PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT WITHIN THE POST ...
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT WITHIN THE POST-APARTHEID EDUCATIONAL DISPENSATION OF SOUTH AFRICA by SUSAN LION-CACHET submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in the subject COMPARATIVE EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROFESSOR OJ VAN SCHALKWYK JANUARY 1997
Transcript of PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT WITHIN THE POST ...
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT
WITHIN THE POST-APARTHEID EDUCATIONAL
DISPENSATION OF SOUTH AFRICA
by
SUSAN LION-CACHET
submitted in accordance with the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
in the subject
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
PROMOTER: PROFESSOR OJ VAN SCHALKWYK
JANUARY 1997
(i)
I declare that PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT WITHIN THE POST
APARTHEID EDUCATIONAL DISPENSATION OF SOUTH AFRICA is my own work
and that all the sources that I have used, quoted, have been indicated and acknowledged by
means of complete references.
S LION-CACHET
(ii)
The financial assistance of the Centre for Science Development, (HSRC, South Africa)
towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived
at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the Centre for Science
Development.
(iii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Upon completion of this research project it is my duty to express my sincere gratitude and
appreciation to the following:
Prof Ockie van Schalkwyk; promoter of this study for his invaluable and friendly guidance,
enthusiasm and encouragement in all aspects of this study;
To the staff the Library of the University of South Africa for their professional and efficient
assistance;
The University of South Africa for the generous financial assistance in the form of a Doctoral
Research Grant which enabled my research in Australia;
Joan Squelch, Noleen van Wyk and Raymond Heath for their valuable inspiration and
assistance during this study;
Annatjie Kukkuk for her help with the final preparation of the manuscript;
Dr Laurie Tempelhoff of the South African Sports Information and Data Centre for his help
and inspiration during this study, and
Richard Lemmer for his precision and thoroughness in the editing of the manuscript.
Dedication:
To Mark, Lauren, Adrian and
him/her who is still to come
(iv)
"Sport was created out of the instinct of modem man, out of the spiritual
interests of our time, out of the appreciation of the measurable, the increasable,
and the speed of our modem life. In its obedience to the needs of the body, in
its encouragement of the mind in governing the body, and in its own peculiar
social life lies its essential educational value " (Diem 1960: 7).
(v)
SUMMARY
This study theoretically presupposes that the individual is an integral entity, therefore,
education should take place according to the harmonious development of all the facets of a
child's being. Even in antiquity, physical education and sport were seen to be important for
a balanced education. Every society implements physical education and sport according to
own needs and requirements, according certain values to sport, which values are reviewed
in this study. A literature study corroborates that the intellectual, physical and social
development of the child undoubtedly forms part of the total environment of the educative
process. Exclusion of any facet could cause an imbalance in the development of the child.
Incorporation of physical education and sport in the post-apartheid educational dispensation
of South Africa forms the later part of the investigation. Various factors in South Africa have
an influence on the role and place of physical education and sport within the curriculum.
Government involvement in sport can determine the place of sport in society and in the
curriculum. The readmittance of South Africa into international participation and changes in
the political policy also play a role. These factors pose the challenge and facilitate the
possibility to reinstate physical education and sport at schools. The structure of South African
sport is undergoing a total change and the role players in the sports fraternity are now faced
with numerous challenges and opportunities. Reinstating physical education and sport in the
school curriculum serves a vital role in the reconstruction and development of a healthy and
well-balanced society. Furthermore, reinstatement could reverse the consequences of social
and economic injustices. Research undertaken in Australia, also provides some answers to
problems for the South African situation. It proposes new initiatives that could be of help to
the relevant role players in the planning of physical education and school sport in the post
apartheid educational dispensation of South Africa.
Key terms:
Physical education; School sport; Sport history; Educational dispensation; Apartheid sport; Post
apartheid sport; Educational programme; Physical development; Educational value; Economical value;
Social value; Political value; Ethical value; Psychological value; Physiological value; South African
sport; Government involvement; International participation; Australian sport.
(vi)
ABBREVIATIONS USED
ANC - African National Congress
COSAS - Confederation of South African Sport
DSR - Department of Sport and Recreation
GDE- Gauteng Department of Education
HSRC- Human Science Research Council
IOC - International Olympic Committee
MEC - Member of Executive Committee
NOCSA - National Olympic Committee of South Africa
NSC - National Sports Council
SA - South Africa
SABC - South African Broadcasting Corporation
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
USSASA - United School Sports Association of South Africa
USSR- Union of Soviet Socialist Republic
THE USE OF SPORT, AND COGNATES IN THIS STUDY
The following remark will obviate confusion:
When used absolutely, the term "sport" is used; when used as a modifier the plural "sports"
(e g sports council; sports fields) is used. The adjectival use "sporting" was generally
avoided, since this has a limited field of meaning.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSFORMATION REGARDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
SCHOOL SPORT WITHIN THE POST-APARTHEID EDUCATIONAL
DISPENSATION OF SOUTH AFRICA
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.2 BACKGROUND TO, AND INCENTIVES FOR THIS RESEARCH
1.2.1 The depoliticisation of sport and South Africa's readmittance
into the international arena
1.2.2 Government involvement in sport
1.2.3 Curriculum aspects
1.2.4 Financial aspects: affordability of physical education and school sport
and the controversy of money in sport
1.2.5 The impact of the mass media on sport
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THIS INVESTIGATION
1.4.1 General objective
1.4.2 Specific objectives
1.5 THE NATURE, APPROACH AND METHOD OF THIS RESEARCH
1.6 DEFINING THE TERMINOLOGY
1.6.1 Recreation
1.6.2 Play
1.6.3 Physical education
1.6.4 Sport
1.6.5 School sport/youth sport
1.7 THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
1.8 IN CONCLUSION
Page
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CHAPTER 2
THE NATURE AND ORIGINS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
AND THE VALUE OF SPORT TO HUMANKIND
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 THE ORIGINS, DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATION OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
2.2.1 Physical education and sport throughout the ages
2.2.1.1 The prehistoric era
2.2.1.2 In Antiquity
2.2.1.3 During the Middle Ages
2.2.1.4 During the era of the Reformation
2.2.1.5 The beginning of modem physical education and sport
2.2.2 The origin and development of South African physical
education and sport
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2.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE AND THE SOCIAL NATURE OF SPORT 27
2.3.1 The significance of sport
2.3.2 The social nature of sport
2.4 THE MULTIFARIOUS VALUE OF SPORT
2.4.1 Educational value
2.4.2 Social value
2.4.2.1 Sport as a fundamental human need
2.4.2.2 Other societal benefits of sport
2.4.3 Psychological value
2.4.4 Physiological value
2.4.5 Ethical value
2.4.6 Political value
2.4. 7 Economic value
2.5 CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER 3
THE ROLE, PLACE AND VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT FOR THE DEVELOPING CHILD
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL TENETS DETERMINE THE NATURE
OF EDUCATION
3.2.1 Varying philosophies about the essential nature of humanity
3.2.1.1 Idealism
3.2.1.2 Naturalism
3.2.1.3 Pragmatism
3.2.1.4 The Christian school of thought
3.2.1.5 The developmental psychology approach
3.2.2 The development of the child
3.2.2.1 Physical development
FIGURE 3.1 The phases of motor development
3.2.2.2 Social development
FIGURE 3.2 Schematic representation of the interrelatedness
of the components of development
3.3 THE GENERAL NATURE OF EDUCATION
3.3.1 The relationship between play, physical education, sport
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and education 60
FIGURE 3.3 Patterns of movement 62
3.3.2 Physical education and sport as educational instruments 64
3.4 THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD 66
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
The promotion of immediate and long-term benefits
Higher levels of fitness
Better health
Competition
Nationalism - patriotism and love for country
Formation of positive attitudes towards oneself
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3.4.7 The provision of opportunities for socialisation
3.4.8 Participation in physical education and sport involves the total
human being
3.4.9 Sport moulds character and develops morals
3.4.10 Physical education and sport comply with criteria of education
3.5 THE PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME OF THE CHILD
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 The place of physical education and sport
3.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 4
INFLUENCES WHICH SHAPE THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SCHOOL SPORT IN THE POST-APARTHEID ERA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
4.3 SPORT IN GENERAL: PAST AND PRESENT
4.3.1 Sport until 1948
4.3.2 Sport from 1948-1967
4.3.3 Depoliticisation of sport (1967-1993)
4.3.4 The readmittance of South Africa into the international sports arena
in 1990 and subsequent developments
4.3.4.1 Sports tours
4.3.4.2 International exposure
4.3.4.3 The staging of numerous world cup events
4.3.4.4 Unity in sport
4.3.4.5 A new national structure for sport
4.3.4.6 Upgrading of facilities
4.3.4. 7 Upgrading qualifications of sports officials
4.3.4.8 Winning major events
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4.3.4.9 Increased opportunities, experience and motivation for participation 93
4.4 THE ROLE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT
4.4.1 Financial aspects in sport
4.4.2 Development programmes
FIGURE 4.1 Sports Development Continuum
4.4.3 The impact of the mass media
4.4.3.1 General impact
4.4.3.2 Steroids and stimulants
4.4.3.3 Heroism
4.5 THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN SPORT
4.5.1 The new Government (1994)
4.5.2 The present structure of sport in South Africa
4.5.2.1 The major role players
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4.5.3 The Government's policy with regard to sport 108
4.6 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT: PAST AND
PRESENT 112
4.6.1 Physical education and school sport from 1948 to 1984 112
4.6.2 The situation regarding physical education and school sport from
1985 to the present: depoliticisation 113
4.6.3 The current structure and organisation of post-apartheid physical
education and school sport
4.6.3.1 The main coordinating body
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119
4.6.3.2 The provision and organisation of physical education and school sport 120
FIGURE 4.2 Participation Pyramid 124
4.6.4 Physical education and school sport funding
4. 7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 5
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT IN THE AUSTRALIAN
EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THE RELEVANCE THEREOF FOR SOUTH AFRICA
5.1 INTRODUCTION 127
5.2 SPORT IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT
5.2.1 Demographic factors
5.2.1.1 Relevance for the South African situation
5.3 THE ORGANISATION OF YOUTH SPORT IN AUSTRALIA
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130
5.3~1 Possibilities for the South African situation 130
5.4 THE ORGANISATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL
SPORT IN AUSTRALIA 131
FIGURE 5.1 Participation Pyramid
5.4.1 Possibilities for South African education
5.5 PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT
IN AUSTRALIA
5.5.1 School Sport: An inquiry into the state of physical education
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and school sport in Australia 135
