PLANNING2 Research
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Transcript of PLANNING2 Research
1
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CITY - A CITY IS A RELATIVELY LARGE AND
PERMANENT SETTLEMENT. ALTHOUGH THERE IS NO AGREEMENT ON
HOW A CITY IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A TOWN WITHIN
GENERAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE MEANINGS, MANY CITIES HAVE A
PARTICULAR ADMINISTRATIVE, LEGAL, OR HISTORICAL STATUS BASED
ON LOCAL LAW.
URBAN - OF, PERTAINING TO, OR DESIGNATING A CITY OR TOWN. ;
LIVING IN A CITY
URBAN DESIGN - URBAN DESIGN IS THE COLLECTIVE TERM USED TO
DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING AND SHAPING CITIES, TOWNS
AND VILLAGES. WHEREAS ARCHITECTURE FOCUSES ON INDIVIDUAL
BUILDINGS, URBAN DESIGN ADDRESS THE LARGER SCALE OF GROUPS
OF BUILDINGS, OF STREETS AND PUBLIC SPACES, WHOLE
NEIGHBOURHOODS AND DISTRICTS, AND ENTIRE CITIES, TO MAKE
URBAN AREAS FUNCTIONAL, ATTRACTIVE AND SUSTAINABLE. URBAN
DESIGN IS AN INTER-DISCIPLINERY SUBJECT, THAT UNITES ALL THE
BUILT ENVIRONMENT PROFESSIONS, INCLUDING URBAN
PLANNING, LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE, ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL
AND MUNICIPAL ENGINEERING.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATURAL & PLANNED CITIES
A PLANNED COMMUNITY, OR PLANNED CITY, IS ANY COMMUNITY THAT
WAS CAREFULLY PLANNED FROM ITS INCEPTION AND IS TYPICALLY
CONSTRUCTED IN A PREVIOUSLY UNDEVELOPED AREA. THIS
CONTRASTS WITH SETTLEMENTS THAT EVOLVE IN A MORE AD
HOC FASHION, WHILE NATURAL CITIES DO NOT NECESSARILY CONSIDER
THINGS THAT PLANNED CITIES DO. LAND USE CONFLICTS ARE LESS
FREQUENT IN PLANNED COMMUNITIES SINCE THEY ARE PLANNED
CAREFULLY.
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CONCEPT OF UTOPIA
A UTOPIA IS A CONCEPTION OF AN IDEAL SOCIETY IN WHICH THE
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC EVILS AFFLICTING HUMANKIND
HAVE BEEN ERADICATED AND THE STATE FUNCTIONS FOR THE GOOD
AND HAPPINESS OF ALL. ALTHOUGH UTOPIAN LITERATURE DOES NOT
USUALLY DWELL ON THE PRACTICAL MEANS BY WHICH PERFECT
SOCIETIES ARE CREATED, ITS STATED AND IMPLIED CRITICISMS OF
SOCIAL ILLS AND ITS PRESENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE MODES OF
EXISTENCE HAVE ASSURED IT A PROMINENT PLACE IN THE HISTORY OF
THOUGHT. PLATO'S REPUBLIC , WRITTEN IN THE 4TH CENTURY, IS
GENERALLY REGARDED AS THE EARLIEST AND GREATEST WORK IN THE
GENRE, ALTHOUGH THE BIBLICAL GARDEN OF EDEN MIGHT BE
DESCRIBED AS A UTOPIA.
THE USE OF THE WORD UTOPIA (WHICH MEANS "NO PLACE" IN
GREEK) TO DESIGNATE A PERFECT SOCIETY BEGAN WITH THE
PUBLICATION IN 1516 OF SAINT THOMAS MORE'S UTOPIA, A LATIN ESSAY
DEPICTING THE WAY OF LIFE AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS ON AN
IMAGINARY ISLAND. THE WORK CONSISTS OF TWO BOOKS: THE FIRST, A
SCATHING ACCOUNT OF CONDITIONS IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLAND, IS
DESIGNED TO CONTRAST SHARPLY WITH THE SECOND, A DELINEATION
OF MORE'S CONCEPTION OF A STATE RULED BY REASON. HE
DESCRIBES IN ABUNDANT DETAIL HIS IDEAL COMMUNITY'S RELIGION,
GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, ECONOMICS, WARS, LAWS, AND
CUSTOMS. UTOPIA GAINED A WIDE AUDIENCE, AND THE TERM WAS
SUBSEQUENTLY APPLIED TO ALL SUCH CONCEPTS ADVANCED BY
SOCIAL THINKERS AND VISIONARIES.
DURING THE 19TH CENTURY NUMEROUS ATTEMPTS WERE MADE
ACTUALLY TO ESTABLISH UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES. MOST WERE
EXPERIMENTS IN UTOPIAN SOCIALISM, SUCH AS THOSE ADVOCATED BY
THE COMTE DE SAINT-SIMON, CHARLES FOURIER, AND ÉTIENNE CABET
IN FRANCE, ROBERT OWEN IN BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES, AND
HIS SON ROBERT DALE OWEN IN THE UNITED STATES. ALTHOUGH THEY
DIFFERED CONSIDERABLY IN THEIR SPECIFIC VIEWS, THESE UTOPIAN
THINKERS CONCURRED IN THE BELIEF THAT IDEAL SOCIETIES COULD
3
BE CREATED WITHOUT MUCH DIFFICULTY, STARTING WITH THE
FORMATION OF SMALL COOPERATIVE COMMUNITIES MADE UP OF THEIR
FOLLOWERS. SAINT-SIMON REGARDED TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
AND LARGE-SCALE ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION AS BEING OF UTMOST
IMPORTANCE. FUTURE HAPPINESS, HE BELIEVED, WAS TIED TO
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH. FOURIER, IN CONTRAST, REPUDIATED INDUSTRY.
HE FAVORED AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES IN WHICH PEOPLE LIVED IN
SMALL, SELF-SUFFICIENT "PHALANXES" FREE FROM THE RESTRAINTS
IMPOSED BY CIVILIZATION. EXPERIMENTAL SETTLEMENTS BASED ON
THE THEORIES OF THE UTOPIANS WERE SET UP IN EUROPE AND THE
UNITED STATES AND INCLUDED ROBERT OWEN'S FAMOUS
COOPERATIVE COMMUNITIES IN NEW HARMONY, IND., AND NEW
LANARK, SCOTLAND. MOST DID NOT LONG SURVIVE; ONE OF THE
LONGEST LASTING WAS ONEIDA COMMUNITY, IN NEW YORK STATE,
WHICH LASTED FROM 1848 TO 1881. BY THE MIDDLE OF THE 19TH
CENTURY THE UTOPIAN SOCIALISTS WERE BEGINNING TO BE ECLIPSED
BY MORE MILITANT RADICAL MOVEMENTS, INCLUDING ANARCHISM AND
MARXISM.
IN MODERN TIMES UTOPIANISM HAS FREQUENTLY SUGGESTED A
NAIVE AND IMPOSSIBLY IMPRACTICAL APPROACH TO REALITY.
NEVERTHELESS, THE TRADITION OF UTOPIAN LITERATURE HAS
PERSISTED AS A DEVICE FOR EXPOSING CONTEMPORARY ILLS. MUCH
RECENT WRITING HAS FOCUSED ON SCIENTIFIC UTOPIAS IN ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. THE PUBLICATION OF SATIRIC
ANTIUTOPIAS, SOMETIMES CALLED DYSTOPIAS, HAS ALSO CONTINUED.
PROMINENT EXAMPLES OF THIS GENRE ARE ALDOUS HUXLEY'S BRAVE
NEW WORLD, GEORGE ORWELL'S NINETEEN EIGHTY-FOUR, AND KURT
VONNEGUT'S PLAYER PIANO (1951).
HISTORICAL LAYOUTS
IN THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD, AGRICULTURE AND OTHER
TECHNIQUES FACILITATED LARGER POPULATIONS THAN THE VERY
SMALL COMMUNITIES OF THE PALEOLITHIC, WHICH PROBABLY LED TO
THE STRONGER, MORE COERCIVE GOVERNMENTS EMERGING AT THAT
TIME. THE PRE-CLASSICAL AND CLASSICAL PERIODS SAW A NUMBER OF
4
CITIES LAID OUT ACCORDING TO FIXED PLANS, THOUGH MANY TENDED
TO DEVELOP ORGANICALLY. DESIGNED CITIES WERE CHARACTERISTIC
OF THE MESOPOTAMIAN, HARRAPAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS OF
THE THIRD MILLENNIUM BC (SEE URBAN PLANNING IN ANCIENT EGYPT).
DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN PLANNING FROM
REMAINS OF THE CITIES OF HARAPPA, LOTHAL, AND MOHENJO-DARO IN
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (IN MODERN-DAY
NORTHWESTERN INDIA AND PAKISTAN) LEAD ARCHEOLOGISTS TO
CONCLUDE THAT THEY ARE THE EARLIEST EXAMPLES OF
DELIBERATELY PLANNED AND MANAGED CITIES. THE STREETS OF MANY
OF THESE EARLY CITIES WERE PAVED AND LAID OUT AT RIGHT ANGLES
IN AGRID PATTERN, WITH A HIERARCHY OF STREETS FROM MAJOR
BOULEVARDS TO RESIDENTIAL ALLEYS. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
SUGGESTS THAT MANY HARRAPAN HOUSES WERE LAID OUT TO
PROTECT FROM NOISE AND ENHANCE RESIDENTIAL PRIVACY; MANY
ALSO HAD THEIR OWN WATER WELLS, PROBABLY FOR BOTH SANITARY
AND RITUAL PURPOSES. THESE ANCIENT CITIES WERE UNIQUE IN THAT
THEY OFTEN HAD DRAINAGE SYSTEMS, SEEMINGLY TIED TO A WELL-
DEVELOPED IDEAL OF URBAN SANITATION.
CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE - THE GREEK HIPPODAMUS (C. 407
BC) HAS BEEN DUBBED THE "FATHER OF CITY PLANNING" FOR HIS
DESIGN OF MILETUS; ALEXANDER COMMISSIONED HIM TO LAY OUT HIS
NEW CITY OF ALEXANDRIA, THE GRANDEST EXAMPLE OF IDEALIZED
URBAN PLANNING OF THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN WORLD, WHERE
THE CITY'S REGULARITY WAS FACILITATED BY ITS LEVEL SITE NEAR A
MOUTH OF THE NILE. THE HIPPODAMIAN, OR GRID PLAN, WAS THE BASIS
FOR SUBSEQUENT GREEK AND ROMAN CITIES. ARISTOTLE'S CRITIQUE
AND INDEED RIDICULE OF HIPPODAMUS, WHICH APPEARS IN POLITICS 2.
8, IS PERHAPS THE FIRST KNOWN EXAMPLE OF A CRITICISM OF URBAN
PLANNING.
THE ANCIENT ROMANS USED A CONSOLIDATED SCHEME FOR
CITY PLANNING, DEVELOPED FOR MILITARY DEFENSE AND CIVIL
CONVENIENCE. THE BASIC PLAN CONSISTED OF A CENTRAL FORUM
WITH CITY SERVICES, SURROUNDED BY A COMPACT, RECTILINEAR GRID
OF STREETS, AND WRAPPED IN A WALL FOR DEFENSE. TO REDUCE
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TRAVEL TIMES, TWO DIAGONAL STREETS CROSSED THE SQUARE GRID,
PASSING THROUGH THE CENTRAL SQUARE. A RIVER USUALLY FLOWED
THROUGH THE CITY, PROVIDING WATER, TRANSPORT, AND SEWAGE
DISPOSAL. MANY EUROPEAN TOWNS, SUCH AS TURIN, PRESERVE THE
REMAINS OF THESE SCHEMES, WHICH SHOW THE VERY LOGICAL WAY
THE ROMANS DESIGNED THEIR CITIES. THEY WOULD LAY OUT THE
STREETS AT RIGHT ANGLES, IN THE FORM OF A SQUARE GRID. ALL
ROADS WERE EQUAL IN WIDTH AND LENGTH, EXCEPT FOR TWO, WHICH
WERE SLIGHTLY WIDER THAN THE OTHERS. ONE OF THESE RAN EAST–
WEST, THE OTHER, NORTH–SOUTH, AND INTERSECTED IN THE MIDDLE
TO FORM THE CENTER OF THE GRID. ALL ROADS WERE MADE OF
CAREFULLY FITTED FLAG STONES AND FILLED IN WITH SMALLER, HARD-
PACKED ROCKS AND PEBBLES. BRIDGES WERE CONSTRUCTED WHERE
NEEDED. EACH SQUARE MARKED BY FOUR ROADS WAS CALLED
AN INSULA, THE ROMAN EQUIVALENT OF A MODERN CITY BLOCK.
