Human Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 5: Tissues Panda Wilson1.
Physiology and Anatomy Essentials: CELLS & TISSUES.
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Transcript of Physiology and Anatomy Essentials: CELLS & TISSUES.
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FORM FITS FUNCTION
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CELLS AND TISSUES· Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings
· Tissues are group of similar cells from the same origin that carry out a specific function
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CELLS
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Anatomy of the Cell· Cells are not all the same (Form
fits function here too)
· All cells share general structures
· Cells are organized into 3 main regions Nucleus Cytoplasm Plasma membrane
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MAIN REGIONS OF A HUMAN CELL
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The Nucleus· Control center of the cell· Contains genetic material
(DNA)
· 3 regions· Nuclear membrane· Nucleolus· Chromatin
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NUCLEUS
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Nuclear Membrane· Barrier of nucleus· Consists of a double phospholipid (bi-layer) membrane
· Contain nuclear pores allowing material exchange with the rest of the cell
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Nucleoli· Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
· It is a non-membrane bound organelle taking part in synthesis of ribosomes, including processing of rRNA and the assembly of them into ribosome subunits.
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Nucleoli· The Nucleus is also involved in several other cellular processes, such as mitosis, stress response and cell cycle regulation.
· After the synthesis step, ribosomes will then migrate to cytoplasm through nuclear pores
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Staining of nucleoli in human cell line A-431
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Chromatin
· Composed of DNA & proteins
· Scattered throughout the nucleus
· Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when the cell division starts
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ChromatinChromatin and condensed chromosome
structure
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Plasma Membrane· Barrier for cell contents· Double phospholipid layer
Hydrophilic heads + Hydrophobic tails
· Other materials in plasma membrane· Protein· Cholesterol· Glycoproteins
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Plasma Membrane
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Plasma Membrane: Specializations
· Microvilli· Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption
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· Membrane junctions· Tight junctions· Desmosomes & hemi-desmosomes
· Gap junctions
Plasma Membrane: Specializations
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Cytoplasm· Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
· Cytosol: Fluid that contains other elements
· Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell
· Inclusions: Non-functioning units (Lipids …)
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· Ribosomes Made of protein and RNA Sites of protein synthesis Found at two locations Free in the cytoplasm Attached to rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
A ribosome “at work”
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· Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances – 2 types of ER
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: is studded with ribosomes and where building materials of cellular membrane are formed.
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
Schema of the 2 types of ER
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
3D of the 2 types of ER
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· Golgi apparatus Modifies & packages
proteins Produces several types of
packages· Secretory vesicles· Cell membrane components· Lysosomes
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
Golgi Apparatus
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
Golgi Apparatus “at work”
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· Mitochondria “Power-houses” of the cell Provide ATP for cellular energy Change shape constantly Carry out reactions using
oxygen break down food
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
A mitochondrion
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· Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that digest non-usable materials within the cell
· Peroxisomes Membranous sacs of oxidase
enzymes Detoxify harmful substances Break down free radicals Replicate by pinching in halves
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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· Cytoskeleton· Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm
· Provides the cell with an internal framework
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
The cytoskeleton. The actin is stained red and the microtubules, which are composed of the protein tubulin, are
stained green.
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· Cytoskeleton3 different types
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
The cytoskeleton. This organelle is the ‘skeleton’ of our cells. It maintains cell shape. We couldn’t move without
the cytoskeleton’s contractions of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers.
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· Centrioles Rod-shaped bodies made of
microtubules Direct formation of mitotic
spindle during cell division Probably involved in other cell
functions that are still not very well known
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Cytoplasmic Organelles
Centriole
Centrosome
Microtubule
Centrioles
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The Cell. The basic unit of structure and function.
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Cellular Projections· Not found in all types of cells
· Used for movement: Cilia move materials across the
cell surface Flagellum propels the whole cell
(e.g. sperm cell)
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Cellular Projections
Flagella and cilia differ in the way they move. Flagella use an undulating, propeller-like motion to propel a cell. Cilia beat back and forth, perpendicular to the cilium,
bending & sweeping sideways.
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Cellular Projections
Flagella and cilia. Movement and structure.