5.5.1.1 Time allocation for physical education 137
FIGURE 5.2 Participation in state primary school physical education 138
FIGURE 5.3 Participation in state secondary school physical education 139
5.5.1.2 Factors that contributed to the lack of physical education and school
sport in Australia 139
5.5.1.3 Implementation of physical education and school sport policies 140.
5.5.2 Recommendations regarding the reintroduction of physical education
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.6
5.6.1
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2
and sport education
Implications for Australia
Possibilities for the South African education system
CLUB SPORT
Relevance for the South African situation
SUPPORT SERVICES FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
The Australian Sports Commission
The Aussie Sports Programme
5. 7.2.1 General remarks on Aussie Sports Programme
5. 7.2.2 Brief discussion ofaims of the Aussie Sports Programme
5. 7.2.3 Respective Aussie Sport Programmes
5. 7.2.4 The value of the Aussie Sports Programme
5. 7. 3 Possibilities for the South African situation
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5.8 CONCLUSION 154
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS, CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 155
6.2 SURVEY OF THE INVESTIGATION 155
6.3 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 157
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS EMANATING FROM THE STUDY 161
6.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 172
6.6 PRECIS OF CONCLUSIONS 174
APPENDICES 176
APPENDIX 1: ORGANISATION OF SPORT SOUTH AFRICA 177
APPENDIX 2: NATIONAL SPORTS COUNCIL 178
APPENDIX 3: STRUCTURE OF SPORT AT SCHOOL LEVEL 179
APPENDIX 4: REGIONAL, LOCAL AND ZONAL STRUCTURE OF
SCHOOL SPORT 180
APPENDIX 5: NATIONAL STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL SPORT 181
APPENDIX 6: FOCUSES OF LIFE ORIENTATION 182
APPENDIX 7: SUMMARY: PHYSICAL EDUCATION POLICIES AND
PROGRAMMES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
STATE SCHOOLS 183
APPENDIX 8: SUMMARY: SPORT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STATE SCHOOLS 184
APPENDIX 9: ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE: THE AUSTRALIAN
SPORTS COMMISSION 185
BIBLIOGRAPHY 186
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSFORMATION REGARDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SCHOOL SPORT, WITHIN THE
POST-APARTHEID EDUCATIONAL DISPENSATION OF SOUTH AFRICA
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
There is little doubt concerning the educational value of physical education and sport for the
human being (Diem 1960:7; Botha 1986:59, and Nieuwoudt 1988:226). In fact, the once
German Democratic Republic went as far as regarding sport as the single most important
aspect of the education of young children (ACHPER National Journal 1984:62). This article
argues that the main aim of the Spartakiad movement was to arouse enthusiasm for· sport in
young people, make them realise (as early as possible) that sport is a source of pleasure,
recreation and relaxation and to improve their health. Sport was thus emphasised to help
children develop, through regular physical exercise, those abilities and skills that make it
easier for them to cope with their tasks at school, training or work (ACHPER National
Journal 1984:62).
Since 1948 physical education and sport have played a prominent role in the curriculum of
South African schools. Despite the recognition of the educational value of physical education
and sport, both were used as a means of promoting nation-building and promoting Afrikaner
nationalism in schools. It was particularly rugby that was used for this purpose (Archer &
Bouillon 1982:65; Bose 1994:16, and Sarakinsky 1995:176).
1.2 BACKGROUND TO, AND INCENTIVES FOR THIS RESEARCH
It is thus noteworthy that physical education and school sport formed an integral part of the
school curriculum in both the above mentioned cases. However, political factors in SA have
played a major role in determining the place, nature and importance of physical education
and sport within the curriculum of South African schools. This resulted in the inequality of
opportunities in sport for children in South African schools; not all schools had equal
amenities and funding (Gauteng Department of Education [hence GDE] 1995:1-2). The
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Government's policy engineered segregation and disparities in sport. Disparities in the
provision of opportunities, facilities and financing, caused considerable harm to the total
structure of South African sport, in general, and to physical education and school sport in
particular.
Since 1990, political changes and an interaction of various factors resulted in changes and
developments in: political, economic, cultural, social, and educational spheres in South
Africa. These changes and developments undoubtedly had an influence on physical education
and sport. However, there were other factors which influenced the nature of sport. Landman
(1983:94) mentions: professionalism in sport; government involvement; money in sport; the
influence of the mass media; greater financial responsibility on the shoulders of parents, and
changes in the educational policy.
In order to understand the above mentioned problem areas surrounding school sport, recent
issues and intricacies, related to sport, have been identified as foci for this particular
research. These developments have been indicated in: announcements, research, actions and
tendencies, which substantiate the relevance of this research regarding the: place, status,
value and the existence of physical education, as well as school sport, as part of the
curriculum programme.
This study was undertaken from 1991 until 1996. This period is signalled as an era of
transformation in South African sport. As a result of the paucity of literature on South
African sport, in particular physical education and school sport, the researcher had to rely
on personal observations encountered during: her own sports career (awarded Springbok
colours from 1982-1989); as a physical education teacher from 1986-1989, and as a national
coach since 1989. In the light of this, this research will endeavour to make a contribution to
rectify the vacuum in the current educational dispensation, regarding physical education and
school sport. This research should also be of interest to future education and sport policy
makers.
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1.2.1 The depoliticisation of sport and South Africa's readmittance into the
international arena
The most dramatic struggle in South African history, namely the policy of isolation, and the
campaign against "apartheid", had consequences for the sports world (Kidd 1989:35). Anti
apartheid organisations, and other countries, applied considerable pressure on the
Government and sports bodies to abandon the policy of racial segregation. Their aim was to
promote a non-racial, fair, inclusive and acceptable sport dispensation for SA (Confederation
of South African Sport [hence COSAS] 1990/1991:22).
The beginning of 1990, saw the National Government of President De Klerk revert to the
scrapping of discriminatory laws, which led to the depoliticisation of sport, and the
readmittance to international participation ( Guelke 1993: 155-156 and Bose 1994: 3). Various
changes have since taken place and these had specific consequences for South African sport,
physical education and school sport.
1.2.2 Government involvement in sport
Government involvement in South African sport can be traced as far back as 1920. Many
believe that "sport has nothing to do with politics" or "politics has nothing to do with sport."
Sarakinsky (1995: 160) believes this is a naive statement, for SA is a country that has a long
history of political interference in sport. Strict enforcement of racial segregation was
implemented from 1948. Recently the implementation of the new school sport policy has
resulted in a number of significant changes.
History was made in South Africa when decisions were made on cabinet level to create a
portfolio for a Minister of Sport (presently Steve Tshwete) (Beeld, 22 Februarie 1993: 1).
Previously, this portfolio was combined with that of National Education. This important step
proved the need for the reconstruction of sport on national, regional and local levels. The
government has played a major role in the development of a new structure for sport in SA
(White Paper 1995:13). In the interest of the development of sport, the National Sports
Council [hence NSC] launched a national development programme Protea Sport for SA (NSC
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1995). The mission and purpose of this programme is to create the structures to meet the
needs of all concerned (e g administrators, coaches and participants).
1.2.3 Curriculum aspects
Historically, White schools had more privileges regarding physical education and school sport
than their Black counterparts. Physical education was practically non-existent in Black
schools, and it had to be reinstated as a compulsory subject in all schools, from 1995
onwards (GDE 1995:2 and White Paper 1995:17).
Another aspect needing attention according to the White Paper (1995: 17) is the presentation
of the extra-curricular programmes. Research found that a deterioration in the extra
curricular programmes in SA (and England) were due to the unwillingness of teachers to help
with the presentation thereof (Human Science Research Council, [hence HSRC] - Sport
Research 1982(1):50 and McStravick 1989:14). Both the Department of Education and
schools, should look at ways and means to supply financial compensation for teachers and
coaches involved in sport.
Similarly, teachers involved in sport, are not acknowledged for their involvement when
promotion is considered. The findings showed that this datum dampens continual and
increasing service delivered in sport (HSRC - Sport Research 1982(1): 130). The accreditation
system is therefore inadequate and schools must consider outside coaches.
Furthermore, parents are continuously and frequently endeavouring to solicit the services of
coaches from private sports clubs, to train their children. This is necessitated on account of
unqualified teachers, who are unequipped to bridge the gap between school and after school
participation.
Establishing clubs at schools for every type of sport, is an alternative already being
considered by numerous schools (Beeld, 13 Januarie 1993:4). This may result in better
organisation and may raise the quality of school sport.
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1.2.4 Financial aspects: affordability of physical education and school sport and the
controversy of money in sport
The dramatic cut-back in the educational budget of the schools has forced parents to
contribute financially more towards their children's academic education (Metro, 8 September
1995: 11). This could imply that less emphasis will be given to physical education and sport
in schools. However, this amounts to an unfortunate and unfair imbalance when compared
to the weight given to other subjects. Sport is as important and an essential part of the
development of the child. School committees at many schools have even considered the
possibility of parents having to pay for each individual sport, in which children participate
(J3eeld, 13 Januarie 1993:4). This trend already exists and therefore attention should be paid
to the affordability of youth sport.