EACH INSULA WAS 80 YARDS (73 M) SQUARE, WITH THE LAND
WITHIN IT DIVIDED. AS THE CITY DEVELOPED, EACH INSULA WOULD
EVENTUALLY BE FILLED WITH BUILDINGS OF VARIOUS SHAPES AND
SIZES AND CRISSCROSSED WITH BACK ROADS AND ALLEYS. MOST
INSULAE WERE GIVEN TO THE FIRST SETTLERS OF A ROMAN CITY, BUT
EACH PERSON HAD TO PAY TO CONSTRUCT HIS OWN HOUSE.
THE CITY WAS SURROUNDED BY A WALL TO PROTECT IT FROM
INVADERS AND TO MARK THE CITY LIMITS. AREAS OUTSIDE CITY LIMITS
WERE LEFT OPEN AS FARMLAND. AT THE END OF EACH MAIN ROAD WAS
A LARGE GATEWAY WITH WATCHTOWERS. A PORTCULLIS COVERED THE
OPENING WHEN THE CITY WAS UNDER SIEGE, AND ADDITIONAL
WATCHTOWERS WERE CONSTRUCTED ALONG THE CITY WALLS. AN
AQUEDUCT WAS BUILT OUTSIDE THE CITY WALLS.
THE COLLAPSE OF ROMAN CIVILIZATION SAW THE END OF ROMAN
URBAN PLANNING, AMONG OTHER ARTS. URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE
MIDDLE AGES, CHARACTERISTICALLY FOCUSED ON A FORTRESS, A
FORTIFIED ABBEY, OR A (SOMETIMES ABANDONED) ROMAN NUCLEUS,
OCCURRED "LIKE THE ANNULAR RINGS OF A TREE", WHETHER IN AN
EXTENDED VILLAGE OR THE CENTER OF A LARGER CITY. SINCE THE
NEW CENTER WAS OFTEN ON HIGH, DEFENSIBLE GROUND, THE CITY
PLAN TOOK ON AN ORGANIC CHARACTER, FOLLOWING THE
6
IRREGULARITIES OF ELEVATION CONTOURS LIKE THE SHAPES THAT
RESULT FROM AGRICULTURAL TERRACING.
THE IDEAL OF WIDE STREETS AND ORDERLY CITIES WAS NOT
LOST, HOWEVER. A FEW MEDIEVAL CITIES WERE ADMIRED FOR THEIR
WIDE THOROUGHFARES AND ORDERLY ARRANGEMENTS, BUT THE
JURIDICAL CHAOS OF MEDIEVAL CITIES (WHERE THE ADMINISTRATION
OF STREETS WAS SOMETIMES PASSED DOWN THROUGH NOBLE
FAMILIES), AND THE CHARACTERISTIC TENACITY OF MEDIEVAL
EUROPEANS IN LEGAL MATTERS PREVENTED FREQUENT OR LARGE-
SCALE URBAN PLANNING UNTIL THE RENAISSANCE AND THE EARLY-
MODERN STRENGTHENING OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
ADMINISTRATION, AS EUROPEAN (AND SOON AFTER, NORTH AMERICAN)
SOCIETY TRANSITED FROM CITY-STATES TO WHAT WE WOULD
RECOGNIZE AS A MORE MODERN CONCEPT OF A NATION-STATE.
RENAISSANCE EUROPE - FLORENCE WAS AN EARLY MODEL OF THE
NEW URBAN PLANNING, WHICH TOOK ON A STAR-SHAPED LAYOUT
ADAPTED FROM THE NEW STAR FORT, DESIGNED TO RESIST CANNON
FIRE. THIS MODEL WAS WIDELY IMITATED, REFLECTING THE ENORMOUS
CULTURAL POWER OF FLORENCE IN THIS AGE; "[T]HE RENAISSANCE
WAS HYPNOTIZED BY ONE CITY TYPE WHICH FOR A CENTURY AND A
HALF— FROM FILARETE TO SCAMOZZI— WAS IMPRESSED UPON
UTOPIAN SCHEMES: THIS IS THE STAR-SHAPED CITY". RADIAL STREETS
EXTEND OUTWARD FROM A DEFINED CENTER OF MILITARY, COMMUNAL
OR SPIRITUAL POWER.
ONLY IN IDEAL CITIES DID A CENTRALLY PLANNED STRUCTURE
STAND AT THE HEART, AS IN RAPHAEL'S SPOSALIZIO (ILLUSTRATION) OF
1504. AS BUILT, THE UNIQUE EXAMPLE OF A RATIONALLY
PLANNED QUATTROCENTO NEW CITY CENTER, THAT
OF VIGEVANO (1493–95), RESEMBLES A CLOSED SPACE INSTEAD,
SURROUNDED BY ARCADING.
FILARETE'S IDEAL CITY, BUILDING ON LEONE BATTISTA
ALBERTI'S DE RE AEDIFICATORIA, WAS NAMED "SFORZINDA" IN
COMPLIMENT TO HIS PATRON; ITS TWELVE-POINTED SHAPE,
7
CIRCUMSCRIBABLE BY A "PERFECT" PYTHAGOREAN FIGURE, THE
CIRCLE, TOOK NO HEED OF ITS UNDULATING TERRAIN IN FILARETE'S
MANUSCRIPT. THIS PROCESS OCCURRED IN CITIES, BUT ORDINARILY
NOT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SUBURBS CHARACTERISTIC OF THIS ERA (SEE
BRAUDEL, THE STRUCTURES OF EVERYDAY LIFE), WHICH REMAINED
DISORDERLY AND CHARACTERIZED BY CROWDING AND ORGANIC
GROWTH.
FOLLOWING THE 1695 BOMBARDMENT OF BRUSSELS BY THE
FRENCH TROOPS OF KING LOUIS XIV, IN WHICH A LARGE PART OF THE
CITY CENTER WAS DESTROYED, GOVERNORMAX EMANUEL PROPOSED
USING THE RECONSTRUCTION TO COMPLETELY CHANGE THE LAYOUT
AND ARCHITECTURAL STYLE OF THE CITY. HIS PLAN WAS TO
TRANSFORM THE MEDIEVAL CITY INTO A CITY OF THE
NEW BAROQUE STYLE, MODELED ON TURIN, WITH A LOGICAL STREET
LAYOUT, WITH STRAIGHT AVENUES OFFERING LONG, UNINTERRUPTED
VIEWS FLANKED BY BUILDINGS OF A UNIFORM SIZE. THIS PLAN WAS
OPPOSED BY RESIDENTS AND MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES, WHO WANTED
A RAPID RECONSTRUCTION, DID NOT HAVE THE RESOURCES FOR
GRANDIOSE PROPOSALS, AND RESENTED WHAT THEY CONSIDERED
THE IMPOSITION OF A NEW, FOREIGN, ARCHITECTURAL STYLE. IN THE
ACTUAL RECONSTRUCTION, THE GENERAL LAYOUT OF THE CITY WAS
CONSERVED, BUT IT WAS NOT IDENTICAL TO THAT BEFORE THE
CATACLYSM. DESPITE THE NECESSITY OF RAPID RECONSTRUCTION
AND THE LACK OF FINANCIAL MEANS, AUTHORITIES DID TAKE SEVERAL
MEASURES TO IMPROVE TRAFFIC FLOW, SANITATION, AND THE
AESTHETICS OF THE CITY. MANY STREETS WERE MADE AS WIDE AS
POSSIBLE TO IMPROVE TRAFFIC FLOW.
AMERICAS - MANY CENTRAL AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS ALSO PLANNED
THEIR CITIES, INCLUDING SEWAGE SYSTEMS AND RUNNING WATER.
IN MEXICO, TENOCHTITLAN WAS THE CAPITAL OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE,
BUILT ON AN ISLAND IN LAKE TEXCOCO IN WHAT IS NOW THE FEDERAL
DISTRICT IN CENTRAL MEXICO. AT ITS HEIGHT, TENOCHTITLAN WAS ONE
OF THE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD, WITH OVER 200,000
INHABITANTS.
8
MODERN PLANNING - MODERN URBAN PLANNING DATES FROM THE
1850S AND THE CONTRASTING PROJECTS TO UPDATE PARIS AND
EXTEND BARCELONA. IN 1852, BARON GEORGES-EUGÈNE
HAUSSMANN WAS COMMISSIONED TO REMODEL THE MEDIEVAL STREET
PLAN OF PARIS BY DEMOLISHING SWATHES OF THE OLD CITY AND
LAYING OUT WIDE BOULEVARDS, EXTENDING OUTWARDS BEYOND THE
OLD CITY LIMITS. HAUSSMANN'S PROJECT ENCOMPASSED ALL ASPECTS
OF URBAN PLANNING, BOTH IN THE CENTRE OF PARIS AND IN THE
SURROUNDING DISTRICTS, WITH REGULATIONS IMPOSED ON BUILDING
FACADES, PUBLIC PARKS, SEWERS AND WATER WORKS, CITY
FACILITIES, AND PUBLIC MONUMENTS. BEYOND AESTHETIC AND
SANITARY CONSIDERATIONS, THE WIDE THOROUGHFARES FACILITATED
TROOP MOVEMENT AND POLICING.
THE PLAN CHOSEN TO EXTEND BARCELONA WAS A RIGOROUS
PROJECT BASED ON A SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF THE CITY AND ITS
MODERN REQUIREMENTS. IT WAS DRAWN UP BY THE CATALAN
ENGINEER ILDEFONS CERDÀ TO FILL THE SPACE BEYOND THE CITY
WALLS AFTER THEY WERE DEMOLISHED FROM 1854. HE IS CREDITED
WITH INVENTING THE TERM ‘URBANIZATION’ AND HIS APPROACH WAS
CODIFIED IN HIS GENERAL THEORY OF URBANIZATION (1867).
CERDÀ'S EIXAMPLE (CATALAN FOR 'EXTENSION') CONSISTED OF 550
REGULAR BLOCKS WITH CHAMFERED CORNERS TO FACILITATE THE
MOVEMENT OF TRAMS, CROSSED BY THREE WIDER AVENUES. HIS
OBJECTIVES WERE TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH OF THE INHABITANTS,
TOWARDS WHICH THE BLOCKS WERE BUILT AROUND CENTRAL
GARDENS AND ORIENTATED NW-SE TO MAXIMIZE THE SUNLIGHT THEY
RECEIVED, AND ASSIST SOCIAL INTEGRATION.
REACTION - BY THE LATE 1960S AND EARLY 1970S, MANY PLANNERS
FELT THAT MODERNISM'S CLEAN LINES AND LACK OF HUMAN SCALE
SAPPED VITALITY FROM THE COMMUNITY, BLAMING THEM FOR HIGH
CRIME RATES AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS.
MODERNIST PLANNING FELL INTO DECLINE IN THE 1970S WHEN
THE CONSTRUCTION OF CHEAP, UNIFORM TOWER BLOCKS ENDED IN
MOST COUNTRIES, SUCH AS BRITAIN AND FRANCE. SINCE THEN MANY
9
HAVE BEEN DEMOLISHED AND REPLACED BY OTHER HOUSING TYPES.
RATHER THAN ATTEMPTING TO ELIMINATE ALL DISORDER, PLANNING
NOW CONCENTRATES ON INDIVIDUALISM AND DIVERSITY IN SOCIETY
AND THE ECONOMY; THIS IS THE POST-MODERNIST ERA.