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Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Cellular Physiology:Membrane Transport
· Membrane Transport – movement of substance in and out of the cells
· Transport is by 2 basic methods: Passive transport: No energy is
required Active transport: Metabolic
energy required
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Solutions and Transport· Solution: homogeneous mixture of 2 or more components Solvent: dissolving medium (e.g.
Water) Solutes: components in smaller
quantities within a solution· Intracellular fluid: nucleoplasm &
cytosol· Interstitial fluid: fluid on the
exterior of the cell (Extracellular fluid)
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Selective Permeability· The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others
· This permeability includes movement in and out of the cells
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Passive Transport Processes· Diffusion· Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
· Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient
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Passive Transport Processes
Diffusion.
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· Types of diffusion· Simple diffusion: Unassisted process. Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores.
· Osmosis – simple diffusion of water: Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane.
· Facilitated diffusion: Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport.
Passive Transport Processes
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Diffusion through Plasma Membrane
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· Filtration: Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure. A pressure gradient must exist Solute-containing fluid is pushed
from high pressure area to lower pressure one
Passive Transport Processes
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Transport of substances that are not able to pass by diffusion because they:
May be too large May be unable to dissolve in the fat of
membranes May have to move against a
concentration gradient
2 common forms of active transport:
Solute pumping & Bulk transport
Active Transport Processes
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· Solute pumping Amino acids, some sugars
and ions are transported by solute pumping
ATP energizes protein carriers, & in most cases, moves substances against concentration gradients
Active Transport Processes
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Solute Pumping
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· Bulk transport· Exocytosis: Moves materials out of the cell. Material is carried in a membranous vesicle.STEPS: Vesicle migrates to plasma
membrane Vesicle combines with plasma
membrane Material is emptied to the outside
Active Transport Processes
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Exocytosis
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· Bulk transport· Endocytosis: Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membrane vesicle.
· TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:· Phagocytosis: cell eating· Pinocytosis: cell drinking
Active Transport Processes
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Endocytosis
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Cell Life Cycle
· Cells have 2 major periods· Interphase: Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
· Cell division: Cell replicates itself to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
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DNA Replication· Genetic material
duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells
· Occurs toward the end of interphase
· DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template
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Cell Division Steps
· Mitosis: Division of the nucleus. Results in the formation of 2 nuclei.
· Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm. Begins when mitosis is near completion. Results in the formation of 2 new cells.
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Stages of Mitosis
· Interphase: No cell division occurs. The cell carries out normal metabolic activity & growth.
· Prophase: First part of cell division. Centromeres migrate to the poles
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· Metaphase: Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell
Stages of Mitosis
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· Anaphase: Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. The cell begins to elongate.
· Telophase: Daughter nuclei begin forming. A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form
Stages of Mitosis
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Stages of Mitosis
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Stages of Mitosis
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Protein Synthesis· Gene: DNA segment that carries a
‘blueprint‘ for building one protein
· Proteins have many functions Building materials for cells Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
· RNA is essential for protein synthesis
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Role of RNA
· Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein
· Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
· Messanger RNA (mRNA): Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
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Transcription and Translation· Transcription: Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of mRNA.
· Translation: Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence.Remember? Amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins
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Proteins Synthesis
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TISSUES
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Body TissuesCells are specialized for
particular functions
Tissues: Groups of cells with similar origin,
structure and function
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Body Tissues4 primary types of tissues:
EpitheliumConnective tissueNervous tissueMuscle
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Epithelial Tissues· Found in different areas
Body coverings Body linings Glandular tissue
· Functions Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion
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· Cells fit closely together· Tissue layer always has one free
surface· The lower surface is bound by a
basement membrane· Avascular (have no blood
supply)· Regenerate easily if well
nourished
Epithelium Characteristics
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1-Number of cell layers:
· Simple: one layer
· Stratified: more than one layer
Classification of Epithelium
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2- Shape of cells:· Squamous: flattened
· Cuboidal: cube-shaped
· Columnar : column-like
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Simple Epithelium
• Single layer of flat cells
• Usually forms membranes (Lines body cavities, Lines lungs and capillaries)
Simple squamous
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Simple cuboidal
· Single layer of cube-like cells
· Common in glands and their ducts
· Forms walls of kidney tubules
· Covers the ovaries
Simple Epithelium
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Simple columnar
· Single layer of tall cells
· Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus
· Lines digestive tract
Simple Epithelium
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Pseudostratified· Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others
· Often looks like a double cell layer
· Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract
· May function in absorption or secretion
Simple Epithelium
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Stratified squamous
· Cells at the free edge are flattened
· Found as a protective covering where friction is common
· Locations: Skin, Mouth, Esophagus.