Sport in general, however, is a growing economic commodity. The universal financial
turnover amounts to billions: for example entrance fees; concessions; sports goods; books;
advertising; licensed products; broadcasting fees and stadium constructions, etc. The rising
costs in sport cannot be excluded in any organisation (Sandomir, cited in Eitzen 1989:190).
Remuneration offered to players, amounts to million of dollars per season (Super Sport, 14
August 1995). Goldlust (1987:154) points out that the expansion of the sports industry
includes personal managers and agents who negotiate contracts and conditions for players.
In SA the controversy in rugby circles concerning the "play for pay" resulted in the death
of the charade of amateurism (The Sunday Times, 6 August 1995:30). The remuneration
offered, cannot be ignored when talented young sport people are already recognised at school
level and are encouraged to follow a career in sport.
1.2.5 The impact of the mass media on sport
Countless articles on sport appear daily in newspapers, magazines, on radio and on
television. Thus reporting may obviously have a positive as well as a negative impact on
sport and school sport. The media has also brought about changes in sport especially
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regarding substance abuse and heroism. Obviously numerous instances can be cited, however
for the present confer:
o Drugs and steroids (The Sunday Star, 26 July 1992:21, Dying for Glory and Rapport,
23 April 1995:4, Opkikker hom bars oor 14-jarige meisie);
o Heroism (The Citizen, 2 March 1992:39, Bedford says SA needs Black heroes in
sport).
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
This investigation proposes to seek scientifically substantiated answers to the following
research question: What are the implications and influence of the momentous developments
in South African sport, on the place, importance, and purpose of physical education and
sport in the post-apartheid educational dispensation of South Africa?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THIS INVESTIGATION
With reference to the introductory remarks and the formulated problem for this research, a
general objective and specific objectives have been identified.
1.4.1 General objective
An overall view and integration of available and relevant literature is used in order to provide
more insight into the role and function of physical education and school sport within the
politically complex and heterogeneous South African school system and society. In the light
of the general objective the following specific objectives have emerged in this study.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
In order to provide a possible solution for the research problem various objectives have been
formulated. These objectives are:
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o to illustrate the nature and origin of physical education and sport and the value thereof
to society;
o to describe the nature, place and value of physical education and sport for the
development of the child;
o to sketch and evaluate the relevant role of physical education and spor, in the post
apartheid educational dispensation as well as to investigate the current ssues related
to both aspects in SA;
o to investigate the relevance of physical education and school sport in ustralia as a
case study, with the aim of providing possible guidelines, strategies, and solutions for
problems encountered in SA;
o to present challenges facing post-apartheid sport and recommendations for physical
education and school sport within the post-apartheid educational dispensation of SA.
1.5 THE NATURE, APPROACH AND METHOD OF THIS RESEARCH
Chapters One to Five constitute the theoretical substantiation of the research project.
Information was obtained from articles, research documents, educational indexes, policy
documents, minutes of meetings, newspaper articles and other relevant literature.
The reason for using a literature study was to enable the researcher to make a valid
evaluation of the present state of physical education and school sport. The nature of possible
problem areas could also be identified in this manner. Using this method the researcher could
motivate and accurately plan the relevant theme.
Chapter Five includes a case study of physical education and sport in Australia. The
researcher considered Australia relevant due to various new initiatives that have taken place
in that country. In order to obtain the relevant information an overseas visit was undertaken.
Observation took place and discussions were conducted with specialists in the field of
physical education and school sport, which enabled the researcher to describe the present
trends. The researcher also made use of other relevant reports, work documents and articles
for the benefit of the study. This literature study enabled the researcher to comment on the
relevance of findings for the South African situation.
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In Chapter Six conclusions are drawn and the findings of the research, with the aim of
indicating challenges and recommendations for future educational planners are outlined.
1.6 DEFINING THE TERMINOLOGY
This research is specifically aimed at physical education and school sport as part of the South
African heterogeneous education system and society. For the purpose of this research various
definitions that appear throughout this research need to be defined.
1.6.1 Recreation
The term recreation is derived from the Latin word recreatio which means restoration or
recovery (Kelly 1982:26). Very often leisure and recreation are seen as equivalents.
Blanchard and Cheska (1985:58) define recreation as any voluntary activity, engaged in by
a person during his own free time, with the aim of personal enjoyment. It is unlike work,
and it is not compulsive or obligatory (MaClean, Peterson & Martin 1985:110). Kelly
(1982:25) concurs and adds that these activities are beneficial to the participant. Elvin
(1992:5) accentuates the facet of activity in recreation, as the satisfaction gained primarily
from the quality of the experience. It is pointed out by Weiskopf (1982:21) that although the
motivation for recreational participation rests on personal enjoyment, it usually results in
intellectual, physical and social growth.
In summary: Recreation entails the time when one is free to engage in, activities that provide
a refreshing change-of-pace. It includes a wide range of activities that provide enjoyment,
fun and personal satisfaction.
1.6.2 Play
The notion of play is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word plega meaning a game or sport,
fight, or battle (Kelly 1982:28 and Weiskopf 1982:22). It entails an enjoyable activity that
individuals engage in for their own sake, in a free and spontaneous way. Play is spontaneous
9
for some, and for others it is structured by orderly rules (MaClean et al 1985:8). Some see
play as only children's activities, others see it as the spirit of mood that accompanies
behaviour.
Sport innately contains: elements of competition; physical activity; aspects of organisation;
a certain influence of outcome on the quality of experience (cf Elvin 1992: 5). Huizinga
(1949:3-8), a philosopher, well-known for his theorising regarding play, summarises the main
characteristics as being: a voluntarily activity; not revealing real life, but is a temporary
sphere of activity; different from the real world regarding place and time; constituting
various methods. Furthermore, play incorporates notions of: balance, variation, solutions and
tension, it also involves an element of fun and embraces an element of secrecy.
Play is a biological and cultural function that is indispensable to the development of the
young child (Weiskopf 1982:24).1t is a natural activity of the child (Kelly 1982:28). For the
young child games involve the total exploration of his/her surroundings. Steyn (1983:37)
argues that during the exploration of his surrounding reality, the child develops self
knowledge and self-esteem. He learns more about himself as well as about the world around
him.
Thus the most salient objectives involved in play are:
o enjoyment and pleasure;
o recuperation and revitalisation;
o stemming from a natural instinct, in order to prepare the young for adulthood;
o it is a natural outflow (learned behaviour) as seen in the activities of preceding
generations.
Play, therefore, involves creativity and relaxation. Sport on the other hand, is more specific
and is a refined form of play. Sport entails a definite goal and material compensation, and
yet it is motivated by the same intrinsic reasons as play.
10
1.6.3 Physical education
Various attempts have been made to define the term physical education. This is no simple
task. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the notions physical education and sport
were seen to refer to the same phenomenon. Only after the First World War, did this change
with the incorporation of cooperative games and extra-curricular games days (school sport
as known today). Sport was introduced for the first time by the educationist Dewey in the
form of organised games and leagues (Bunker 1981 : 26) .
Blanchard and Cheska (1985:58) demarcate physical education as involving both mental and
physical activities, that are ultimately designed to preserve or improve one's health. At the
same time it teaches students to effectively utilise leisure time. These facets are also
accentuated by the Confederation of Australian Sport (1984: 162).
Botha (1982:11); De Beer (1992:5), and Kirchner (1992:6-7) all refer to physical education
as a means of educating youth with the aid of experience, acquired during motor activities
and to impart knowledge to the youth concerning their bodies. Furthermore, to impart
information concerning possibilities of movement (the kinetic aspect).
In conclusion, physical education is that section of education which uses physical activity as
the medium for instruction. It develops attitudes, knowledge and skills related to health,
fitness and recreation. Physical education constitutes the basis of sport.
1.6.4 Sport
Sport is an internationally recognised term, and is practically found and used by all natio,ns
all over the world. The origin of the word sport can be traced back to the Latin word
desporte which means to entertain yourself. Since the twelfth century the word in Spanish
was known as deportarse and in France as se deporter. In Anglo Franc the word sport was
reformed to disport. For the first time during the fifteenth century the word "sport" appeared
in the English language (Sportbulletin 1987: 63).
11
Kelly (1982:188-189) appends a wider connotation: " ... sport, pastime, recreation, pleasure."
Sport is a universal phenomenon that is practised in almost every civilised country in some
or other form, varying from recreation sport to highly competitive sport.
De Villiers and Smuts (1985:483) describe sport as any form of relaxation that is usually
practised outdoors by groups of people. It is characterised by: certain rules; common goals;
formation of two teams; or participation of individuals, competing against each other to win,
using the best performance.
Siedentop (1990:83) would concur with the above observation:
Sport - as an institutionalised form of play - creates forums within which persons can demonstrate competence, can reach goals that have been set, and learn what new goals might await them in the future.
Thus sport can be defined as an exceptional form of play with the emphasis on performance
(Botha 1986:58). He adds that sport has an ethical dimension. It takes place outside the
"usual" lifestyle and that it intensely catches the attention of the participant, yet play as such,
is not serious. With regard to the previous comment Recla (in Botha 1982: 12) states that the
present significance of sport (prestige, competition, training methods and organisation) differs
from its original meaning of entertainment.
According to Diem (1960:6) the well-known German sport philosopher, sport originated from
at least three development tendencies, namely:
o the instinctive need for movement, a longing to return to nature;
o the enjoyment that a person gains from the application of his individuality in a freely
chosen sport discipline, and the will to perform and achieve success;
o the growth of camaraderie from joint sport participation wherein sport becomes a
binding factor between people.