MINIMALLY PLANNED CITIES STILL EXIST. HOUSTON IS A LARGE
CITY (WITH A METROPOLITAN POPULATION OF 5.5 MILLION) IN A
DEVELOPED COUNTRY WITHOUT A
COMPREHENSIVE ZONING ORDINANCE. HOUSTON DOES, HOWEVER,
RESTRICT DEVELOPMENT DENSITIES AND MANDATE PARKING, EVEN
THOUGH SPECIFIC LAND USES ARE NOT REGULATED. ALSO, PRIVATE-
SECTOR DEVELOPERS IN HOUSTON USE SUBDIVISION COVENANTS
AND DEED RESTRICTIONSTO EFFECT LAND-USE RESTRICTIONS
RESEMBLING ZONING LAWS. HOUSTON VOTERS HAVE REJECTED
COMPREHENSIVE ZONING ORDINANCES THREE TIMES SINCE 1948. EVEN
WITHOUT TRADITIONAL ZONING, METROPOLITAN HOUSTON DISPLAYS
LARGE-SCALE LAND-USE PATTERNS RESEMBLING ZONED REGIONS
COMPARABLE IN AGE AND POPULATION, SUCH AS DALLAS. THIS
SUGGESTS THAT NON-REGULATORY FACTORS SUCH AS URBAN
INFRASTRUCTURE AND FINANCING MAY BE AS IMPORTANT AS ZONING
LAWS IN SHAPING URBAN FORM.
FORMS OF URBANISM & NEW URBANISM
NEO-TRADITIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
NEO-TRADITIONAL DEVELOPMENT (NTD) OR NEO-TRADITIONAL
TOWN PLANNING IS AN URBAN DESIGN TREND WHICH HAS DRAWN THE
ATTENTION OF PLANNERS AND ARCHITECTS DURING THE PAST TWO
DECADES. THIS POST MODERN FLOW IS FOCUSED ON CREATING WELL-
PLANNED, MIXED-USE, COMPACT CITIES.
DENSITY HAS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN NTDS. NEO-
TRADITIONALISTS TRY TO PLAN COMMUNITIES WITH DENSE FABRIC AS
WELL AS PROMOTING PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE AMENITIES. THIS IS A
REACTION TO THE RECENT CRITICISMS OF URBAN SPRAWL. CRITICS OF
URBAN SPRAWL BELIEVE THAT SPRAWLING URBAN AREAS AND
10
SUBURBS CAUSE LOW SENSE OF COMMUNITY, HIGH CONSTRUCTION
COSTS, HIGH AUTOMOBILE DEPENDENCY, HIGH ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTIONS, LOW PUBLIC HEALTH, ETC.
URBAN CONTAINMENT
URBAN CONTAINMENT AS “THE POLICY OF LIMITING SPRAWL BY
RESTRICTING OUT-OF-TOWN DEVELOPMENT.”1 WHILE THIS IS A SIMPLE
DEFINITION, IT IS TRUE THAT URBAN CONTAINMENT AIMS TO LIMIT
SPRAWL, AND THAT IT DOES SO BY RESTRICTING DEVELOPMENT
OUTSIDE OF A DESIGNATED ZONE. BUT A SLIGHTLY BROADER VIEW IS
NECESSARY IN ORDER TO INCLUDE THE AIMS OF URBAN CONTAINMENT
IN TERMS OF IN-TOWN DEVELOPMENT AS WELL.
THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF URBAN CONTAINMENT ARE THE
EFFICIENT DELIVERY OF PUBLIC
FACILITIES; THE PRESERVATION OF FARMS AND FOREST LAND; THE
REDUCTION OF AIR, WATER AND LAND
POLLUTION; AND THE CULTIVATION OF QUALITY OF LIFE BY CREATING A
DISTINCTLY URBAN AMBIENCE.
WHEN THESE OBJECTIVES ARE IMPLEMENTED EFFECTIVELY, URBAN
CONTAINMENT PROVIDES FOR THE
ACCESSIBILITY OF ALL DESTINATIONS IN AN URBAN AREA TO ALL THE
AREA’S RESIDENTS2. SHOPPING,
JOBS, AND SCHOOLS ARE CLOSER TO HOME AND MORE EASILY
SERVICED BY PRIVATE AND PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION. THE URBAN AREA’S POLLUTION IS REDUCED BY
COMPACT DEVELOPMENT, AND
CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND PUBLIC PARKS ARE WELL COORDINATED
TO CORRESPOND WITH TRAFFIC
11
PATTERNS, MAKING THEM MORE RELEVANT TO THE LIVES OF AN URBAN
AREA’S RESIDENTS.
COMPACT CITY
COMPACT CITY IS A HIGH DENSITY URBAN SETTLEMENT THAT HAS THE
FOLLOWING MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
CENTRAL AREA REVITALISATION
HIGH-DENSITY DEVELOPMENT
MIXED-USE DEVELOPMENT
SERVICES AND FACILITIES: HOSPITALS, PARKS, SCHOOLS, LEISURE AND
FUN
ECO-CITY
AN ECO-CITY IS AN ECOLOGICALLY HEALTHY CITY. ECO-CITIES
ARE PLACES WHERE PEOPLE CAN LIVE HEALTHIER AND ECONOMICALLY
PRODUCTIVE LIVES WHILE REDUCING THEIR IMPACT ON THE
ENVIRONMENT. THEY WORK TO HARMONIZE EXISTING POLICIES,
REGIONAL REALITIES, AND ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS MARKETS WITH
THEIR NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS. ECO-
CITIES STRIVE TO ENGAGE ALL CITIZENS IN COLLABORATIVE AND
TRANSPARENT DECISION MAKING, WHILE BEING MINDFUL OF SOCIAL
EQUITY CONCERNS.
UTOPIAN CITY DESIGN CONCEPTS
GARDEN CITY(VILLAGE)- GARDEN CITY IS A VILLAGE IN THE TOWN
OF HEMPSTEAD IN CENTRAL NASSAU COUNTY, NEW YORK, IN
THE UNITED STATES. IT WAS FOUNDED BY MULTI-
MILLIONAIREALEXANDER TURNEY STEWART IN 1869, AND IS LOCATED
ON LONG ISLAND, TO THE EAST OF NEW YORK CITY, 18.5 MILES (29.8 KM)
FROM MID-TOWN MANHATTAN, AND JUST SOUTH OF THE TOWN
OF NORTH HEMPSTEAD. A VERY SMALL SECTION OF THE VILLAGE IS IN
NORTH HEMPSTEAD.
12
GARDEN CITY(METHOD)- THE GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT IS A METHOD
OF URBAN PLANNING THAT WAS INITIATED IN 1898 BY SIR EBENEZER
HOWARD IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. GARDEN CITIES WERE INTENDED TO
BE PLANNED, SELF-CONTAINED COMMUNITIES SURROUNDED BY
"GREENBELTS" (PARKS), CONTAINING PROPORTIONATE AREAS OF
RESIDENCES, INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE.
INSPIRED BY THE UTOPIAN NOVEL LOOKING BACKWARD,
HOWARD PUBLISHED HIS BOOK TO-MORROW: A PEACEFUL PATH TO
REAL REFORM IN 1898 (WHICH WAS REISSUED IN 1902 AS GARDEN
CITIES OF TO-MORROW). HIS IDEALISED GARDEN CITY WOULD HOUSE
32,000 PEOPLE ON A SITE OF 6,000 ACRES (2,400 HA), PLANNED ON
A CONCENTRIC PATTERN WITH OPEN SPACES, PUBLIC PARKS AND SIX
RADIAL BOULEVARDS, 120 FT (37 M) WIDE, EXTENDING FROM THE
CENTRE. THE GARDEN CITY WOULD BE SELF-SUFFICIENT AND WHEN IT
REACHED FULL POPULATION, ANOTHER GARDEN CITY WOULD BE
DEVELOPED NEARBY. HOWARD ENVISAGED A CLUSTER OF SEVERAL
GARDEN CITIES AS SATELLITES OF A CENTRAL CITY OF 50,000 PEOPLE,
LINKED BY ROAD AND RAIL.
CITY BEAUTIFUL - THE CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT WAS A REFORM
PHILOSOPHY CONCERNING NORTH
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING THAT FLOURISHED
DURING THE 1890S AND 1900S WITH THE INTENT OF
USING BEAUTIFICATION AND MONUMENTAL GRANDEUR IN CITIES. THE
MOVEMENT, WHICH WAS ORIGINALLY ASSOCIATED MAINLY
WITH CHICAGO, DETROIT, AND WASHINGTON, D.C. PROMOTED BEAUTY
NOT ONLY FOR ITS OWN SAKE, BUT ALSO TO CREATE MORAL ANDCIVIC
VIRTUE AMONG URBAN POPULATIONS. ADVOCATES OF THE
PHILOSOPHY BELIEVED THAT SUCH BEAUTIFICATION COULD THUS
PROMOTE A HARMONIOUS SOCIAL ORDER THAT WOULD INCREASE THE
QUALITY OF LIFE.
SATELLITE CITY
SATELLITE CITIES ARE SMALLER CITIES THAT ARE NEXT TO A
LARGE CITY THAT IS THE CENTER OF A METROPOLITAN AREA. THEY ARE
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DIFFERENT FROM SUBURBS, SUBDIVISIONS AND BEDROOM
COMMUNITIES BECAUSE THEY HAVE THEIR OWN GOVERNMENTS AND
ENOUGH JOBS TO SUPPORT THEIR OWN PEOPLE. SATELLITE CITIES
COULD BE SEPARATE CITIES OUTSIDE OF THE LARGER METROPOLITAN
AREAS. HOWEVER, WORKING AS PART OF A METROPOLIS, A SATELLITE
CITY GETS "CROSS-COMMUTING" (PEOPLE LIVING IN THE CITY WORKING
OUTSIDE OF THE CITY AND PEOPLE FROM OTHER PLACES WORKING IN
THE CITY).
LINEAR CITY
THE LINEAR CITY WAS AN URBAN PLAN FOR AN ELONGATED URBAN
FORMATION. THE CITY WOULD CONSIST OF A SERIES OF FUNCTIONALLY
SPECIALIZED PARALLEL SECTORS. GENERALLY, THE CITY WOULD RUN
PARALLEL TO A RIVER AND BE BUILT SO THAT THE DOMINANT WIND
WOULD BLOW FROM THE RESIDENTIAL AREAS TO THE INDUSTRIAL
STRIP. THE SECTORS OF A LINEAR CITY WOULD BE:
1. A PURELY SEGREGATED ZONE FOR RAILWAY LINES,
2. A ZONE OF PRODUCTION AND COMMUNAL ENTERPRISES, WITH
RELATED SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS,
3. A GREEN BELT OR BUFFER ZONE WITH MAJOR HIGHWAY,
4. A RESIDENTIAL ZONE, INCLUDING A BAND OF SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS, A BAND OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS AND A
"CHILDREN'S BAND",
5. A PARK ZONE, AND
6. AN AGRICULTURAL ZONE WITH GARDENS AND STATE-RUN FARMS
(SOVKHOZY IN THE SOVIET UNION).
AS THE CITY EXPANDED, ADDITIONAL SECTORS WOULD BE ADDED TO
THE END OF EACH BAND, SO THAT THE CITY WOULD BECOME EVER
LONGER, WITHOUT GROWING WIDER.
INDUSTRIAL CITY
INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT OR INDUSTRIAL CITY WAS INITIALLY
INTRODUCED AS A TERM TO DESCRIBE AN AREA WHERE WORKERS OF A
MONOLITHIC HEAVY INDUSTRY (SHIP-BUILDING, COAL
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MINING, STEEL, CERAMICS, ETC.) LIVE WITHIN WALKING-DISTANCE OF
THEIR PLACES OF WORK.
CONTEMPORARY CITY
THE VILLE CONTEMPORAINE (CONTEMPORARY CITY) WAS AN
UNREALISED PROJECT TO HOUSE THREE MILLION INHABITANTS
DESIGNED BY THE FRENCH-SWISS ARCHITECT LE CORBUSIER IN 1922.