Stratified Epithelium
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· Stratified cuboidal: Two layers of cuboidal cells.
· Stratified columnar: Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape.
· Stratified cuboidal and columnar: Rare in human body. Found mainly in ducts of large glands.
Stratified Epithelium
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Transitional epithelium
· Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
· Lines organs of the urinary system
Stratified Epithelium
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Gland: one or more cells that secretes a particular product
· 2 major gland types: Endocrine gland: Ductless,
Secretions are hormones. Exocrine gland: Empty through
ducts to the epithelial surface. Include sweat & oil glands.
Glandular Epithelium
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· Found everywhere in the body· Includes the most abundant
and widely distributed tissues· Functions:
Binds body tissues together Supports the body Provides protection
Connective Tissue
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· Variations in blood supply Some tissue types are well
vascularized Some have poor blood supply or
are avascular
· Extracellular matrix: Non-living material that surrounds living cells
Connective Tissue Characteristics
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· 2 main elements:· Ground substance: mostly water along with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
· Fibers: Produced by the cells 3 types• Collagen fibers• Elastic fibers• Reticular fibers
Extracellular Matrix
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Composed of:· Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
· Hard matrix of calcium salts
· Large numbers of collagen fibers
Connective Tissue TypesBone (osseous tissue):
Used to protect and support the body.
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Hyaline cartilage: Most common cartilage. The entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage.
· Composed of: Abundant collagen
fibers Rubbery matrix
Connective Tissue Types
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Elastic cartilage· Provides elasticity· Example: supports the external ear
Connective Tissue Types
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Fibrocartilage· Highly compressible
· Example: forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae
Connective Tissue Types
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· Main matrix element is collagen fibers
· Cells are fibroblasts
Examples:· Tendon – attach muscle to bone
· Ligaments – attach bone to bone
Connective Tissue TypesDense connective tissue
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· Most widely distributed connective tissue
· Soft, pliable tissue· Contains all fiber types
· Can soak up excess fluid
Connective Tissue TypesAreolar connective tissue
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Adipose tissue (Fat)Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules predominate. Many cells contain large lipid deposits.
· Functions: Insulates the body Protects some organs Serves as a site of
fuel storage
Connective Tissue Types
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· Delicate network of interwoven fibers
· Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid organs Lymph nodes Spleen Bone marrow
Connective Tissue TypesReticular connective tissue
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Blood· Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix
· Fibers are visible during clotting
· Functions as the transport vehicle for materials
Connective Tissue Types
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Function is to produce movement· 3 types
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle
Muscle Tissue
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Skeletal muscle· Can be controlled voluntarily
· Cells attach to connective tissue
· Cells are striated· Cells have more than one nucleus
Muscle Tissue Types
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Cardiac muscle· Found only in the heart
· Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
· Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks
· Cells are striated· One nucleus per cell
Muscle Tissue Types
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Smooth muscle· Involuntary muscle· Surrounds hollow organs
· Attached to other smooth muscle cells
· No visible striations· One nucleus per cell
Muscle Tissue Types
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· Neurons and nerve support cells
· Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body· Irritability· Conductivity
Nervous Tissue
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· Regeneration: Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
· Fibrosis: Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue)
· Determination of method Type of tissue damaged Severity of the injury
Tissue Repair
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· Capillaries become very permeableIntroduce clotting proteins & Wall off injured area
· Formation of granulation tissue· Regeneration of surface
epithelium
Events in Tissue Repair
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· Tissues that regenerate easily: Epithelial tissue Fibrous connective tissue and bone
· Tissues that regenerate poorly: Skeletal muscle
· Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue: Cardiac muscle Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord
Regeneration of Tissues
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· Epithelial tissue arises from all 3 primary germ layers
· Muscle & connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
· Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
· With old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in most tissues
Development aspects of Tissues