Pineapple Seminar Taiwan

World Culture of World Culture of PineapplePineapple

Practices and ProblemsPractices and Problems

Dr. Duane P. BartholomewProfessor, University of Hawaii

Chair, Pineapple Working Group of ISHSVice Chair, Section on Tropical and Subtropical Crops, ISHS

World Culture of PineappleWorld Culture of Pineapple

Pineapple origins Areas of production

Major producing countries Principle cultivars

Physiology and environment, effects and interactions

Overview of cultural practices Problems

Pineapple Origins Pineapple Origins

Family Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus varcomosus

Probable origin Northern Brazil,

Colombia, Guyana, Venezuela

Tropical plant Soil adaptation

Low pH High Al and Mn

Pineapple OriginsPineapple Origins

Ancestors

Amerindian selections

Areas of ProductionAreas of Production

Where produced Between 30 N and S latitude Produced in at least 40 countries in tropics

Central and South America (Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, Ecuador, etc.)

Africa (Nigeria, Kenya, Cote dIvoire, Ghana, South Africa)

Asia (China, Indonesia, India) Australia Island nations (Philippines, Taiwan, Okinawa, Sri

Lanka, Caribbean, Pacific Islands, Mauritius, etc.)

Areas of Production Areas of Production -- Fresh FruitFresh Fruit

Most countries produce pineapple for in-country fresh consumption

Major producers (country and rank) Brazil (#1 in total production; small export

industry) Costa Rica (#1 in fruit for export) Ecuador (mostly fruit for export) China (local consumption) Taiwan (local consumption and export)

Areas of Production Areas of Production -- ProcessingProcessing

Common packs Slices, chunks, tidbits, crush,

juice Major producers

Thailand Rank #2 in world Thousands of small farms

Philippines Rank #3 Two large plantations

Indonesia Largest plantation in world Rank #3 in processing

Kenya Singapore Australia and South Africa

(small industries)

Principle CultivarsPrinciple Cultivars

Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment Environmental factors affecting growth

Water 12 to 36 month crop Drought slows growth

Pineapple survives extreme drought

Irrigation or uniform rainfall sustains growth Solar radiation

Less limiting than temperature Temperature

Multiple important effects

Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment

Photosynthesis (Ps) by pineapple Ps is relatively insensitive to temperature Water stress reduces growth before Ps declines CO2 is fixed by Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) Four phases recognized

I, CO2 fixed at night into malic acid II, CO2 fixed in morning III, stomata closed, C reduction by C3 pathway IV, CO2 fixation by C3 pathway


Respiration (R) Maintains existing tissue Provides energy and skeletons for biosynthesis,

growth Increases rapidly with increasing temperature

More sensitive than photosynthesis

Net assimilation rate (NAR, g kg-1 day-1) Ps produces sugars R consumes sugars R mainly sensitive to temperature NAR also sensitive to temperature


T (C)(Day/Night)

Day CO2mol/m2

(D leaf)

Night CO2mol/m2

(D leaf)

Total CO2mol/m2

(D leaf)

RGRg kg-1 d-1

(Plant)

30/20 57.0 250.1 307.1 7.2

30/25 59.9 130.7 190.6 6.6

35/25 29.1 179.0 208.1 6.9

Data of Zhu et al., 1999


Adaptation to environment Little written about adaptation of cultivars Nothing published about clones Does adaptation matter?

Pineapple grown from ~30 N to ~30 S Latitude Temperature range


Average temperature effects on growth South Africa (30 S Lat; cold)

200 g shoot, 14+ months to 4.5 pound plant Hawaii (20 N Lat; moderate)

200 g shoot, 10 months to 4.5 pound plant Thailand, Ghana, Indonesia (5 6 N (S) Lat;

hot, humid) 200 g slip, 7 months to 4.5 pound plant

Large variation in plant quality


~80% of plant weight is leaves Leaf expansion rate

Slower in cool than in hot environments Leaf dry matter content

Higher in cool than in hot environments. Stem dry matter content

Increases with plant age/size Higher in cool than in hot environments

Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and Environment Sensitivity to forced flowering (ethylene)

Low Smooth Cayenne (SC) Sensitivity increases, with limits, with plant size

High(er) 73-114 (MD-2), Queen, Singapore Spanish

Cultural practices help minimize effects of environment SC difficult to force in hot, humid tropics

Imposing stress (reduced N) increases sensitivity Sensitive cultivars flower precociously in cool

environments Promoting rapid growth reduces sensitivity

High N, optimum irrigation


81 days growth at day/night T

30/20 30/30

Fruit F wt., g 392 270**

Crown F wt., g 60.2 214.1**

Stem D wt., g 82.3 44.6**

Stem F wt., g 343.3 314.9

Leaf F wt., g 2239.9 2136.7**Significantly different at 0.01 levelMin & Bartholomew, 1995


Harvest index calculated from plant fresh weight at forcing and fruit weight at harvest. Fig. 6.12, Hepton, 2003


0.40.50.60.70.80.91.01.1

2 4 6 8 10 12

Stem DM as % plant DM at force

F

r

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Effect of stem dry-matter content on harvest index calculated from plant freshweight at forcing and fruit weight at harvest. Hepton et al., 1993.


Day from forcing of SC to harvest 130 (Ghana) to ~300 (South Africa)

Slip and sucker development (ratooning) Forcing breaks apical dominance Good ratoons

Suckers begin to develop before harvest in cool environments (Hawaii, Queensland, South Africa)

Ratooning difficult Suckers begin to develop after harvest in hot environments

(Thailand, Indonesia) Plants lack reserves; fruit strongest sink for CH2O Sucker development is erratic


Fruit quality Total soluble solids (Brix) Acidity Flavors

Fruit diseases/disorders No time


Zhu, Bartholomew and Goldstein, 2005

Physiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentEffects of CAM on water useEffects of CAM on water use

CAM plants use water very efficiently

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- Land PreparationLand Preparation

Clearing Knock down and desiccate old

pineapple plants Plow, disc, harrow, etc.

Cameco Equipment Co.


Subsoil to break up hard pan

Other tillage Produce friable

planting bed


Bed formation Improves drainage Improve aeration where water table high Marks plant location

Courtesy of Graham Petty


Mulching Mostly used with fumigation

Retains fumigant Controls weeds Raises soil temperature

Important effect in cool environments Improves moisture distribution Determine plant spacing (note marks) Expensive


Broadcast amendments Manure Lime (for Ca and to adjust pH) Phosphorus (rock phosphate or soluble forms)

Fumigation Used for nematode control

Pre-plant fertilization Band N, K and P if not broadcast

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices -- PlantingPlanting

Vegatativepropagation Seed fragile Tons/ha required

200 g tops 13.2 mT ha-1 @

66,000 plants ha-1

15 mT ha-1 @ 75,000 plants ha-1


Cultural Practices Cultural Practices PlantingPlanting

Vegetative propagation Quality deteriorates

quickly with storage

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices PlantingPlanting

Grading for quality Weight or length Big = faster growth

Cultural Cultural Practices Practices

PlantingPlanting Uniformity

Treat to control pests and diseases

Plant same types together

Good soil-seed piece contact

Uniformity improves yield Uniform plant size Uniform forcing Uniform fruit maturation

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Fertilization & Fertilization & Pest/Disease ControlPest/Disease Control

Post-plant spraying Plant nutrients (foliar)

N, Fe Mg, P, Zn, B

Herbicides Insecticides

Mealy bugs Fungicides

Phytophthora rots Growth regulators

Forcing De-greening


Tractor or trailer sprayers used on small farms in South Africa, and Australia

Hand spraying done in Ghana


Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Water managementWater management

Drip irrigation Water (~1.25 cm /week) Nutrients Pesticides

Traveling gun Thailand, South Africa,

Indonesia

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting

Hand harvesting Fruits picked into baskets Hand-carried to field edge Trucked to processing plant

or packing shed

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting Harvesting aid Used on smaller farms



Cultural Practices Cultural Practices HarvestingHarvesting

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Cropping cycleCropping cycle

Plant crop (mother plant crop) 12 to 24 months, depending on climate

Ratooning Shoots (suckers) that develop on mother

plant After flower induction in subtropics After harvest in tropics

~12 months for ratoon development

Cultural Practices Cultural Practices Plant SpacingPlant Spacing

From planting to canopy closure No effect

From canopy closure to forcing Effect varies with planting density

Narrow spacing, growth rate declines sooner Effect varies with plant size at forcing

Large size at forcing requires more space

Effects of spacing on plant dry weight.

Plantings 1, 2, and 3 were planted in June, August, and October 1989 and forced in September 1990. Data of Zhang and Bartholomew, 1997

Effects of spacing on stem dry weight.

Plantings 1, 2, and 3 were planted in June, August, and October 1989 and forced in September 1990. Data of Zhang, 1992

Spacing and Harvest IndexSpacing and Harvest Index

Harvest index declines as spacing decreases.

Effects of Spacing on Fruit WeightEffects of Spacing on Fruit Weight

Closer spacing decreases average fruit weight

There is a consistent and predictable decrease in average fruit weight per plant as spacing decreases

0

0.5

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1.5

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2.5

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3.5

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0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000

Plants ha-1

A

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SC 400N

SC 200N

SC Qld

Queen

Spanish

Effects of Spacing on Fruit YieldEffects of Spacing on Fruit Yield

Closer spacing can increase yield

Minimum plant spacing 9 to 10

0

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10000 30000 50000 70000 90000 110000

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SC 200N

SC 400N

SC Qld

Queen

Spanish

SpacingSpacing

Assumption target fruit weight is 5 pounds or 2.5 kg

As spacing decreases, plant size at forcing must be increased to compensate for decrease in average fruit weight Plant weight required to produce fruit of a given

weight increases as average temperature increases Subtropical Hawaii - 2.5 to 3.0 kg plant at forcing on average

produces a 2.5 kg fruit Tropical Ghana 4.0 to 4.5 kg plant at forcing on average

produces a 2.0 to 2.5 kg fruit (Golden Exotics, Personal communication)

SpacingSpacing

Fresh fruit production Total yield probably most important

Processing Recovery in cannery most important Fruit size and fruit shape are important Total yield not the most important end result

Effect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on Suckers

Suckers per plant decline as spacing decreases

Data from Australia: Suckers per unit land area (ha, acre) Increase at wide spacing Decrease at narrow spacing Numbers normalize

Sucker development delayed at narrow spacing

Effect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on Suckers

Interaction between spacing and temperature Possibly greater delay in development with

warm temperatures but no data

Problems Problems -- Pests and ControlPests and Control

NematodesNo. 1 or 2 problem world-wideLong-term cropPest population can build up regardless

of initial populationGreatest effect on ratoon cropsPost-plant nematicides (fenamiphos)

Applied through drip irrigation system Supports ratoon crop

Problems Problems -- Pests and their controlPests and their control

Weeds Pre-plant herbicides commonly sprayed before

planting (after mulching in Hawaii) Hand weeding done to control spot problems (even in

Hawaii) Insects

Ants (farm and protect mealybugs) Controlled with treated baits

Grubs of chewing insects Controlled with soil-applied insecticides

Symphylids

Problems Problems -- Diseases and their controlDiseases and their control

Mealybug wilt (No. 1 or 2 problem) World-wide problem on pineapple Devastating if not controlled Wilt associated with viruses and mealybug

vector Best controlled by controlling ants with treated

baits

Problems Problems -- Diseases and their controlDiseases and their control

Fungal diseases (only those commonly controlled are listed) Phytophthora spp. heart and root rots Butt rot of planting material and fruit rot

caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa controlled by dipping planting material and fruit

ProblemsProblems

Economics Labor supply

World Culture of PineappleWorld Culture of PineapplePineapple Origins Pineapple OriginsAreas of ProductionAreas of Production - Fresh FruitAreas of Production - ProcessingPrinciple CultivarsPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentPhysiology and EnvironmentEffects of CAM on water useCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - Land PreparationCultural Practices - PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices PlantingCultural Practices Fertilization & Pest/Disease ControlCultural Practices Water managementCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices HarvestingCultural Practices Cropping cycleCultural Practices Plant SpacingSpacing and Harvest IndexEffects of Spacing on Fruit WeightEffects of Spacing on Fruit YieldSpacingSpacingEffect of Spacing on SuckersEffect of Spacing on SuckersProblems - Pests and ControlProblems - Pests and their controlProblems - Diseases and their controlProblems - Diseases and their controlProblems

Pineapple Seminar Taiwan

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