THE CENTERPIECE OF THIS PLAN WAS A GROUP OF SIXTY-STORY
CRUCIFORM SKYSCRAPERS BUILT ON STEEL FRAMES AND ENCASED IN
CURTAIN WALLS OF GLASS. THE SKYSCRAPERS HOUSED BOTH OFFICES
AND THE FLATS OF THE MOST WEALTHY INHABITANTS. THESE
SKYSCRAPERS WERE SET WITHIN LARGE, RECTANGULAR PARK-LIKE
GREEN SPACES.
AT THE CENTER OF THE PLANNED CITY WAS A TRANSPORTATION
CENTER WHICH HOUSED DEPOTS FOR BUSES AND TRAINS AS WELL AS
HIGHWAY INTERSECTIONS AND AT THE TOP, AN AIRPORT.
LE CORBUSIER SEGREGATED THE PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION
PATHS FROM THE ROADWAYS, AND GLORIFIED THE USE OF THE
AUTOMOBILE AS A MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION. AS ONE MOVED OUT
FROM THE CENTRAL SKYSCRAPERS, SMALLER MULTI-STORY ZIGZAG
BLOCKS SET IN GREEN SPACE AND SET FAR BACK FROM THE STREET
HOUSED THE PROLETARIAN WORKERS.
LETCHWORTH CITY
LETCHWORTH, CORRECTLY TITLED LETCHWORTH GARDEN CITY,
IS A TOWN AND CIVIL PARISH IN HERTFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND WITH A
POPULATION OF 33,600.
THE TOWN'S NAME IS TAKEN FROM ONE OF THE THREE VILLAGES
IT SURROUNDED (THE OTHER TWO BEING WILLIAN AND NORTON) - ALL
OF WHICH FEATURED IN THEDOMESDAY BOOK. THE LAND USED WAS
PURCHASED BY QUAKERS WHO HAD INTENDED TO FARM THE AREA AND
BUILD A QUAKER COMMUNITY. THE CURRENT TOWN WAS LAID OUT
BY EBENEZER HOWARD IN 1903 USING HIS RADICAL NEW GARDEN
CITY APPROACH WHICH INCORPORATED ELEMENTS OF THE COUNTRY,
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ALONGSIDE CITY LIFE. MOCKED IN THE PRESS AT THE TIME, THE DESIGN
WAS SUPPORTED BY THE ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT AND THE
QUAKERS.
AS ONE OF THE WORLD'S FIRST NEW TOWNS AND THE FIRST
'GARDEN CITY' IT HAD GREAT INFLUENCE ON FUTURE TOWN PLANNING
AND THE NEW TOWNS MOVEMENT; IT INFLUENCED WELWYN GARDEN
CITY, WHICH USED A SIMILAR APPROACH AND INSPIRED OTHER
PROJECTS AROUND THE WORLD INCLUDING CANBERRA, THE
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL, HELLERAU, GERMANY, SMALL VILLAGE
OF TAPANILA, FINLAND, AND MEŽAPARKS IN LATVIA), .
WELWYN CITY
WELWYN GARDEN CITY IS A TOWN WITHIN THE WELWYN
HATFIELD BOROUGH OF HERTFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND. IT IS LOCATED
APPROXIMATELY 20 MILES (32 KM) FROM KINGS CROSS. WELWYN
GARDEN CITY WAS THE SECOND GARDEN CITY IN ENGLAND (FOUNDED
1920) AND ONE OF THE FIRST NEW TOWNS (DESIGNATED 1948).
IT IS UNIQUE IN BEING BOTH A GARDEN CITY AND A NEW TOWN
AND EXEMPLIFIES THE PHYSICAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PLANNING
IDEALS OF THE PERIODS IN WHICH IT WAS BUILT. BECAUSE OF ITS
HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE IT ATTRACTS VISITORS FROM AROUND THE
WORLD.
NEIGHBOURHOOD UNIT
THE CONCEPT OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD UNIT, CRYSTALLISED
FROM THE PREVAILING SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL ATTITUDES OF THE
EARLY 1900S BY CLARENCE PERRY, IS AN EARLY DIAGRAMMATIC
PLANNING MODEL FOR RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT IN METROPOLITAN
AREAS. IT WAS DESIGNED BY PERRY TO ACT AS A FRAMEWORK FOR
URBAN PLANNERS ATTEMPTING TO DESIGN FUNCTIONAL, SELF-
CONTAINED AND DESIRABLE NEIGHBOURHOODS IN THE EARLY 20TH
CENTURY IN INDUSTRIALISING CITIES. IT CONTINUES TO BE UTILISED
(ALBEIT IN PROGRESSIVE AND ADAPTED WAYS, SEE NEW URBANISM),
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AS A MEANS OF ORDERING AND ORGANISING NEW RESIDENTIAL
COMMUNITIES IN A WAY WHICH SATISFIES CONTEMPORARY "SOCIAL,
ADMINISTRATIVE AND SERVICE REQUIREMENTS FOR SATISFACTORY
URBAN EXISTENCE".
SUPERBLOCK
SUPERBLOCKS WERE POPULAR DURING THE EARLY AND MID-
20TH CENTURY, ARISING FROM MODERNIST IDEAS IN ARCHITECTURE
AND URBAN PLANNING. A SUPERBLOCK IS MUCH LARGER THAN A
TRADITIONAL CITY BLOCK, WITH GREATER SETBACK FOR BUILDINGS,
AND IS TYPICALLY BOUNDED BY WIDELY SPACED, HIGH-SPEED,
ARTERIAL OR CIRCULATING ROUTES RATHER THAN BY LOCAL STREETS.
SUPERBLOCKS ARE OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH SUBURBS, PLANNED
CITIES, AND THE URBAN RENEWAL OF THE MID-20TH CENTURY; THAT IS,
IN AREAS IN WHICH A STREET HIERARCHY HAS REPLACED THE
TRADITIONAL GRID. IN A RESIDENTIAL AREA OF A SUBURB, THE
INTERIOR OF THE SUPERBLOCK IS TYPICALLY SERVED BYCUL-DE-
SAC OR LOOPED STREETS. SUPERBLOCKS CAN ALSO BE FOUND IN
CENTRAL CITY AREAS, WHERE THEY ARE MORE OFTEN ASSOCIATED
WITH INSTITUTIONAL, EDUCATIONAL, RECREATIONAL AND CORPORATE
RATHER THAN RESIDENTIAL USES.
NEW URBANISM CONCEPTS
NEW URBANISM PROMOTES THE CREATION AND RESTORATION
OF DIVERSE, WALKABLE, COMPACT, VIBRANT, MIXED-USE COMMUNITIES
COMPOSED OF THE SAME COMPONENTS AS CONVENTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT, BUT ASSEMBLED IN A MORE INTEGRATED FASHION, IN
THE FORM OF COMPLETE COMMUNITIES. THESE CONTAIN HOUSING,
WORK PLACES, SHOPS, ENTERTAINMENT, SCHOOLS, PARKS, AND CIVIC
FACILITIES ESSENTIAL TO THE DAILY LIVES OF THE RESIDENTS, ALL
WITHIN EASY WALKING DISTANCE OF EACH OTHER. NEW URBANISM
PROMOTES THE INCREASED USE OF TRAINS AND LIGHT RAIL, INSTEAD
OF MORE HIGHWAYS AND ROADS. URBAN LIVING IS RAPIDLY BECOMING
THE NEW HIP AND MODERN WAY TO LIVE FOR PEOPLE OF ALL AGES.
CURRENTLY, THERE ARE OVER 4,000 NEW URBANIST PROJECTS
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PLANNED OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES ALONE,
HALF OF WHICH ARE IN HISTORIC URBAN CENTERS.
URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES
RETAIN AND ENHANCE THE DISTRIC TCHARACTER OF SPECIFIC
LOCALITIES. CONSIDER SUITABLE HEIGHT CONTROL, SETBACKS AND
TREE PRESERVATION WHERE APPROPRIATE.
PROVIDE RELIEF AND DIVERSITY IN HEIGHT AND MASSING OF
DEVELOPMENTS IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES (DETAILED STUDIES SHOULD
BE CARRIED OUT FOR INDIVIDUAL AREAS WHERE NECESSARY).
PRESERVE LOW DENSITY AREAS TO ENHANCE DIVERSITY IN THE URBAN
CORE AND INTRODUCE INTERESTING LANDSCAPE, AND BUILT FORMS
WHERE APPROPRIATE.
PROTECT EXISTING VIEW CORRIDORS TO RIDGELINES AND PROVIDE
VISUAL ACCESS TO THE COUNTRYSIDE.
RESPECT AND INTEGRATE WITH LOW RISE NEIGHBOURING
DEVELOPMENTS BY STEPPING DOWN BUILDING HEIGHT. USE LOWER
BUILDINGS SUCH AS COMMUNITY HALLS, SCHOOLS, ETC. AS INTERFACE
AND AS VISUAL AND SPATIAL RELIEF IN THE URBAN CORE.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS SHOULD R E S P O N D T O T H E U N I Q U E
TOPOGRAPHICAL AND LANDSCAPE SETTING OF A NEW TOWN. VIEW
CORRIDORS / BREEZEWAYS TO MOUNTAIN BACKDROP OR WATERBODY
SHOULD BE MAINTAINED.
DEVELOPMENTS SHOULD BE COMPATIBLE WITH THEIR CONTEXT. OUT-
OF-CONTEXT “SORE THUMB” DEVELOPMENTS SHOULD BE AVOIDED,
ESPECIALLY AT THE PERIPHERY OF A NEW TOWN.
WHERE APPROPRIATE, ADOPT A COHERENT GRADATION IN BUILDING
HEIGHT PROFILE FROM THE HIGH DENSITY CORE AREA TO THE FRINGE /
LOW DENSITY AREAS.
CREATE LANDMARKS AT THE CIVIC / COMMERCIAL CENTRES OR FOCAL
POINTS WHERE APPROPRIATE.
BUILDING HEIGHT AND MASS SHOULD BE HARMONISED WITH THE
RURAL SETTING. OUT-OF-CONTEXT “SORE THUMB” DEVELOPMENTS
SHOULD BE AVOIDED.
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DEFINE DISTINCT VIEWSHEDS ACCORDING TO MAJOR RIDGELINES.
DETERMINE APPROPRIATE HEIGHT PROFILE WITHIN INDIVIDUAL VIEW
SHED.
ENCOURAGE DIVERSITY IN BUILDING HEIGHTS IN NEW LOW-RISE
DEVELOPMENTS TO ADD VARIETY AND INTEREST TO THE SUBURBAN
BUILT FORM. AVOID STEREOTYPE OR MONOTONOUS DEVELOPMENTS.
CREATE AN ACTIVE WATERFRONT WITH DIVERSITY IN ACTIVITIES AND
FUNCTIONS INCLUDING RESTAURANTS, BARS, RETAIL FACILITIES,
PROMENADES AND PIERS. ADD WELL-DESIGNED LANDSCAPING AND
STREET FURNITURE WHERE APPROPRIATE.
AVOID THE “WALL” EFFECT AND CREATE A VARYING BUILDING HEIGHT
PROFILE WHERE APPROPRIATE. TALLER DEVELOPMENTS SHOULD BE
LOCATED INLAND, WITH LOWER DEVELOPMENTS ON THE WATERFRONT.
IN NEW DEVELOPED AREAS, CONSIDERATION SHOULD BE GIVEN TO
DESIGNATION OF COASTAL SITES FOR LOW DENSITY DEVELOPMENT.
ENCOURAGE WELL LANDSCAPED GREEN OPEN SPACES THAT MEET THE
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RECREATIONAL
USES.
MAXIMISE PUBLIC ACCESSIBILITY TO OPEN SPACES WITH EASY
PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION AND MINIMUM INTERFACE WITH ROADS.
VISUAL LINKAGE ALONG VIEW CORRIDORS COULD HELP ORIENTATE
PEDESTRIANS AND DIRECT THEM TO THE OPEN SPACE FACILITIES. VIEW
CORRIDORS SHOULD BE LANDSCAPED WHEREVER PRACTICABLE.
PROVIDE FOCAL LANDMARK FEATURES IN OPEN SPACES TO ACHIEVE
ORIENTATION AND CREATE A SENSE OF PLACE.
INTRODUCE MORE “GREEN” SPACES AT STREET LEVEL. ENCOURAGE
DEVELOPMENTS TO ALLOCATE MORE GROUND LEVEL SPACE FOR
LANDSCAPING AND PROVIDE MORE SETBACKS (E.G. LESS PODIUM
COVERAGE) FOR TREE PLANTING. WHERE PRACTICABLE, PROVIDE
MORE WELL LANDSCAPED GREEN AREAS AND AMENITY STRIPS ALONG
MAJOR TRANSPORT CORRIDORS, STREET FRONTAGES AND WALKWAYS.
PROVIDE A BALANCED MIX OF HARD AND SOFT LANDSCAPE. DETAILED
MICRO-SCALE LANDSCAPE DESIGN SHOULD BE SITE SPECIFIC TO
MAXIMISE LEGIBILITY, TO CREATE A COMFORTABLE ENVIRONMENT AND
TO GREEN THE CITY.
PROVIDE PEDESTRIAN PRIORITY FACILITIES, SUCH AS PEDESTRIANISED
STREETS AND UNDERGROUND/SEMISUBMERGED ROADS, TO
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ENCOURAGE SEGREGATION OF VEHICLES AND PEDESTRIANS WHERE
APPROPRIATE.
INTRODUCE TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES SUCH AS SPEED BUMPS AND
RAISED CROSSINGS TO MINIMISE THE CONFLICT BETWEEN VEHICLES
AND PEDESTRIANS.
PROVIDE SAFE, CLEAN, ACCESSIBLE AND INTERESTING ENVIRONMENTS
WITH DUE CONSIDERATION TO MICROC L I M A T E F O R P E D E S T R I A
N CIRCULATION. EASE OF ACCESS SHOULD BE ENSURED FOR PERSONS
WITH DISABILITIES.
INTEGRATE THE PROVISION OF PEDESTRIAN LINKAGES WITH THAT OF
OPEN SPACE NETWORKS.
PROVIDE RAMPS FOR THE CIRCULATION OF THE ELDERLY, PERSONS
WITH DISABILITIES, PARENTS WITH CHILDREN, ETC.
PROVIDE HIGH QUALITY PAVEMENT SURFACES SUCH AS PATTERNED
TILES, BRICK PAVING, OR STONE FINISH. THE PROVISION OF STREET
FURNITURE SHOULD COMPLEMENT THE CHARACTER OF THE AREA OR
THE ADJACENT DEVELOPMENTS. AVOID USING STANDARDISED
SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGNS AND MATERIALS ESPECIALLY IN
BUSINESS AND TOURIST AREAS.
INTRODUCE INTERNAL PUBLIC CIRCULATION ON “DESIRE LINES” TO
CONNECT POPULAR DESTINATIONS. THESE LINKAGES SHOULD BE
FREELY ACCESSIBLE TO THE PUBLIC, SHOULD BE OF SUITABLE SCALE
DEPENDING ON PEDESTRIAN FLOW, AND SHOULD HAVE NATURAL LIGHT
WHERE POSSIBLE.
DUE CONSIDERATIONS SHOULD BE MADE FOR PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES IN THE DESIGN OF CROSSINGS, TACTILE PAVING, BRAILLE
INFORMATION BOARDS ETC. STREET FURNITURE SHOULD ALSO CATER
FOR THE NEEDS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AND THE ELDERLY.
ROADSIDE PLANTING SHOULD BE ENCOURAGED. PROVIDE ATTRACTIVE
HARD AND SOFT LANDSCAPING TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF THE
STREET ENVIRONMENT. SOFTEN THE HARD EDGES WITH LANDSCAPING
(E.G. TREE PLANTING AND SHRUB BEDS WHERE APPROPRIATE).
PROVIDE NON-SENSITIVE BUILDINGS OR SETBACKS TO CREATE
BUFFERS BETWEEN ROADS (POLLUTION SOURCE) AND SENSITIVE
RECEIVERS. OFFICE BUILDINGS, ENCLOSED SPORTS HALLS, RETAIL
MALLS, ETC CAN BE USED AS BUFFERS.
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ACOUSTIC BARRIERS NEED TO BE VISUALLY UNOBTRUSIVE. THESE
ELEMENTS COULD HAVE A NEGATIVE VISUAL IMPACT ON THE
STREETSCAPE. THEREFORE, WHERE APPROPRIATE THE SCREENS
COULD BE INCORPORATED IN A LANDSCAPING SCHEME, OR BE MADE
OF A TRANSPARENT MATERIAL (E.G. GLASS) TO MINIMISE THEIR VISUAL
IMPACTS.
PROVIDE SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS FOR ROADS.
PRINCIPLE OF INTELLIGENT URBANISM
PRINCIPLES OF INTELLIGENT URBANISM (PIU) IS A THEORY OF
URBAN PLANNING COMPOSED OF A SET OF TEN AXIOMS INTENDED TO
GUIDE THE FORMULATION OF CITY PLANS AND URBAN DESIGNS. THEY
ARE INTENDED TO RECONCILE AND INTEGRATE DIVERSE URBAN
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT CONCERNS. THESE AXIOMS INCLUDE
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY, HERITAGE CONSERVATION,
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY, INFRASTRUCTURE EFFICIENCY,
PLACEMAKING, "SOCIAL ACCESS," TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT,
REGIONAL INTEGRATION, HUMAN SCALE, AND INSTITUTIONAL
INTEGRITY. THE TERM WAS COINED BY PROF. CHRISTOPHER CHARLES
BENNINGER.
THE TEN PRINCIPLES OF INTELLIGENT URBANISM ARE:
PRINCIPLE ONE: A BALANCE WITH NATURE EMPHASIZES THE
DISTINCTION BETWEEN UTILIZING RESOURCES AND EXPLOITING THEM.
IT FOCUSES ON A THRESHOLD BEYOND WHICH DEFORESTATION, SOIL
EROSION, AQUIFER DETERIORATION, SILTING, AND FLOODING
REINFORCE ONE ANOTHER IN URBAN SYSTEMS, DESTROYING LIFE
SUPPORT SYSTEMS. THE PRINCIPLE PROMOTES ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENTS OF ECOSYSTEMS TO IDENTIFY FRAGILE ZONES,
THREATENED NATURAL SYSTEMS AND HABITATS THAT CAN BE
ENHANCED THROUGH CONSERVATION, DENSITY, LAND USE AND OPEN
SPACE PLANNING.
PRINCIPLE TWO: A BALANCE WITH TRADITION INTEGRATES PLAN
INTERVENTIONS WITH EXISTING CULTURAL ASSETS, RESPECTING
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TRADITIONAL PATTERNS AND PRECEDENTS OF STYLE. IT RESPECTS
HERITAGE PRECINCTS AND HISTORICAL ASSETS THAT WEAVE THE PAST
AND THE FUTURES OF CITIES INTO A CONTINUITY OF VALUES.
PRINCIPLE THREE: APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY PROMOTES MATERIALS,
BUILDING TECHNIQUES, INFRASTRUCTURAL SYSTEMS AND
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT THAT ARE CONSISTENT WITH PEOPLES=
CAPACITIES, GEO-CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, LOCAL RESOURCES, AND
SUITABLE CAPITAL INVESTMENTS. THE PIU FOCUS ON MATCHING
INTERFACES BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL SPREAD OF URBAN UTILITIES
AND SERVICES, WATERSHED CATCHMENTS, URBAN ADMINISTRATIVE
WARDS AND ELECTORAL CONSTITUENT BOUNDARIES.
PRINCIPLE FOUR: CONVIVIALITY SPONSORS SOCIAL INTERACTION
THROUGH PUBLIC DOMAINS, IN A HIERARCHY OF PLACES, DEVISED FOR
PERSONAL SOLACE, ENGAGING FRIENDSHIP, ROMANCE,
HOUSEHOLDING, NEIGHBORING, COMMUNITY AND CIVIC LIFE. IT
PROMOTES THE PROTECTION, ENHANCEMENT AND CREATION OF “OPEN
PUBLIC SPACES” WHICH AE ACCESSIBLE TO ALL.
PRINCIPLE FIVE: EFFICIENCY PROMOTES A BALANCE BETWEEN THE
CONSUMPTION OF URBAN RESOURCES LIKE ENERGY, TIME AND
FINANCE, WITH PLANNED ACHIEVEMENTS IN COMFORT, SAFETY,
SECURITY, ACCESS, TENURE, AND HYGIENE LEVELS. IT ENCOURAGES
OPTIMUM SHARING OF LAND, ROADS, FACILITIES AND
INFRASTRUCTURAL NETWORKS TO REDUCE PER HOUSEHOLD COSTS,
INCREASING AFFORDABILITY AND CIVIC VIABILITY.
PRINCIPLE SIX: HUMAN SCALE ENCOURAGES GROUND LEVEL,
PEDESTRIAN ORIENTED URBAN ARRANGEMENTS, BASED ON
ANTHROPOMETRIC DIMENSIONS, AS OPPOSED TO AMACHINE-SCALES.=
WALKABLE, MIXED USE URBAN VILLAGES ARE ENCOURAGED, OVER
MONO-FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS AND ZONES, LINKED BY MOTOR WAYS AND
SURROUNDED BY PARKING LOTS.
PRINCIPLE SEVEN: OPPORTUNITY MATRIX ENRICHES THE CITY AS A
VEHICLE FOR PERSONAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT,
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THROUGH ACCESS TO A RANGE OF ORGANIZATIONS, SERVICES AND
FACILITIES, PROVIDING A VARIETY OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR EDUCATION,
RECREATION, EMPLOYMENT, BUSINESS, MOBILITY, SHELTER, HEALTH,
SAFETY AND BASIC NEEDS.
PRINCIPLE EIGHT: REGIONAL INTEGRATION, ENVISIONS THE CITY AS AN
ORGANIC PART OF A LARGER ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL
AND CULTURAL GEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM, WHICH IS ESSENTIAL FOR ITS
FUTURE SUSTAINABILITY.
PRINCIPLE NINE: BALANCED MOVEMENT PROMOTES INTEGRATED
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS COMPOSED OF PEDESTRIAN PATHS, CYCLE
LANES, EXPRESS BUS LANES, LIGHT RAIL CORRIDORS AND AUTOMOBILE
CHANNELS. THE MODAL SPLIT NODES BETWEEN THESE SYSTEMS
BECOME THE PUBLIC DOMAINS AROUND WHICH CLUSTER HIGH
DENSITY, SPECIALIZED URBAN HUBS AND WALKABLE, MIXED-USE
URBAN VILLAGES.
PRINCIPLE TEN: INSTITUTIONAL INTEGRITY RECOGNIZES THAT GOOD
PRACTICES INHERENT IN CONSIDERED PRINCIPLES CAN ONLY BE
REALIZED THROUGH THE EMPLACEMENT OF ACCOUNTABLE,
TRANSPARENT, COMPETENT AND PARTICIPATORY LOCAL
GOVERNANCE. IT RECOGNIZES THAT SUCH GOVERNANCE IS FOUNDED
ON APPROPRIATE DATA BASES, ON DUE ENTITLEMENTS, ON CIVIC
RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES. THE PIU PROMOTES A RANGE OF
FACILITATIVE AND PROMOTIVE URBAN DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
TOOLS TO ACHIEVE INTELLIGENT URBAN PRACTICES, SYSTEMS AND
FORMS.
URBAN DESIGN GLOSSARY
ADAPTIVE RE-USE - CONVERSION OF A BUILDING INTO A USE OTHER
THAN THAT FOR WHICH IT WAS DESIGNED, SUCH AS CHANGING A
WAREHOUSE INTO A GALLERY SPACE OR HOUSING.
ANIMATION – A QUALITY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT WHICH
SUPPORTS SUSTAINED ACTIVITY THROUGH THE ARCHITECTURAL AND
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ARTISTIC EMBELLISHMENT OF MATERIALS AND DETAILS, THE VISUAL
AND PHYSICAL ACCESSIBILITY OF INTERIOR ACTIVITIES FROM THE
EXTERIOR AND THE INTRODUCTION OF SUPPORTIVE PUBLIC FACILITIES
AND AMENITIES.
AREAS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL: AREAS FAVOURBLE WITH
MEDIUM OR
HIGH POTENTIAL FOR THE DISCOVERY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RESOURCES. THIS
POTENTIAL IS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF A WIDE RANGE OF
GEOGRAPHIC AND
HISTORICAL FEATURES WHICH INFLUENCED PAST SETTLEMENT.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL IS CONFIRMED THROUGH
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT.
AWNING – AN ADJUSTABLE, ROOF-LIKE COVERING FITTED OVER
WINDOWS, DOORS, ETC. TO PROVIDE SHELTER FROM THE SUN, RAIN
AND WIND AND FOR ITS DECORATIVE AND ADVERTISING POTENTIAL.
BARRIER-FREE DESIGN – BUILDING AND SITE DESIGN WHICH IS
ACCESSIBLE TO ALL PEOPLE, REGARDLESS OF AGE AND ABILITIES.
BAY – A VERTICAL DIVISION OF A FAÇADE OR A STRUCTURE DIVISION
OF A BUILDING, MARKED BY COLUMN SPACING, ROOF COMPARTMENTS,
WINDOWS OR SIMILAR MEASURES.
BOLLARDS - VERTICAL COLUMNS USED TO PHYSICALLY BLOCK OR
VISUALLY
GUIDE VEHICULAR TRAFFIC IN AN AREA.
BUILDING ARTICULATION- DETAILING OF BUILDING MASS, LOCATION OR
ORIENTATION OF FENESTRATION, AND DESIGN OF BUILDING ELEMENTS.
BOULEVARD – THE PORTION OF LAND ON EITHER SIDE OF A STREET,
BETWEEN THE CURB AND PROPERTY LINE AND MAY INCLUDE
SIDEWALK.
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BUFFER – A STRIP OF LAND ESTABLISHED TO PROVIDE SEPARATION
BETWEEN LAND USES AND TYPICALLY DEVELOPED AS A LANDSCAPE
AREA.
BUMP-OUTS- WIDENED SIDEWALK AREAS AT INTERSECTIONS, OFTEN IN
PLACE OF ON-STREET PARKING, THEREBY NARROWING THE
PEDESTRIAN CROSSING DISTANCE OVER A RIGHT-OF-WAY.
BUILDING ENVELOPE – THE VOLUME OF SPACE THAT MAY BE OCCUPIED
BY A BUILDING USUALLY DEFINED BY A SERIES OF DIMENSIONAL
REQUIREMENTS SUCH AS SETBACK, STEP BACK, PERMITTED MAXIMUM
HEIGHT, MAXIMUM PERMITTED LOT COVERAGE.
BUILT HERITAGE RESOURCE: ONE OR MORE BUILDINGS,
STRUCTURES,MONUMENTS, INSTALLATIONS, OR REMAINS ASSOCIATED
WITH ARCHITECTURAL,CULTURAL, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, OR
MILITARY HISTORY, AND IDENTIFIED ASBEING IMPORTANT TO A
COMMUNITY.
CANOPY – A PERMANENT FIXTURE DESIGNED TO SHELTER
PEDESTRIANS AND DISPLAY GOODS FROM ADVERSE WEATHER
CONDITIONS.
CIRCULATION: MOVEMENT PATTERNS OF PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR
TRAFFIC.
COMPATIBILITY – THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT DESIGNS
WHICH, DESPITE THEIR DIFFERENCES ALLOW THEM TO BE LOCATED
NEAR EACH OTHER IN HARMONY, SUCH AS SCALE, HEIGHT, MATERIALS,
FENCING, LANDSCAPING AND LOCATION OF SERVICE AREAS.
CORNICE – AN ORNAMENTAL MOLDING ALONG THE TOP OF A WALL.
CULTURAL HERITAGE LANDSCAPE – A DEFINED GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
OF HERITAGE SIGNIFICANCE, WHICH HAS BEEN MODIFIED BY HUMAN
ACTIVITIES. SUCH AN AREA IS VALUED BY A COMMUNITY AND IS OF
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SIGNIFICANCE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE HISTORY OF A PEOPLE
OR PLACE.
DENSITY OF USE – THE NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS PER UNIT OF AREA.
HIGHER LEVELS OF DENSITY MUST BE APPROPRIATELY SUPPORTED BY
THE URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE TO PREVENT OVERCROWDING AND
CONGESTION. THE ADVANTAGES OF DENSER SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
INCLUDE THE DECREASE OF SEPARATING DISTANCES BETWEEN
INDIVIDUALS, BUSINESSES, AND INSTITUTIONS; THE INCREASE OF
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; AND THE PRESERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES, SUCH AS LAND AND ENERGY (DECREASE OF SPRAWL).
THE COMMON MEANS TO MEASURE AND REGULATE DENSITY OF
DEVELOPMENT IS BY FLOOR AREA RATION (FAR), WHICH IS THE
PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TOTAL FLOOR AREA OF
THE BUILDINGS AND THE LAND ON WHICH THEY ARE BUILT.
DESIGN GUIDELINES – CRITERIA ESTABLISHED TO GUIDE DEVELOPMENT
TOWARD A DESIRED LEVEL OF QUALITY THROUGH THE DESIGN OF THE
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND WHICH ARE APPLIED ON A
DISCRETIONARY BASIS RELATIVE TO THE CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT.
DISTRICT – GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS OF RELATIVELY CONSISTENT
CHARACTER, SUCH AS EXHIBITED IN MAY RESIDENTIAL
NEIGHBORHOODS AND THE DOWNTOWNS.
DRIP LINE – THE OUTER BOUNDARY OF AN AREA ON THE SURFACE OF
THE GROUND THAT CORRESPONDS TO THE OUTER EDGE OF THE
CROWN OF THE TREE.
ELEVATION – A DRAWING SHOWING AN EXTERNAL FACE OF A BUILDING.
ENCLOSURE (SENSE OF) – AN EXPERIENCE IN WHICH A PEDESTRIAN
FEELS SHELTERED WITH A SEMI-PRIVATE REALM. BUILDINGS, TREES,
LANDSCAPING AND STREET WIDTHS ARE ALL FACTORS IN CREATING A
SENSE OF ENCLOSURE.
FAÇADE – THE EXTERIOR WALL OF A BUILDING EXPOSED TO PUBLIC
VIEW OR THAT WALL VIEWED BY PERSON NOT WITHIN THE BUILDING.
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FENESTRATION – THE ARRANGEMENT OF WINDOWS IN A BUILDING.
FOCAL POINT – A PROMINENT STRUCTURE, FEATURE OR AREA OF
INTEREST OR ACTIVITY.
GABLE – ANY BASICALLY TRIANGULAR-SHAPED, UPPER PART OF A
BUILDING WALL, USUALLY UNDER A PITCHED ROOD, SOMETIMES UPPER
WALLS TOPPED WITH STEPPED PARAPETS ARE REFERRED TO AS
GABLES OR STEPPED GABLES.
GATEWAY – THE DESIGN OF A BUILDING SITE OR LANDSCAPE TO
SYMBOLIZE AN ENTRANCE OR ARRIVAL TO A SPECIAL DISTRICT.
HISTORIC ASSETS – BUILDINGS OR ASPECTS OF NEIGHBORHOODS THAT
HOLD SIGNIFICANT SHARED MEMORIES FOR THE RESIDENTS AND
PROVIDE HISTORIC IDENTITY FOR THE COMMUNITY. SOME BUILDINGS
ARE SPECIFICALLY RECOGNIZED BY THE CITY FOR THEIR HISTORIC
CHARACTER AND ARE PROVIDED WITH A DEGREE OF PROTECTION
FROM DESTRUCTION OR SIGNIFICANT ALTERATIONS TO THE EXTERIOR.
SOME NEIGHBORHOODS THAT HAVE MANY HISTORIC STRUCTURES
HAVE BEEN RECOGNIZED AS HISTORIC DISTRICTS OR, ALTERNATIVELY,
CONSERVATION DISTRICTS, AND THESE CLASSIFICATIONS PROVIDE
CERTAIN LEVELS OF PROTECTION FOR THE NEIGHBORHOOD AS A
WHOLE.
HERITAGE CONSERVATION: THE ACTIVITY UNDERTAKEN TO PROTECT,
SAFEGUARD, PASS ON OR ENHANCE HERITAGE RESOURCES.
HERITAGE CONSERVATION DISTRICT: A GEOGRAPHIC AREA PRIMARILY
MADE UP OF GROUPS OF BUILDINGS, STREETS AND OPEN SPACES
WHICH COLLECTIVELY GIVE THE AREA A SPECIAL CHARACTER.
TYPICALLY, THE HERITAGE CONSERVATION DISTRICT WOULD BE
SUBJECT TO A BY-LAW DESIGNED TO ROTECT AND RETAIN THE
CHARACTER AND SPIRIT OF THE AREA AND TO ENSURE THAT
DEVELOPMENT IS SYMPATHETIC TO AND FITS INTO THE FABRIC OF THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD.
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HERITAGE DESIGNATION: A MEASURE OF PROTECTION ENACTED BY BY-
LAW UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE ONTARIO HERITAGE ACT FOR THE
PURPOSE OF CONSERVING AND ENHANCING HERITAGE RESOURCES.
HUMAN SCALE – THE QUALITY OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH
REFLECTS A SYMPATHETIC PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP TO HUMAN
DIMENSIONS AND WHICH CONTRIBUTES TO THE CITIZEN’S PERCEPTION
AND COMPREHENSION OF THE SIZE, SCALE, HEIGHT, BULK AND
MASSING OF BUILDINGS OR OTHER FEATURES OF THE BUILT
ENVIRONMENT.
INFILL – THE PLACEMENT OF NEW BUILDINGS INTO ESTABLISHED BUILT-
UP URBAN AREAS, WHICH USUALLY RESULTS IN AN INCREASE IN THE
EXISTING BUILDING’S STOCK.
LANDMARKS – BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES AND SPACES WHICH CREATE
DISTINCT VISUAL ORIENTATION POINTS THAT PROVIDE A SENSE OF
LOCATION TO THE OBSERVERS WITHIN THE OR DISTRICT SUCH AS THAT
CREATED BY A SIGNIFICANT NATURAL FEATURE OR BY AN
ARCHITECTURAL FORM WHICH IS HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE RELATIVE TO ITS
SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT.
-A BUILDING OR STRUCTURE THAT STANDS OUT FROM ITS
BACKGROUND BY VIRTUE OF HEIGHT, SIZE OR SOME OTHER ASPECT OF
DESIGN.
MASS – THE COMBINATION OF THE THREE DIMENSIONS OF LENGTH,
HEIGHT AND DEPTH WHICH GIVE A BUILDING ITS OVERALL SHAPE; A
BUILDING IS OFTEN COMPOSED OF MANY MASSES, HENCE THE TERM
MASSING, WHICH IS OFTEN USED TO DESCRIBE THE FORM OR SHAPE
OF STRUCTURE.
MICROCLIMATE – OUTDOOR CONDITIONS AROUND BUILDINGS AND THE
IMPACT OF BUILDINGS ON SITE CONDITIONS, PEDESTRIAN SPACES AND
ADJACENT BUILDINGS; CONDITIONS INCLUDE AMOUNT OF
SUNLIGHT/SHADE, WIND LEVELS AND SNOW LOADS ARE INFLUENCED BY
BUILDING PLACEMENT, HEIGHT, DESIGN, ORIENTATION AND MASSING.
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MIXED USE – A DEVELOPMENT OR AREA COMPRISED OF MIXED LAND
USES EITHER IN THE SAME BUILDING OR IN SEPARATE BUILDINGS ON
EITHER THE SAME LOT OR ON SEPARATE LOTS OR, AT A LARGER SCALE,
IN NODES.
MODULATION – VARIATION IN THE PLANE OF A BUILDING WALL OFTEN
USED TO PROVIDE VISUAL INTEREST.
MULTIPLEX - MULTIPLE RESIDENTIAL UNITS WITHIN A HOUSE FORM
BUILDING.
NODE - A PLACE WHERE ACTIVITY AND ROUTES ARE CONCENTRATED,
OFTEN USED SYNONYMOUSLY WITH JUNCTION.
PARAPET – A PORTION OF A WALL THAT PROJECTS ABOVE A ROOF.
PEDESTRIAN: ALL PEOPLE ON FOOT OR MOVING AT WALKING SPEED,
INCLUDING THOSE WHO USE MOBILITY AIDS (WHEELCHAIRS,
SCOOTERS, ETC.), PERSONS WITH STROLLERS AND BUGGIES, AND
FRAIL ELDERLY PERSONS.
PEDESTRIAN-ORIENTED: AN ENVIRONMENT DESIGNED TO MAKE
MOVEMENT BY PEDESTRIANS FAST, ATTRACTIVE AND COMFORTABLE
FOR VARIOUS AGES AND ABILITIES; CONSIDERATIONS INCLUDE
SEPARATION OF PEDESTRIAN AND AUTO CIRCULATION, STREET
FURNITURE, CLEAR DIRECTIONAL AND INFORMATIONAL SIGNAGE,
SAFETY, VISIBILITY, SHADE, LIGHTING, SURFACE MATERIALS, TREES,
SIDEWALK WIDTH, INTERSECTION TREATMENT, CURB CUTS, RAMPS AND
LANDSCAPING.
PEDESTRIAN-ORIENTED USES: USES WHICH RELY ON PEDESTRIAN
TRAFFIC FOR THE MAJORITY OF THEIR BUSINESS SUCH AS RETAIL
STORES, RESTAURANTS, SERVICE AND REPAIR SHOPS.
PERMEABILITY - THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN AREA HAS A VARIETY OF
PLEASANT, CONVENIENT AND SAFE ROUTES THROUGH IT.
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PODIUM – A BASE TO BUILDING OR STRUCTURE.
PRESERVATION: PROVIDING FOR THE CONTINUED USE OF
DETERIORATED OLD AND HISTORIC BUILDINGS, SITES AND STRUCTURE
THROUGH SUCH MEANS AS RESTORATION, REHABILITATION AND
ADAPTIVE RE-USE.
PUBLIC ART: SITE SPECIFIC ARTWORK CREATED TO ENHANCE AND
ANIMATE PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE SPACES THROUGH ARTISTIC
INTERPRETATIONS THAT RANGE FROM INDIVIDUAL SCULPTURE TO
INTEGRATED ARCHITECTURAL AND LANDSCAPE FEATURES AND
TREATMENTS.
PUBLIC REALM – THE PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC SPACES OF THE CITY,
ESPECIALLY THE STREET SPACE OF THE CITY FROM BUILDING FACE TO
THE OPPOSITE BUILDING FACE (INCLUDING THE FAÇADE, FRONT YARD,
SIDEWALK AND STREETS) AND OPEN SPACE SUCH AS PARKS AND
SQUARES.
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE SPACES: BUILDINGS, STREETS AND EXTERIOR
AREAS, WHICH MAY BE PRIVATELY-OWNED, BUT TO WHICH THE PUBLIC
HAS ACCESS.
RENOVATION: MODERNIZATION OF AN OLD OR HISTORIC STRUCTURE
WHICH UNLIKE RESTORATION MAY NOT BE CONSISTENT WITH THE
ORIGINAL DESIGN.
RESTORATION: ACCURATELY RECOVERING THE FORM AND DETAILS OF
A BUILDING AND SITE AS IT APPEARED AT A PARTICULAR PERIOD OF
TIME BY MEANS OF THE REMOVAL OF LATER WORK OR BY THE
REPLACEMENT OF MISSING EARLIER WORK.REVERSE LOTTING – LOTS
LOCATED ADJACENT TO AN ARTERIAL OR COLLECTOR ROAD WHICH
FRONT ONTO AN INTERNAL STREET, WHILE THE REAR YARD FACES
ONTO THE STREET.
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RIGHT-OF-WAY: (ROW) - A STRIP OF LAND, INCLUDING THE SPACE
ABOVE AND BELOW THE SURFACE, THAT IS PLATTED, DEDICATED,
CONDEMNED, ESTABLISHED BY PRESCRIPTION OR OTHERWISE
LEGALLY ESTABLISHED FOR THE USE OF PEDESTRIANS, VEHICLES, OR
UTILITIES.
RHYTHM AND PATTERN – RELATING TO MATERIALS, STYLES, SHAPES
AND SPACING OF BUILDING ELEMENTS AND THE BUILDING
THEMSELVES, THE PREDOMINANCE OF ONE MATERIAL OR SHAPE AND
ITS PATTERNS OF RECURRENCE.
RIGHT-OF-WAY – THAT PART OF THE STREET SPACE THAT IS PUBLICLY
OWNED AND LIES BETWEEN THE PROPERTY LINES.
ROADS, ARTERIAL: MAJOR TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT ROUTES, INTENDED
TO CARRY LARGE VOLUMES OF VEHICULAR TRAFFIC AND PROVIDE
CONTINUOUS ROUTES ACROSS URBAN AREAS.
ROADS, COLLECTOR: TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT ROUTES DESIGNED TO
CARRY LOWER VOLUMES OF TRAFFIC THAN ARTERIAL ROADS, AND
PROVIDING CONTINUOUS ACCESS ACROSS NEIGHBOURHOODS.
SCALE – THE SENSE OF PROPORTION OR APPARENT SIZE OF THE
BUILDING OR BUILDINGS IN ITS SETTING; SCALE USUALLY APPLIES TO
HOW THE SENSE IS PERCEIVED IN RELATION TO THE SIZE OF A HUMAN
BEING AND REFERS TO THE APPARENT SIZE, NOT ACTUAL SIZE, SINCE IT
IS ALWAYS VIEWED IN RELATIONSHIP TO ANOTHER BUILDING OR
ELEMENT.
SECONDARY STREET - STREETS USED TO ACCESS DESTINATIONS
WITHIN DOWNTOWN, RATHER THAN TO ACCESS DOWNTOWN ITSELF.
SIGNIFICANCE – IN REGARD TO WETLANDS AND AREAS OF NATURAL
AND SCIENTIFIC INTEREST, AN AREA IDENTIFIED AS PROVINCIALLY OR
REGIONALLY SIGNIFICANT.
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SITE PLAN: A PLAN PREPARED TO SCALE, SHOWING ACCURATELY WITH
DIMENSIONS THE BOUNDARIES OF THE SITE AND THE LOCATION OF ALL
BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES, NATURAL FEATURES, USES AND PRINCIPAL
SITE DESIGN FEATURES PROPOSED FOR A PARCEL OF LAND.
STEP BACK – A SETBACK OF THE UPPER FLOORS OF A BUILDING WHICH
IS GREATER THAN THE SETBACK OF THE LOWER FLOORS.
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT – PLANS AND FACILITIES DESIGNED TO
CONTROL THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF STORM WATER FLOWS ON A
SITE.
STREET FURNITURE: MUNICIPAL EQUIPMENT PLACED ALONG
STREETS,NINCLUDING LIGHT FIXTURES, FIRE HYDRANTS, TELEPHONES,
TRASH RECEPTACLES, SIGNS, BENCHES, MAILBOXES, NEWSPAPER
BOXES AND KIOSKS.
SENSE OF PLACE – THE FEELING ASSOCIATED WITH A LOCATION BASED
ON A UNIQUE IDENTITY AND OTHER MEMORABLE QUALITIES.
SETBACK: THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE PROPERTY LINE TO
THE FACE OF A BUILDING OR FROM NATURAL FEATURES TO A BUILDING.
SENSITIVE LAND USE: MEANS BUILDINGS, AMENITY AREAS, OR
OUTDOOR SPACES WHERE ROUTINE OR NORMAL ACTIVITIES
OCCURRING AT REASONABLY EXPECTED TIMES WOULD EXPERIENCE
ONE OR MORE ADVERSE EFFECTS FROM CONTAMINANT DISCHARGES
GENERATED BY A NEARBY MAJOR FACILITY. SENSITIVE LAND USES MAY
BE A PART OF THE NATURAL OR BUILT ENVIRONMENT. EXAMPLES
INCLUDE: RESIDENCES, DAY CARE CENTRES, AND EDUCATIONAL AND
HEALTH FACILITIES.
STREET-LINE: THE OUTSIDE LINE OF A REQUIRED RIGHT-OF-WAY OR
ROAD ALLOWANCE; THE SAME AS THE PROPERTY LINE.
STREETSCAPE: THE DISTINGUISHING ELEMENTS AND CHARACTER OF A
PARTICULAR STREET AS CREATED BY ITS WIDTH, DEGREE OF
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CURVATURE, PAVING MATERIALS, DESIGN OF THE STREET FURNITURE,
PEDESTRIAN AMENITIES AND SETBACK AND FORM OF SURROUNDING
BUILDINGS.
STREET WALL – THE CONDITION OF ENCLOSURE ALONG A STREET
CREATED BY THE FRONTS OF BUILDINGS AND ENHANCED BY THE
CONTINUITY AND HEIGHT OF THE ENCLOSING BUILDINGS.
STATIONARY NOISE SOURCE: SOURCE OF SOUND WHICH DOES NOT
NORMALLY MOVE FROM PLACE TO PLACE SUCH AS NOISE ASSOCIATED
WITH INDUSTRIAL OR COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.
SUBDIVISION PLAN – A PLAN FOR THE DESIGN AND DIVISION OF A
LARGE PROPERTY INTO INDIVIDUAL BUILDING LOTS AND BLOCKS,
STREETS, PARKS, SCHOOLS AND OTHER NEIGHBORHOOD FACILITIES
AND USES.
SUBWATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN OR STUDY: AN INTEGRATED
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR A PARTICULAR SUBWATERSHED
WHOSE PRIMARY FOCUS IS TO DEVELOP DETAILED TARGETS AND
OBJECTIVES FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT.
STREET EDGE – A TERM OFTEN USED TO DESCRIBE THE LINE TO WHICH
THE FRONT WALLS OF BUILDINGS ON A PARTICULAR STREET ARE BUILT.
FOR EXAMPLE: IF A NEW STORE ON CHESTNUT STREET IS BUILT WITH
ITS FRONT WALL BACK TWENTY FEET FROM THE FRONT OF ALL THE
OTHER BUILDINGS ON THE BLOCK TO PROVIDE OFF-STREET PARKING
SPACES, THAT BUILDING CAN BE SAID TO HAVE NOT MAINTAINED THE
STREET EDGE.
SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS AND BUILDING PRACTICES – TERMS USED
TO DESCRIBE A WIDE RANGE OF BUILDING PRACTICES AND MATERIALS
THAT ARE DESIGNED TO LIMIT THE DEPLETION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES. BUILDING DESIGNS THAT UTILIZE SUCH PRACTICES ARE
OFTEN REFERRED TO AS “GREEN ARCHITECTURE”.
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TOWER - UPPER PORTION OF A BUILDING THAT IS EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH
IN PROPORTION TO THE WIDTH AND LENGTH OF THE BASE.
TRANSIT: PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SERVICES, PARTICULARLY BUS
SERVICE.
TRANSIT ORIENTED – THE ELEMENTS OF URBAN FORM AND DESIGN
WHICH MAKE TRANSIT MORE ACCESSIBLE AND EFFICIENT, THESE
RANGING FROM LAND USE ELEMENTS (I.E. LOCATING HIGHER DENSITY
HOUSING AND COMMERCIAL USES ALONG TRANSIT ROUTES) TO DESIGN
(I.E. STREET LAYOUT WHICH ALLOWS EFFICIENT BUS ROUTING).
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE – INCLUDES ALL BUILT ASPECTS
OF THE PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SYSTEMS OF TRANSPORTATION, SUCH AS
RAIL LINES, ROADWAYS, BRIDGES, PARKING LOTS, AND BIKE PATHS.
TRANSIT ROUTE: THE ROUTE OF PUBLIC TRANSIT VEHICLE.
TREE: INCLUDES ALL WOODY VEGETATION (BY-LAW NO. 92-155).
TREE, PUBLIC: A TREE WHICH HAS MORE THAN 50 PERCENT OF ITS
TRUNK DIAMETER AT BREAST HEIGHT ON PUBLIC PROPERTY (BY-LAW
N0. 92-155).
URBAN DESIGN – THE PLANNING AND DESIGN OF CITIES FOCUSING ON
THE THREE DIMENSION FORM AND FUNCTION OF PUBLIC AND PUBLICLY
ACCESSIBLE SPACE.
URBAN GRAIN - THE PATTERN OF THE ARRANGEMENT AND SIZE OF
BUILDINGS AND USES AND THEIR PLOTS IN AN AREA, USUALLY ALONG A
STREET. FINE URBAN GRAIN REFERS TO A PATTERN OF STREET BLOCKS
AND BUILDING SITES THAT IS SMALL AND FREQUENT, THEREBY
CREATING A DYNAMIC AND ANIMATED URBAN ENVIRONMENT FOR THE
PEDESTRIAN.
URBAN STRUCTURE - THE SHAPE OF DOWNTOWN AS A WHOLE,
INCLUDING ITS OVERALL HEIGHT AND DENSITY, STREET WALL HEIGHTS,
34
SETBACKS/BUILDTO LINES, AND DISTINCT FUNCTIONAL AND
CHARACTER AREAS. IT
BUILDS ON EXISTING AND HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT CHARACTERISTICS,
AND CONSIDERS LINKAGES AND INTERFACES WITH THE SURROUNDING
CONTEXT.
UTILITIES: FACILITIES FOR GAS, ELECTRICITY, TELEPHONE, CABLE
TELEVISION, WATER AND WASTE WATER. OVERHEAD AND
UNDERGROUND POWER AND TELEPHONE LINES, ALL FIRE HYDRANTS,
WATERMAINS, STORM AND SANITARY SEWERS (TOWN OF ANCASTER,
SITE PLAN).
VEHICLES: ALL MOTORIZED CONVEYANCES FOR STREET TRAVEL, AND
INCLUDES AUTOMOBILES, VANS, TRUCKS, MOTORCYCLES,
RECREATIONAL VEHICLES, EMERGENCY VEHICLES, BUSES AND
TRACTOR TRAILERS.
VERNACULAR – LANDSCAPE OR ARCHITECTURAL STYLE COMMON TO,
OR REPRESENTATIVE OF AN AREA.
VIEWS: THAT WHICH CAN BE SEEN FROM AN OBSERVATION POINT TO
AN OBJECT(S), PARTICULARLY A LANDSCAPE OR BUILDING.
VISTAS: A LINE OF VISION, CONTAINED BY BUILDINGS OF LANDSCAPING,
TO A BUILDING OR OTHER FEATURE WHICH TERMINATES THE VIEW.
WALKABLE - A CONDITION OF A SYSTEM OF ROUTES WHICH ARE
BARRIER FREE, INTERESTING, SAFE, WELL-LIT, COMFORTABLE AND
INVITING TO PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL.
WAYFINDING: THE INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO PEOPLE WHICH THEY
NEED TO FIND THEIR WAY AROUND THE CITY AND CAN BE VERBAL,
GRAPHIC, ARCHITECTURAL AND SPATIAL
WAY FINDING – THE INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO PEOPLE WHICH THEY
NEED TO FIND THEIR WAY AROUND THE CITY AND CAN BE VERBAL,
GRAPHIC, ARCHITECTURAL AND SPATIAL.
35
ZONING – A DOCUMENT DIVIDING THE MUNICIPALITY INTO SMALLER
AREAS CALLED ZONES, EMPLOYED BY THE MUNICIPALITY TO REGULATE
THE USE OF LAND STATING EXACTLY WHAT LAD USES ARE PERMITTED
AND PROVIDING REGULATIONS, AMONG OTHER MATTERS, REGARDING
PERMITTED LOCATIONS FOR BUILDINGS; AND STANDARDS FOR LOT
SIZE, PARKING REQUIREMENTS, BUILDING HEIGHT, SIDE YARD
DIMENSION AND SETBACK FROM THE STREET.
ZONING AND PLANNING CODE – THE LEGAL GUIDELINES BY WHICH THE
CITY CONTROLS THE USES OF BUILDINGS OR AREAS OF LAND AND ALSO
THE RULES ABOUT BUILDING SIZE AND HEIGHT, SETBACKS FROM LOT
LINES, AND REQUIRED OPEN SPACE.
ZONING VARIANCES – THE LEGAL REMEDIES BY WHICH PROPERTY
OWNERS MAY OBTAIN PERMISSION TO BUILD STRUCTURES THAT DO
NOT FULLY CORRESPOND TO THE EXISTING ZONING CODES. IN
PHILADELPHIA, VARIANCE REQUESTS ARE REVIEWED BY THE ZONING
BOARD OF ADJUSTMENT (ZBA).
NEW URBANIST CONCEPTS
WITHIN THE CONCEPT OF NEW URBANISM TODAY, THERE ARE
FOUR KEY IDEAS. THE FIRST OF THESE IS TO ENSURE THAT A CITY IS
WALKABLE. THIS MEANS THAT NO RESIDENT SHOULD NEED A CAR TO
GET ANYWHERE IN THE COMMUNITY AND THEY SHOULD BE NO MORE
THAN A FIVE MINUTE WALK FROM ANY BASIC GOOD OR SERVICE. TO
ACHIEVE THIS, COMMUNITIES SHOULD INVEST IN SIDEWALKS AND
NARROW STREETS.
IN ADDITION TO ACTIVELY PROMOTING WALKING, CITIES SHOULD
ALSO DE-EMPHASIZE THE CAR BY PLACING GARAGES BEHIND HOMES
OR IN ALLEYS. THERE SHOULD ALSO ONLY BE ON-STREET PARKING,
INSTEAD OF LARGE PARKING LOTS.
ANOTHER CORE IDEA OF NEW URBANISM IS THAT BUILDINGS
SHOULD BE MIXED BOTH IN THEIR STYLE, SIZE, PRICE AND FUNCTION.
36
FOR EXAMPLE, A SMALL TOWNHOUSE CAN BE PLACED NEXT TO A
LARGER, SINGLE FAMILY HOME. MIXED-USE BUILDINGS SUCH AS THOSE
CONTAINING COMMERCIAL SPACES WITH APARTMENTS OVER THEM
ARE ALSO IDEAL IN THIS SETTING.
FINALLY, A NEW URBANIST CITY SHOULD HAVE A STRONG
EMPHASIS ON THE COMMUNITY. THIS MEANS MAINTAINING
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE WITH HIGH DENSITY, PARKS, OPEN
SPACES AND COMMUNITY GATHERING CENTERS LIKE A PLAZA OR
NEIGHBORHOOD SQUARE.
THE SMART CODE
THE SMART CODE IS A UNIFIED LAND DEVELOPMENT ORDINANCE FOR
PLANNING AND DESIGN. IT ENABLES COMMUNITY VISION AND SPECIFIC
OUTCOMES, IS SITE SPECIFIC AND IS MEANT TO BE LOCALLY
CUSTOMIZED.
IT SUPPORTS:
COMMUNITY VISION
LOCAL CHARACTER
CONSERVATION OF OPEN LANDS
TRANSIT OPTIONS
WALKABLE AND MIXED-USE NEIGHBORHOODS.
IT PREVENTS:
WASTEFUL SPRAWL DEVELOPMENT
AUTOMOBILE-DOMINATED STREETS
EMPTY DOWNTOWNS
A HOSTILE PUBLIC REALM
THE SMARTCODE IS CONSIDERED A FORM-BASED CODE BECAUSE IT
STRONGLY ADDRESSES THE FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. CONVENTIONAL
ZONING CODES FOCUS ON USE, DENSITY AND PARKING, AND HAVE
CAUSED SYSTEMIC PROBLEMS OVER THE PAST SIXTY YEARS BY
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SEPARATING USES. THE SMARTCODE GOES BEYOND THIS BY
RECOGNIZING THE FACT THAT WHILE USES ARE IMPORTANT, THE FORM
OF WHAT GETS BUILT IS EQUALLY IMPORTANT.
THE POLITICAL POWER OF THE SMARTCODE LIES IN THE FACT THAT
INSTEAD OF THE ONE-SIZE FITS ALL CONVENTIONAL CODE APPROACH,
IT ALLOWS DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN DIFFERENT AREAS WITHIN THE
COMMUNITY. THIS PERMITS BUY-IN FROM ALL CORNERS OF THE
CONSTITUENCY. THE TRUE IMPORTANCE OF THIS FEATURE IS THAT THE
CURRENT AD HOC BASIS FOR REGULATION OF REAL ESTATE
DEVELOPMENT IS GREATLY REDUCED.
URBAN COMPENDIUM
THE URBAN DESIGN COMPENDIUM AIMS TO PROVIDE ACCESSIBLE
ADVICE TO DEVELOPERS, FUNDING AGENCIES AND PARTNERS ON THE
ACHIEVEMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF URBAN DESIGN
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND REGENERATION OF URBAN AREAS. IT IS
WRITTEN TO PROVIDE A SOURCE OF BEST PRACTICE TO ALL THOSE
INVOLVED IN THE REGENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT INDUSTRIES.
CONTENTS OF URBAN COMPENDIUM
FUNDAMENTALS
THE IMPORTANCE OF URBAN DESIGN
KEY ASPECTS OF DESIGN
HOW THE COMPENDIUM IS ORGANISED
APPRECIATING THE CONTEXT
COMMUNITY
PLACE
NATURAL RESOURCES
CONNECTIONS
FEASIBILITY
VISION
CREATING THE URBAN STRUCTURE
38
THE MOVEMENT FRAMEWORK
MIXING USES
DENSITY, FACILITIES AND FORM
ENERGY AND RESOURCE EFFICIENCY
LANDSCAPE
LANDMARKS, VISTAS AND FOCAL POINTS
BLOCKS
PARCELS AND PLOTS
MAKING THE CONNECTIONS
WALKING
CYCLING
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
STREETS AND TRAFFIC
PARKING AND SERVICING
UTILITIES INFRASTRUCTURE
DETAILING THE PLACE
POSITIVE OUTDOOR SPACE
ANIMATING THE EDGE
BUILDING SIZE AND SCALE
BUILDING FOR CHANGE
A THRIVING PUBLIC REALM
SAFETY AND SENSE OF SAFETY
CONCEPTS OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
URBAN DEVELOPMENT IS THE EXPANSION INTO NATURAL AREAS
SUCH AS DESERTS, FORESTS, AND SWAMPS.
AS POPULATIONS GROW A NEED FOR MORE HOUSES FOR
PEOPLE TO LIVE IN DEVELOPS. THIS IS WHAT CAUSES URBAN
DEVELOPMENT. AS THE DEMAND OF HOUSING INCREASES, CITIES
39
BEGIN TO EXPAND INTO NEW AREAS. THEY MIGHT EVEN BEGIN TO
BUILD IN UNLIKELY AREAS LIKE FORESTS, SWAMPS, AND DESERTS.
URBAN RENEWAL
URBAN RENEWAL IS RELATED TO URBAN DEVELOP BUT IT IS
ACTUALLY THE REHABILITATION OF CITY AREAS BY RENOVATING OR
REPLACING DILAPIDATED BUILDINGS WITH NEW HOUSING, PUBLIC
BUILDINGS, PARKS, ROADWAYS, INDUSTRIAL AREAS, ETC., OFTEN IN
ACCORDANCE WITH COMPREHENSIVE PLANS.
IT IS ALSO CALLED URBAN REDEVELOPMENT.
URBAN CONSERVATION
THE ACTIVITY UNDERTAKEN TO PROTECT, SAFEGUARD, PASS,
ENHANCE OR RETAIN THE HERITAGE CHARACTER OF AN URBAN AREA
OR PART OF IT.