In summary: Sport forms an integral part of most communities and cultures. It consists of
recreation and competition. It adds to the enjoyment of people and entices them to reach for
12
the highest goal. Play is a fundamental ingredient of sport, and it forms an indispensable part
of humankind kinetic expression.
1.6.5 School sport/youth sport
In this study school sport is defined as: all sport activities presented by a school or other
educational institutions, in which pupils and teachers participate, or in which they are
involved; where sport activities are part of teaching and where the education programme of
the school falls under the jurisdiction of the school governing body, and the Department of
Education (GDE 1995:5-6).
According to the relevant White Paper (1995:23) youth sport refers to all sport that children
out-of-school participate in. This arose due to the previous problems within the education
system. For the purpose of this study, youth sport, will be relegated to those activities that
fall outside the jurisdiction of schools and the Department of Education. Regarding youth
sport the principal has no control of pupils who participate on a provincial level; the parents
assume total responsibility for their children's participation.
1. 7 THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
The ensuing chapters concur with the components of this project:
o Chapter Two : the origins and development of physical education and sport
throughout the ages are investigated and particular attention is paid to the fundamental
characteristics and the value of sport to society.
o Different philosophies of life that determine the nature of humankind education are
discussed in Chapter Three. This research focuses on physical education and sport.
Thus a detailed discussion of the nature, place and value of physical education and
sport for the development of the child is presented in this chapter.
o An indication of the historical, political, historical, economical, educational and social
changes in physical education and sport and implications thereof to the South African
situation are provided in Chapter Four. An investigation and evaluation of the present
13
state of affairs of physical education and school sport in SA with regard to the
structures of sport in general is presented, in order to indicate the present status of
physical education and school sport, within the post-apartheid educational dispensation
of South Africa.
o Chapter Five comprises the results of a case study on the present role and place of
physical education and sport within the Australian curriculum. The aim is to provide
possible guidelines and solutions for problems encountered in SA.
o Chapter Six summarises and integrates the findings of the research; challenges facing
post-apartheid sport are highlighted along with recommendations for the implemen
tation of physical education and school sport within the post-apartheid educational
dispensation of South Africa.
1.8 IN CONCLUSION
This study is undertaken, in the light of the transformation that has taken place with regard
to physical education and school sport, within the post-apartheid educational dispensation of
South Africa. In any country, the political, demographic, educational, historical, economic,
religious, social and cultural factors provide essential background information upon which
an interpretation of physical education and sport can be based. Therefore, changes and trends
in (international and national) political, economic and educational arenas create challenges
for educationists and planners of physical education and sport to: accommodate these
changes; react positively to challenges, and help provide possible solutions to problems which
may arise.
The specific changes, issues and trends regarding sport in SA are highlighted in order to
indicate the influences of these on physical education and school sport, for the present as
well as for the future.
CHAPTER 2
THE NATURE AND ORIGINS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT AND THE VALUE TO HUMANKIND
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter primarily focuses on the development of physical education and sport throughout
the ages. Each and every society has varying ideas as how to accommodate physical
education and sport. Both physical education and sport have developed alongside each other.
Because physical education is particularly linked to education, more specific attention
regarding its educational value will be paid to in Chapter Three. Secondly this investigation
focuses on the significance of sport and its particular value to man.
Sport is a dominant factor which shapes the values and norms of society. Society determines
the development of sport and it usually exhibits something of the innate value of a particular
community. In general sport adds to the development of the individual as well as of society
at large and many benefits accrue from participation in sport.
Sport is a definite cultural activity and is universally part of societies and individuals. Sport
is created by the ability of people to create games. Throughout the ages sport has been a
reflection of a certain development within a society. Sport is the utilisation of physical
abilities, which in tum develops certain important values, norms and other intellectual gifts
and whereby these are refined within each individual.
Since sport and physical activities constitute part of people's daily life either in the form of
relaxation or competition. Determining the nature as well as the origin of sport is critical for
this research.
Not only does sport in general, add to the development of individuals as well as to society,
but it also bears innumerable benefits for the state and for education. Focus on the origin and
development of physical education and the benefits is therefore imperative.
15
2.2 THE ORIGINS, DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATION OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION AND SPORT
2.2.1 Physical education and sport throughout the ages
From the beginnings of civilisation until modem times, physical education and sport have
been an integral part of societies even if not in the same way.
2.2.1.1 The prehistoric era
The phenomenon sport can be traced to the origin of humankind. It can be linked to human
beings struggle against nature and his fellowmen. During prehistoric times people relied on
their physical abilities to survive (MaClean et al1985:30 and Coakley 1986:44). Their daily
routine depended on throwing, hunting, climbing, swimming, catching fish, the swinging of
a stick. Movement was an enjoyable experience. According to Shivers (1981:37-38) this
period is actually a non-sport period because physical activities were tied solely to the
challenge of survival (Coakley 1986:60 and Vander Merwe 1990:1).
Obviously very little physical education was purposively organised during this period. It was
all a by-product of the daily experiences, activities and of religious and social ceremonies.
Parents were the first actual physical educators. Children spent most of their days outdoors.
They learnt many games (tag, hide-and-seek and a variety of ball games) and had a natural
urge to keep themselves creatively busy (Howell & Howell1986:33-35).
Howell and Howell (1986:33-35) point out that numerous rock paintings found in caves
revealed depictions of physical activities in which primitive man was engaged in. Hunting
and dancing were two of the most prominent activities. Being physically fit was essential:
the weak did not survive. Further attributes that ensured survival were muscular strength,
endurance, speed and reaction time. Fundamental elements of the physical education
programme began during this period and have continued undebated throughout all ages
(Howell & Howell 1986:33-35).
16
2.2.1.2 In Antiquity
In antiquity the Romans and Greeks were responsible for the development of leisure and free
time. Aristotle, the philosopher, described leisure as a productive aspect of life through
which the highest good attainable by human action could be achieved (Yoshioka & Simpson
1989:36). The importance of leisure caused philosophers to regard leisure as the basis of
culture. Coakley (1986:45) points out that the games played by the early Greeks were
grounded in mythology and religious beliefs.
The main aim of the Graeco-Roman education system revolved around a military goal with
the state as the ultimate power. The Greeks concentrated mainly on the facet of competition.
The focus was on physical ability, and organisers of competitions concentrated on mass
participation for leisure and recreational activities. The objective of these activities was the
entertainment of the citizens and it also served as means of social control (Howell & Howell
1986:60-61 and Yoshioka & Simpson 1989:38).
During this era, Plato especially, emphasised the moral value of physical education. He
believed exercise and sport not to be ends in themselves, but these were means to moral
perfection. An important aspect was the training of the ideal athlete; a person who possessed:
perfection, physical beauty, wonderful condition, irresistible strength, daring and rivalry
(Freyne 1989:94).
Already by 776 BCE games were held. MaClean et al (1985:35) points out the activities that
were practised in modem sport events were: boxing, wrestling, archery and acrobatics
(gymnastics). These were not the only events, but they are the most well-known. According
to an article in Vander Merwe (1990:33), the Games were later known as the "Olympic
Games" as we know it today.
Participation in these games, in antiquity, was an all encompassing driving force. By means
of these its participants endeavoured to raise more cultural aspects than merely the physical.
Thus the games possessed religious, artistic and even "educational" significance (Van der
Merwe 1990:33).
17
Howell and Howell (1986:54-83) also observe that physical activities were considered to be
essential for military purposes. Participation in gymnastics (throwing, jumping, running,
boxing wrestling and chariot racing) was not for pleasure but rather to contribute to the
growth of an well balanced person. The participation in physical activities became an
accepted way of life during this period.
In summary: The goal of physical education was established during this period. Plato and
Aristotle both advocated that physical education should contribute to the intellectual
development of the child. This aspect of body and mind is still prevalent today. Considerable
involvement by the state is also found during this period.
2.2.1.3 During the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, education displayed its own nature and character. Education was
characterised by the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and the obtaining of the
Christian morals (Shivers 1981:78-79 and MaClean et al1985:35). Vander Merwe (1990:62)
observes that control of participation in leisure and recreation was aimed at attaining of
overall Christian influence. Various sport activities were banned by the church and contact
with secular presentations were forbidden. Religious influence of the church dominated the
choices of recreational activities (Howell & Howell 1986:84-85). There was a noticeable
absence of the physical games and contests which took place in the arena. Physical education
was not considered as part of the school curriculum.
The rise of the feudal system required that men had to be trained as knights. Activities such
as: horsemanship; fighting on horseback; activities of self defence; shooting; handling a
crossbow; swimming and wrestling formed the main element of the physical education
programme (Nixon & Jewett 1980:83-86 and Howell & Howell 1986:83-86). The upper
classes never took notice of those who were considered inferior. They engaged in various
tournaments of war games. Women were less apt to be involved in physical activities. They
sometimes got involved in 11 ladylike 11 games (Coakley 1986:49-51).
18
There were a variety of ball games and social games played during the Middle Ages.
Children played leap frog, marbles, hop scotch, skipping, running and hiding games. Adults
enjoyed blindfold games, diving for apples, and gambling games (Howell & Howell
1986:91).
In summary: It is noteworthy that from the time of the Greeks until today, sport has been
approached from various considerations. Philosophies and religions have led to differing
viewpoints regarding sport. Slowly but surely the importance of physical activities was
reduced, and they were frequently used to train the youth. Thus sport progressively receded
into the background to make room for a more religious education.
2.2.1.4 During the era of the Reformation
MaClean et al (1985:37) describes the era of the Reformation and the Renaissance, as the
well-known but indefinite stretch of time between the Middle Ages and the modem world.
It designates the period of European history from the fourteenth to the early sixteenth
centuries. At that stage mankind rediscovered itself and evidenced a tendency to develop
technical abilities (Cross 1990:57-61). Sport and recreation were then seen as a positive
foundation of society facilitating the restoration of society. The ensuing Industrial Revolution
caused sport to bloom on all levels of society and paved the way for the modem Olympic
Games (also Vander Merwe 1990:11-15). Pierre de Courbertin, the founder of the modem
Olympic Games, was interested in creating a platform to develop the educational value of
sport, as well as its popularity.
During this time much attention was devoted to recreation in Europe. England was one of
the first countries to present sport as an organised form of recreational activity (Van der
Merwe 1990:80-81). This revolutionary period was the beginning of a notion that sport
should be part of the daily lifestyle of society. The necessity of physical education was
emphasised due to the changes and developments in the technical, economic, political, social
and recreational fields. People had to learn how to spend their free time productively.
19
According to Howell and Howell (1986:94-95) education during the Renaissance focused on
the studying of grammar, Greek and Latin, history, mathematics, the natural sciences,
philosophy, and this programme was further supplemented by means of physical activities.
The dramatic development of sport in England during this period had a significant role to
play in physical education across the world. The foundation of many modem games and
sports were laid during this period. Rules were formulated for games such as tennis, golf,
soccer, cricket, rugby and bowling and recorded in books. This period was a stimulus for
physical education and sport, with a multitude of pastimes being pursued by the nobility.
Physical education and sport reflected the values and norms of society.
2.2.1.5 The beginning of modem physical education and sport
The Renaissance initiated the changes that were to follow during the Modem Ages. Howell
and Howell (1986:106-117) describe the emergence of the modem era as a complex evolution
which involved religious, economic, political and social movements. It was a time of change
and traditional ways of life and thinking were rejected. The Napoleonic wars saw the
replacement of the professional soldier armies with citizen armies. Physical training was
therefore recognised as a necessity. Germany and Sweden developed distinct national systems
for physical education or gymnastics. This period also saw physical education, or gymnastics
being accepted as part of the public school curriculum. Its main purposes were to ensure the
future development of physically fit soldiers, as well as the promotion of health and healthy
life styles.
The Swedish physical education system involved mass drills in which a large number of
people could participate. In contrast the German system, emphasised individual activities
which only a few could participate in. The Swedish system was adopted in the general school
programmes of England, the United States and Canada (Howell & Howell 1986:109-110).
The roots of modem sport lie in the games and pastimes of medieval times. However, the
main characteristics of modem sport developed in the sport and games in nineteenth century
England. During the middle of the nineteenth century sport was characterised by the
20
establishment of more clubs and increasing organisation. This was one of the most
remarkable and most important features of the nineteenth century. There was a growing
emphasis on the seriousness of sports and an increase in the opportunities offered (Coakley
1986:61 and Howell & Howell 1986:111). Cross (1990:143-144) noted that various social
changes took place and sport was seen as a potential educational experience. Howell and
Howell (1986:115) emphasise the role of the Public Schools of England in the development
of sport in England. The schools valued games, not for their physical development, but
rather for their contribution to the social development of the child. Organised games were
accepted as an important part of the total education process.
People started seeing sport as a tool for changing behaviour; shaping character; building
unity and cohesion within a diversified population, and creating national loyalty. Coaching
became more specialised by means of technical professionals and coaches being hired to
supervise teams (Coakley 1986:54-56).
Howell and Howell (1986:125-126) also concludes that the Olympic Games became the
centre stage for local, national and international causes. Problems that have accompanied the
Games range from the gigantic costs of hosting the Games, to security concerns, to drug
abuse among athletes, to boycotts of the games.
According to Guttman (cited in Coakley 1986:48-49 arul-cited-ift-Baum-&-Goleman-l~
this era could possibly be recognised by seven interrelated characteristics. The seven
characteristics are described as follows:
o Secularism: Sport is not directly linked to religious beliefs or religious rituals. Modem
sport embodies the immediacy and values of the material world.
o Equality: Modem sport is not regulated by birthrights or social backgrounds.
Everybody should have equal opportunities.
o Specialisation: Specialised sports equipment and training methods are the order of the
day. Athletes specialise at an early age. Sports are dominated by specialists who seek
the materialistic recognition for their performances.
21
o Rationalisation: With regard to rationalisation it is specified that sport is controlled and
regulated by rules and strategies. Rules in tum regulate equipment, playing techniques
and participation.
o Bureaucratisation: Modem sport is characterised by complex organisations on all three
levels of organisation, namely national, regional and local levels. The rules are made
on top level and athletes are occasionally overseen. Events are organised and records
are certified.
o Quantification: Measurements and statistics are common aspects related to modem
sport. All events are reduced to a time, distance or score.
o Records: Presently there is an emphasis on setting and breaking records; most
important are world records. Performances are compared and individuals are organised
within leagues, communities, states, provinces and continents.
Heinemann (1989: 15) points out the more recent developments in the form of sport
organisations, such as: fitness centres; gym studios; sport schools and leisure parks, which
provide more competition. Sport is used more frequently as a therapeutic function
(rehabilitation centres, spas and therapy groups). Holiday companies and resorts are
marketing sport as an attractive package. Sport marketing and management is becoming even
more important. Political parties, universities, organisers of commercial sports promoters and
the media, an discovering sport as a central aspect of these respective strategies to gain
influence.
2.2.2 The origin and development of South African physical education and sport
The origin of South African physical education and sport is obviously of extreme relevance
here. According to Vander Merwe (1990:122-127) the first indications of sport in SA were
in the year 1660 in the form of a skittle game. This was an activity that originated in the
Netherlands and was introduced by Dutch settlers settling in the Cape. Crew members from
the British ships played an important part in the development of sport and the encouragement
thereof (HSRC- Sport Research 1982(1):35).
22
At the beginning of the nineteenth century soldiers, administrators, teachers, missionaries,
business men and settlers from Britain organised and encouraged various games as part of
the recreational programmes of inhabitants of the Cape. These games included rowing, horse
riding, sailing and rugby (Vander Merwe 1990:122-127).
Organised sport in SA became an important part of the community's activities, thanks to the
English regiments which settled in the Cape after the take over by Britain. Sport and physical
activities were used as part of the recreational programme, to prevent laziness and boredom,
amongst the troops of the regiments. Even more people arrived in SA with the discovery of
diamonds. Cricket, soccer, rugby, polo and gymnastics were considered the most important
sports activities by these foreigners (Archer & Bouillon 1982: 16-21).
It is indicated in Sportbulletin (1987:62) that the first ever sport club was established in 1887
to provide for the increasing needs in the sport arena. The importance of sport is noticeable
during the Anglo-Boer war. On the 28th April 1902 a day of peace was called for by Manie
Maritz for the playing of a rugby match between the Boer and the British armies.
The twentieth century is characterised by a flourishing period of sport in SA. Various teams
took part in international sports meetings, and SA was one of the establishing members of
the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the British Kingdom Games. In 1961 SA
resigned from the Commonwealth, and due to political pressure, SA was not allowed to
compete in the Commonwealth Games or the Olympic Games (Archer & Bouillon 1982:206-
207 and HSRC-Sport Research 1982(1):35).
The history of South African sport clearly reveals a relationship and struggle between sport
and politics (Archer & Bouillon 1982:1 and Sarakinsky 1995: 160). Hendricks (cited in
Sarakinsky 1995: 171) verifies that the central aim of physical education was to promote
nation-building amongst the Afrikaner nation. Only after the internal political policy was
altered in 1992, was SA readmitted to the international sports arena, after years of isolation
and boycotts.
23
The question arises as to the state of physical education. It needs to be pointed out that
literature concerning the development of physical education in SA is extremely limited.
According to De Klerk (1984:228) and Du Toit (1980:531) the development of physical
education in SA can be linked to the influence of sport in Europe, South African teachers
studying overseas, and other contentious influences. Numerous qualified physical education
specialists from England, the Nederlands, Denmark and Germany started coming to SA since
1940. Most of these teachers were appointed at secondary schools. A few were also offered
posts. Swedish gymnastics and games from England therefore, played a prominent role in
South African physical education.
A few well-known physical education specialists visited SA and left their mark on the
development of physical education. In 1939 Niels Bukh, in 1959 Dr Carl Diem and Mrs
Lieselotte, and in 1960 Dorothy Ainsworth, all visited SA (De Klerk 1984:229).
The physical education system of SA is an eclectic one that has drawn heavily upon German
schools, as well as on systems of other countries (Vigour 1960:30). In this regard De Klerk
(1984:229) indicates that four systems had originally left a lasting impression on physical
education in SA. These four can be summarised as follows:
o English Sport: Especially informal activities (Athletics, boxing, swimming and
wrestling) .
o The Swedish-Danish formative gymnastics. This system of physical education was
introduced by the British who settled in SA. It was actually implemented in schools
the first time in 1939 by Niels Bukh and was contained in a document entitled:
Syllabus of Physical Exercise.
o German Tumen: This movement was spread by German immigrants, British army
instructors and a number of persons who studied physical education in Germany. The
Tumen featured in the physical education curriculum of boys. It consisted of general
activities and outdoor activities.
o The Austrian natural physical education of Gaulhofer and Streicher: this was stressed
by a few individuals. The periodical of Physical Education in SA, at that time, was
24
a follower thereof. Accordingly the system of physical education had to make
provision for small children in the form of individualism, creativity and imitation.
The very first attempts to include physical education in the curriculum in SA were undertaken
by Commissioner de Mist between 1903-1806 (sic)[Obviously the correct dates are 1803-
1806]. He advocated physical activities such as music, dance, fencing and horse riding.
These were all definite signs of the eighteenth century rationalism (De Klerk 1984:230-231).
Physical education was formally introduced for the first time in South Africa in the
curriculum of Cape Province schools in 1897 (Du Toit 1980:530 and Vigour 1948:6-7). At
that stage more physical education was offered to girls than to boys. In 1918 Dr Karl
Bremmer the first inspector for physical education in the Cape Province included sport and
games to the physical education programme for boys (De Klerk 1984:231-232).
Some of the schools were privileged to have a trained physical educational specialist. The
first ever specialist course for physical education was introduced in 1921 at the Cape Town
Training college. Considerable development took place in the field of physical education from
1936 until 1939. For the first time in history a degree was offered in physical education at
the University of Stellenbosch. As a result physical education formed a central part in the
curriculum of the school (Du Toit 1980:531 and Vigour 1948:6-7).
Not only was physical education made compulsory in government schools in 1939, but it was
also included in the programmes of the Union Defence Force and the South African Railways
and Harbours (Archer & Bouillon 1982: 129). Considerable interest was attracted to physical
education and in 1938 the National Advisory Council for Physical Education was formed.
These developments resulted in physical education forming a central part in the curriculum
(De Klerk 1984:232-234; Du Toit 1980:531, and Vigour 1948:6). The main object of the
abovementioned Council was to coordinate and stimulate the development of physical
education for pupils and students. It did not take long for physical education to establish itself
as an indispensable part of education in South Africa (Vigour 1960:30).
25
Most schools encouraged participation in sport. Secondary schools adopted the policy that
only teachers with specialised training were allowed to teach physical education. Only a
limited number of schools were equipped with modem gymnasiums. The majority, however,
had playgrounds and sport fields (Vigour 1948:7-8).
De Klerk (1984:237-249) indicates that the other three provinces of South Africa (Orange
Free State, Transvaal & Natal) also provided physical education under the auspices of the
various educational departments. Physical education was only included in Natal schools from
1859: from 1851 in the Transvaal, and from 1872 in the Orange Free State. Physical
education has remained a subject in all schools since that time.
The most significant development regarding physical education and sport in SA was the
establishment of a Government Department of Sport and Recreation in 1966. It was the
brainchild of the South African Association for Physical Education and Recreation. The
Department's aims were to: render a service to the various sport associations; encourage
activities which were aimed at the development of a strong and healthy nation and to grant
subsidies for such activities. This department also made funds available to scientific research
in the field of sport and recreation. Another outstanding feature was the establishment of the
Sport Foundation of South Africa by a prominent public company. It was a non-profit
organisation which provided expert tuition and coaching to amateur sport (Du Toit 1980:532-
533). It is necessary to mention that the majority of courses sponsored by the Foundation
were presented in rural areas and amongst the Black communities (personal observation) .
The situation regarding physical education in schools for other ethnic groups was far different
to that in White schools. At the beginning of 1803 mission schools were opened by the
London Missionary Society which provided schooling free of charge to all races. The number
of schools and children attending the schools grew considerably during this time. However,
by the end of the century Whites demanded the provision of separate education. In 1905 the
first state schools for Whites were introduced in the Cape Province (Archer & Bouillon
1982:26-27).
26
Compulsory education for Whites up to age 14 was presented in the four provinces between
1905 and 1908 (Christie & Gordon 1992:402). Education for Blacks, mostly missionary run,
was neither free nor compulsory. Education remained in the hands of missionaries; was
poorly funded; sparsely provided and of varying quality (Archer & Bouillon 1982:164 and
Behr 1984: 177). Sports equipment and facilities in White schools were supplied by the
government. Very little equipment, if any was supplied to Black schools (Archer & Bouillon
1982:164).
Indians received very little education, yet they were allowed to attend White schools between
1885 and 1905. A separate curriculum was imposed on African children in 1904. In 1907
the opening of the first state school for Africans followed (Archer & Bouillon 1982:26-27).
The South African Act (1909) placed the control of Black education, in the hands of the then
Minister of Native Affairs (Behr 1984:175-176).
As previously stated physical education was not obligatory in White government schools until
1939. The Black population was hardly affected by this as only one-quarter of the school
going age children were enrolled (Archer & Bouillon 1982: 35). Opportunities for studying
physical education for coloured teachers were initiated in 1939 at the Wesley Training School
and for Black teachers in 1943 at Healdtown Native Training Institution (Du Toit 1980:531).
Outside the formal school structure the majority of Black school children had virtually no
opportunity to play sport. In the early 1950's the government seized to acknowledge the
education in mission schools. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 resulted in the control of
Black schools to be taken away from the missionary bodies and placed under Department of
Native Affairs (Archer & Bouillon 1980:47 and Christie & Collins 1990:160).
This of course, had a dramatic influence on physical education and sport. Children were not
only excluded from any sport but schools frequently provided them an opportunity to
participate. Government schools paid far less attention to physical education than the
missionary schools did.
By 1975, a considerable shortage of teachers and classrooms existed in Black schools.
Subsequently double sessions were arranged for pupils which resulted in the school day to
27
be shortened by approximately one-third (Mncwabe 1992:59 and Christie & Collins
1990: 177). Obviously, physical education and school sport could not be included in the short
day. Furthermore, school children were leaving school with less than four years of schooling
(Samuel 1990:20). Therefore, they were illiterate and also not knowledgeable as to any
physical education or sport.
Until 1994, four state education departments existed for the four main ethnic groups (White,
Black, Indian and Coloureds) (Van Schalkwyk 1988:76). Physical education was included in
the school curriculum of Black schools, however, principals seldom saw it as an important
part of the curriculum. Facilities in Black schools were also non-existent or of a very poor
quality (White Paper 1995:17-18).
The above comments only provides a brief background to the history of South African
physical education and sport. The place of physical education and sport in the South African
curriculum should not be overlooked. Of course, over the years various factors have
influenced its inclusion. Two aspects to be accentuated in this research are (1) the
involvement of the government and (2) South Africa's readmittance into the international
arena. These two aspects cannot be ignored in the light of the research problem (cf Chapter
Four).
2.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE AND THE SOCIAL NATURE OF SPORT
2.3.1 The significance of sport
Since people are innately beings who participate in play this had to emanate in the
phenomena of games and sport (Coetzee 1991:2). Irrespective of the context within which
sport is practised people always form the centre thereof. Sport simply cannot exist without
people. Individuals from all cohorts participate in some kind of sport: children, adults and
the aged. Sport engenders reason for worthwhile and good relationships, sportsmanship,
endurance, as well as other qualities. However, sport can also involve corruption, violation
of individual dignity, heroism and other unacceptable sports practices.
28
Nieuwoudt (1988:226) maintains, and correctly so, that the original significance of sport, has
undergone a change in emphasis. Currently sport is associated with: practising, competition,
specialisation, coaching, administration, and championships.
Sport undoubtedly forms an integral part within the cultural patterns across the world, and
it has become a well-established phenomenon with worldwide meaning (McPherson, Curtis
& Loy 1989:10-20). The increasing interest in sport, together with the increase in all
societies, endorses the legitimacy of research concerning sport.
The importance of sport can no longer be denied by: educators, economists, politicians,
sociologists and psychologists. It has become a powerful social force which enjoys wide
support and interest within the wider community, as well as within educational circles; it has
become a matter of common interest and immense public appeal. Of all societal factors sport
probably has the greatest impact on society.
2.3.2 The social nature of sport
In order to gain an in depth insight into the particular nature of sport as a social
phenomenon, it is important to study sport from a sociological viewpoint, in other words the
social values that are appended to it by society at large.
o Sport is universal and enjoys worldwide recognition. Simon (1985:ix) indicates that
sport plays a significant role in the lives of millions of people throughout the world.
While many men and women participate actively in sport, even more are spectators,
fans, critics, and occasional participants.
Van Dellen (1981:9) agrees with the above observations, stating that sport is truly
global in its scope and followed with avid interest by many people across the world.
Many countries are able to compete more frequently against each other due to the
developments in transportation. There are definite signs that countries have moved
towards a common sports programme, which enables any kind of extensive
competition.
29
Sport represents an universal important human benefit and is found in almost every
known society and thus constitutes an anthropological universal phenomenon (Baum
& Coleman 1989:4-5).
o Playing games forms a prominent part of sport (Kelly 1982:189). The desire to play
games has been an inborn impulse and a basic need since primitive man (Calhoun
1987:48).
o Sport captures the attention of billions of people. The enormous extension of the mass
media has made it possible for millions of people across the world to follow
international sports events. Every four years 183 countries get together for the greatest
spectacular on earth, the Olympic Games. During the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games
an estimated 4,5-billion people watched the games on television (Bierbaum 1994:49).
D Sport is a human activity. Since prehistoric times people have engaged in sports
activities. Sport and physical activities served as a method to develop skills, physical
exercises: techniques for hunting: it served as a socialising technique, and reinforced
cultural norms and values (Blanchard & Cheska 1985:93).
In this same contents Botha (1982:15) regards sport as an activity that holds society
captive, and creates the opportunity for creativity. These opportunities have been
strengthened by various changes and factors. Pitts (1993: 12) mentions a few: the
exploitation by mass media; the number of sports offered; more free time; sports
education; improvements in sports technology, support services and coaching.
The general concept, sport is very complex. It includes entertainment, compensation
for social defects, an increase in prestige, relief from nervousness and various other
benefits. Sport presents its own integral system and task. It is Bannister (1984:8) who
remarks that different people competing in sport all work toward the same end,
namely releasing a sense of power and beauty that lies in the human body.
30
o Sport contributes to the building of the human character. Erbach (1984:32) and De
Vries (1985:39) have no doubt that sport contributes to education and the formation
of character. These two aspects cannot be understood separately from each other.
Sport is advantageous to the development of entire body of the individual; the
physical, psychological and social development.
o Irrespective of participation as an individual or as a member of a team, sport lends
itself to being a socialising force in the community and the society at large. The
participant is never alone because he is somehow or other representing the community
(Heinemann 1987:12 and Sarakinsky 1995:179).
o Sport represents a particular means of expression within different cultures. In this
regard Viiyrynen (1984:64) remarks that sport provides linguistic symbolism and social
dream by which people can be socialised into the dominant culture. Rugby is the
dominant game in South African sport and its role was to build a powerful nation
(Sarakinsky 1995: 171). In Canada the national game is ice hockey. No cultural activity
unites so many people. It gives them their most heroes, most accessible myths and
rituals (Kidd cited in Baum & Coleman 1989:75).
o Sport contains an element of competition. Blanchard and Cheska (1985:91-93) indicate
that since ancient times people developed a need to defend themselves, their tribe and
later their country. In times of fear they learnt to escape danger by running, jumping
and swimming. To avoid defeat they invented archery, judo and karate. According to
Galtung (1984: 13) humankind also developed the need to compete against body,
surroundings and exhaustion.
To summarise, sport cannot be disregarded in any society today. Erbach (1984:32) reflects
the importance of sport as a social phenomenon:
Sport has become a partner of mankind in the twentieth century; even more -it has become an active co-operation in various social conditions and relations as well as in the individual life of millions of people. Like every progressive phenomenon, modern sport, having emerged from humble local, regional and
31
national beginnings, has been able to spread across social, political, religious and other barriers throughout the world within a historically short time. Neither two dreadful wars nor temporary social or political setbacks have been able to halt its rapid development for long. Today sport is reflected in the social consciousness as a phenomenon of almost universal character.
2.4 THE MULTIFARIOUS VALUE OF SPORT
Sport reflects important values within a society. Leonard (1984:47) describes sport as a
microcosm of society at large. The nature, the organisation, goals, functions, and structure
of sport reflects the society wherein sport takes place. It has the primary function in
disseminating and reinforcing the values regulating behaviour and the goal attainment and
determinations of acceptable solutions to problems in the secular sphere of life.
Sport also affects and aids in regulating perceptions of life in general, in addition to this,
Calhoun (1987:197-201) suggests that sport offers a particular contribution to: education;
constructive recreation, national fitness, youth preparedness, international prestige, and
communication. Sport does not go unnoticed in the community and Diem (1960:6) describes
sport as a possession of the entire society which provided an antipode for the Industrial era.
Sport has become a very important element in the life of every individual irrespective of
race, tradition, climate and preferences.
Jarvie and Maguire (1994:9) rightly state that sport is a social institution that transmits values
to the participants. Sport contributes to society and is inter-related with other aspects of
society. These aspects include, the family and education.
The aim of Greek education was the development of the total person which included the
physical development. There was a continual desire for a balance between body, mind and
soul (Shivers 1981: 42). Today the tendency exists to return to the same idea, in spite of the
tendencies to use sport as preparation for war and place more emphasis on intellectual
development. The emphasis, nowadays is placed on the value of sport for the total person.
Hereafter follows an explanation of the most important values of sport for humankind.
32
2.4.1 Educational value
Even though there follows a detailed discussion of the educational values of sport in Chapter
Three, it is apposite to refer to a number of values which sport offers for mankind and
society as a whole.
Sport forms an integral part of numerous peoples' lives. This is acknowledged by Diem
(1960:6) and Botha (1982:23). In the education system, physical education provides an
opportunity for children to make contact with sport and exercise. Within this working sphere
the child should be guided to self-confidence. Opportunities should be provided to develop
his body power, suppleness and endurance. There is a need to create enjoyment for the child
(Horkel 1992:201-202 and Osness 1992:356).
An atmosphere of play provides the ideal opportunity for the educator and the child to
communicate more relaxed by. The child is inclined to open up more. Sport teaches young
children valuable lessons about life in general and life in society (Jarvie & Maguire 1994:10).
Sport is an instrument in the hands of education that helps to develop characters and
personalities. Calhoun (1987:198-199) stresses that to most individuals, sport forms a bond
between his daily life and the content thereof, consisting of enjoyment, pleasure and
disappointments, hope and fear, ideals and reality. The value of sport differs from person to
person. Some see it as a goal in itself, others see it as a means to a goal.
Diem (1960:7) maintains that the educational value of sport is governed by its own laws. The
essential educational value of sport, is that:
Sport was created out of the instinct of modem man, out of the spiritual interests of our time, out of the appreciation of the measurable, the increasable, and the speed of our modem life. In its obedience to the needs of the body, in its encouragement of the mind in governing the body, and in its own peculiar social life lies its essential educational value.
33
The educational value of sport, Meakin (1986:59) observes, rests totally on the possibility
of transferring qualities such as honesty, fairness and self-discipline.
2.4.2 Social value
It is necessary to add the following perspective to the mere extensive treatment in 2.3.
Human beings are naturally community beings with a strong desire to be part of a group.
Despite the family, educational institutions, coaches and mass communication methods, social
groups of various kinds have the most influence on people. The individuals thoughts are
influenced by the attitudes and deeds of that particular society (Leonard 1984:85). Sport is
thus seen as one of the actions in which the community becomes involved. The inherent need
of people for group membership and identification with a group can be provided in play, and
in sport (Botha 1982:32).
According to Jarvie and Maguire (1994: 10) sport enables individuals and groups to mix
freely with other counterparts across a broad spectrum. Sport integrates members into
society, and strengthens the social relations necessary for people to be able to work together.
It helps people build a consciousness of togetherness.
2.4.2.1 Sport as a fundamental human need
Sport is a vital force that influences the life of man. It is the heritage of all living human
beings and provides enjoyment in and for life (Sayer 1989:34). Sport in various forms offers
enjoyment. Children spend many hours playing games. Meyer (1984:6) stresses the
importance of play in the child's life for two reasons namely:
o For the development of growth, experience and knowledge;
o To enable the child to lose himself totally in games, and to enjoy his activities.
Due to various obligations and responsibilities, adults view sport from a different angle than
children. The desire to compete must therefore not be suppressed.
34
2.4.2.2 Other societal benefits of sport
Russel and Wilson (1992:388) indicate the benefits of sport for the society as being, the
promotion of health and other social benefits. Without a doubt, sport and physical activity
are central to the life of the whole community. For this particular reason many countries
across the board, have opted for a "sport for all strategy" (Williams 1993:1). Sport offers
the community the basis for national identity and national competence (Vayrynen 1984:67).
The former USSR used sport as a tool to bring about social change. Just after the revolution,
the state used sport: to develop health and uplift morality; to promote fitness and discipline
in the army, and to provide a source of recreation to a society that was experiencing rapid
changes and sacrifices (Riordan 1980: 14).
Sport can be used as a form of preventing juvenile delinquency (Rees 1991:54). The youth
of today are continuously looking for the boundaries of right and wrong. If they are not kept
busy in a constructive way they will look for other destructive methods. Sport creates an
opportunity for self -expression.
Not only does sport help to develop individual traits, but it also helps to influence the growth
and development of social relationships between people (Jarvie & Maguire 1994:9-10). Other
values that are cultivated range from: respect for rules; honest hard play; courage; disregard
of own interest and the development of group interest; sportsmanship, and experience in
leadership. Since sport contributes to group cohesion, many countries organise mass
participation. Especially in groups where there is hostility, sport could help to resolve and
stabilise differences concerning, belief, education nationality and cultural backgrounds.
The parties in society concerned with sport can be; the state, the community, the church,
private sector, the school and the family. In this research the focus point is obviously the
school who is the primary provider of sport in the South African educational system (cf
Chapter Four).
35
2.4.3 Psychological value
According to Smoll and Smith (1981: 85-94), and Stewart (1981: 59) the psychological value
of sport has already been researched by a number of educationists. Literature indicates that
other aspects are also included when a person is involved in sport.
Calhoun (1987:257-262) identifies three main values sport has regarding psychological
development. Firstly, sport develops a spirit of cooperation when a team sport is being
played. Secondly, sport develops the ability of free participation between individuals and
groups. A third characteristic developed, is the submission to authority and disciplined
submission to the law (abiding by the rules of the game).
Feltz and Weiss (1982:24) believe it is the task of the coach and the teacher to arrange sports
activities that develop self-confidence in the child. Many of the coaches are unaware of the
value of sport for the personal development of the child. The result of participation in sport
is classified by Feltz and Weiss (1982:24) as:
The strangest most durable determinant of self-efficacy is performance accomplishment. When individuals achieve success in their athletic endeavours, feelings of self-worth and esteem result.
Botha (1982:28) points out that mass participation has the most powerful effect on the
behaviour of people. The public is the biggest attender of sport and it creates a spectacle and
lively show. Heineman (1989:18) indicates that many spectators get carried away to such an
extent, that some sports events are characterised by accumulated aggression. These emotions
sometimes cause the individual to act irresponsibly. Soccer is the one sport that is known for
violence during a game. Despite these negative effects of sport, due to group pressure Botha
(1982:29) stresses that this aggression can be controlled.
The interaction between body and soul cannot be ignored. Jennings (1993: 1) views sport as
offering one the opportunity to experience body and mind in motion. Both the body and the
soul form and function as an integrate whole. A dominant body can be of an disadvantage
36
to the spirit, while a weak soul, can lead to destruction of the body. Further a body ailment
can cause various psychological diseases.
Child psychologists have already proven that draw backs in the motor-abilities can bring
about various psychological distortions. Stress is becoming an ever-increasing problem in
society. Sport can help relieve stress; and therefore has a therapeutic value, namely leading
the person away from worries, that cannot be ignored (Weiskopf 1982:60).
2.4.4 Physiological value
Sport consists of a physical and a kinetic aspect. Across the world it is known that the
general well-being of a society is closely related to their physical condition. Today people
use false substances to help build their health and motivation to help prevent various
psychological illnesses.
Dewey (cited in Botha 1982:31) emphasises the need for physical activity, to ensure that
organic growth takes place. Normal functioning of the body is stimulated by activity and
every person has the need for physical activity. Movement stimulates growth and the
strengthening of the organs. Performance of the body is heightened with use, and when it is
not used, a degeneration is inevitable.
Numerous research projects have proven that sport is beneficial. The contribution sport
makes to physical fitness should be encouraged in schools, seeing there is a deterioration in
the physical condition of children (Horkel 1992:201). Physical activity is of importance to
the motoria abilities of individuals (e g perceptual motor, balance speed, power, endurance,
coordination and flexibility) (Osness 1992:356).
Physical exercise is also of importance to the welfare of an entire country (White Paper
1995:34-35). Unfit citizens could cause a country's downfall. Research findings of 1982
revealed that the physical fitness level of South African citizens, needed a lot of attention
(HSRC-Sport Research 1982(1):42-43 and Tempelhoff 1983:26).
37
In summary: Many people seldom realise the value of physical activity. It is a fundamental
need of every individual. As Tempelhoff (1983:26) concluded: Sport can indeed contribute
to mankind's physical vitality through modem physiology: in the development and
maintenance of muscle tone, organic, and vitality of body functioning.
2.4.5 Ethical value
A long and respected tradition exists regarding the viewpoint that a healthy relationship exists
between humankind's physical life and the development and formation of his character. In
Plato's Republic, he condemns both an exclusive academic education, as well as a purely
physical education. Arnold (1984:275) points out that Plato advocates the education of a mind
that is civilised and brave, as opposed to cowardly and uncivilised. Rousseau, an eighteenth
century philosopher, preferred to constantly participate in physical exercise, strengthening
his body and keeping it healthy in order to make him good and wise.
During the Middle Ages, in English private schools sport was highly regarded as the
cultivators of bravery, loyalty and cooperation. To this day, this viewpoint is not unfamiliar
in the sports arena (Meakin 1981:241 and Arnold 1984:275). Charles Kingsley (cited in
Arnold 1984:276) points out ethical characteristics that are developed in sport as games, that
are not merely daring and endurance teaching, but better still, temper: self restraint, fairness,
honour, and unenvious approbation of another's success.
Competitive sport offers many the opportunity to test ethical performance. Adding to the list,
Botha (1982:26) sees sport as providing the opportunity for sportsmanship, loyalty and
discipline, respect to other, modesty, dignity. To be able to understand the ethical value of
sport the reader should have knowledge about the terms, sportsmanship, fairness and
discipline.
Botha (1982:26) considers sportsmanship as an honest trait that requires qualities such as:
courage, endurance, self control, self respect, mutual trust, politeness and fairness. Fairness
is defined as one of the most important ingredients of sportsmanship. Diem (1960:9) endorses
this:
38
The fairness aspect of sport stresses that "out of the essence of sport, its ethical content demands of a sport, i.e. a fair attitude; an attitude which one cannot capture in rules or regulations but which is equally obligatory to every sportsman and should be felt by every one of them.
Fairness according to Arnold (1984:276), relates to the application of the rules. That which
is valid for one player, should be valid for the rest of the team; team members should meet
beforehand and decide on the rules to be followed. No one is allowed to be favoured above
the rest.
Baxter (1994a:14) agrees with Diem (1960:9). He sees fairplay as much more than rules. It
consists of friendship, respect for others, and always playing in the right spirit. It should
eliminate cheating, gamesmanship, doping, violence (physical and verbal), exploitation,
inequality, corruption and excessive commercialisation.
Discipline is another quality that has developed through sport. Especially in highly
competitive matches strict discipline is asked with regard to regular practising, participation
and obedience of rules (Botha 1982:26).
Meakin (1981 :246) comments that the complete opposite is also possible in matches. Players
may see their opponents as their enemies or dishonesty, intimidation and provocation can also
be the order of the day. The negative side should not be allowed to overshadow the positive
effects of sport on moral development. Many of the misinterpretations are based on the poor
presentation of the sport and not the participant himself.
Baxter (1994a: 13) justifiably observes how modem sport is faced with numerous pressures
experienced in society. The effect of politics in sport; the race to success; the need for
heroes; the need for finance, and the exposure to the mass-media increases tension in society.
Competitive sport is often under the spotlight as the cultivator of unwanted behaviour;
differences with umpires; the twisting of rules; deliberate fouls; undesirable behaviour, and
swearing (Meakin 1986:59). Incidents where players are fined are common in the world of
sport (Pretoria News, 4 July 1995:17).
39
In summary: the negative aspects should not be allowed to spoil the true nature of sport.
Stricter measures should be taken to rid sport of bad language, foul play and interferences
with umpires. All players officials, administrators, spectators, the media, sponsors, and
parents should adhere to the codes of behaviour. The code of sport ethics for SA has been
clearly set out in the South African Sports Charter (Baxter 1994a: 18-25).
2.4.6 Political value
All over the world sport is interlinked with the values of the society (Jarvie & Maguire
1994:9-10). Politics forms an integral part of these values. The political influence on sport
is noticeable in the foreign policy where sport performances are seen as the criteria for
national prestige (Sarakinsky 1995:167). Archer and Bouillon (1982:64) and Sarakinsky
(1995: 167) did extensive research on sport in South Africa and found that sport was often
used as a psychological weapon, to manipulate other racial groups, because group
identification in sport encourages national instincts.
Already in Ancient Greece, sport was used to improve the fitness of the society with the
objective of preparing for war. The Romans were one of the first civilisations to use sport
for military purposes and later to control the masses (Van der Merwe 1990:49-54). The
Russians were also known to use sport as preparation for war. They regarded sport as a
means to: achieve physical fitness; psychological awareness; the handling of military skills
(shooting & skiing) equipping soldiers with; stamina, endurance, fighting spirit and enterprise
(Riordon 1980:9 and Blanchard & Cheska 1985:271).
The strongest bond between sport and politics is in the area of nationalism. The founder of
the Olympic movement, Pierre de Courbertin describes his rationale behind the movement
as follows:
The Olympics unites as in one brush stroke of sunny rays all those principles which promote the perfection of a man (Stolyarov & Sanadze 1984: 38).
40
The Olympic Games was meant to create peace and collaboration - sport free participation
between nations and free of politics. This is the Olympic ideal but today it is not always
achievable. Moltmann (1989:102) criticises Courbertin's view of sport as containing two
political concerns: The first concern "enormously soothing pacifying power of sport" in social
conflicts: Sport was seen as a link between social classes. It was not supposed to be the
effect. In the former USSR, sport was used as a lever of social control offering the Soviet
regime a wonderful opportunity to exploit genuine enthusiasm toward Party-inspired goals
(Taylor quoted in Sarakinsky 1995: 167). The Party-inspired goals were clearly visible in -
South African sport between 1948-1967. The National Party's policy of racial segregation
in sport, resulted in discrimination against non-White participants (Sarakinsky 1995:160).
The second concern was "the honour of our country" (Moltmann 1989:102). Sport is
therefore politically manipulated in many countries to gain non-political goals. The
performances of a countries athletes are used for propaganda, nationally as well as
internationally (Sarakinsky 1995: 168).
The abovementioned phenomenon is clearly depicted in South Africa's victory in the World
Cup Rugby Tournament. The performances of the players was a prestigious event and is seen
as reflecting one team, one nation. Consequently South Africa's strength, vitality and image
was spread across the world (The Sunday Times, 25 June 1995:1).
In the same sense sport is seen as an important nation builder. Dustan (cited in Evans
1990:5) argues that sport in Australia is regarded as a "super-religion", wherein each
Australian passionately believes. In South Africa much the same can be said about sport, in
particular rugby, being a nation builder (Sarakinsky 1995: 171 and The Sunday Times, 25
June 1995:1-2). In Canada no other sport has the ability to unite a nation, than ice hockey
has (Kidd 1989:69).
Party-politics and interference in sport by the politicians is also noticeable in SA. Internally
there was a continual political onslaught to isolate governing bodies of sport in SA (The Cape
Times, 23 June 1993:5 and Sarakinsky 1995: 169-170). Political infighting was very high on
the priority list before SA's readmittance to the international arena. The newspapers
41
contained numerous articles relating to political events in school sport (Beeld, 11 Januarie
1992:9 and The Sunday Times, 21 February 1993:2). Even internal political interference was
found (Die Burger, 14 Januarie 1992:10).
The most well-known method of withholding participation is "Qy calling for boycotts. Boycotts
of the Olympic Games can be traced to as far back as 1920 and as recently as 1984. This
movement, according to Cheffers, Hawkins & Tait (1988:33-36) was regarded as relatively
ineffective, illegal, cynical and misguided.
Activist fighting the racial policy in SA used sport as a political weapon. The continual
pressure on the government brought about many changes, which of course, was to the benefit
of all. In 1979 the government called all sport to be depoliticised which would speed up SA's
re-entry into the international arena (Beleidsoorsig RSA 1989:38-41).
In summary: all the political tension and interference would certainly have disappointed the
founder of the IOC. His aim was the improvement and promotion of the value of English
sport, the English private school system, and the character building thereof (Weekry Mail,
30 July 1992:25).
2.4. 7 Economic value
Vast amounts of money are currently involved in sport, either in the form of prize money,
facilities, salaries or equipment. The momentous change in technology has changed sport into
an enormous business concern (Beeld, 16 Julie 1993:1).
MaClean et al (1985:34-35) illustrates that as far back as ancient times, sport and economy
have been interlinked. The Greeks took the lead in the development of modem stadiums. The
Olympia stadium was not erected without the necessary expense. Provision was made for
training, eating, and the sleeping needs of the athletes. