fungi are important to be aware

and cautious to prevent those dangers and dilemma happens to us.

This study consumed much of our time in searching for references to be use such as

books and websites, in reading analyzing and gathering up information. Yet, these consumed

time and energy were not wasted indeed; it’s a great help and blessing because of the

knowledge that we acquired. This research does not only benefit us but also to the people of

Cordillera. I told myself that this information will just be printed in pieces of paper but I will tell

these to my family and friends that they will also disseminate to others.

Dumepnas, Juliet Mae B.

In our region there are a lot of plants and fungi that we see them as futile genus but what

we don’t know is that they are poisonous plants and in the time they are also medicinal plants.

There are a lot of plants and fungi in our diversity that are unique in their appearance,

parts and constituents. We all know that almost all plants and fungi are medicinal but there are

some exemptions such as poisonous fungi. Poisonous fungi can cause severe illness and death

if ingested.

Poisonous plants and fungi are known to be a suicidal element a long time ago. In fact,

Socrates was condemned to death nearly 2, 400 years ago for allegedly corrupting the young

with his teaching philosophy and was forced to drink the juice of poison hemlock as punishment.

Many people also use poisonous plants as hunting ingredients in their arrows. People

also use poisonous plants as cosmetics and many more. There are a lot of importance and

benefits of poisonous plants in humans such as medicines.

The plants that are in this research are found in our region and we find them so useless

to think of that it is really an important plant even though it contains toxic and poisonous

elements. Taking the plants that were identified in this research as medicine is not preferably

used to humans for the reason that if there is too much intake of this certain plant in can lead

you to any negative effects such as hallucinations, severe illness and can cause death.

LITERATURE CITED

Books:

Simpson,B.B, et al. (2001). Economic Botany: Plants in our world, Third

Edition.,Singapore: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Levetin, E. , et al. (2003). Plants and Society, Third Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc.

Alexopoulous, C.J et al.(2004). Introduction to Mycology, Fourth Edition, Hoboken, New

Jersey: John Wiley and sons publishing

Deacon, J.W (2005). Fungal Biology, Fourth Edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers

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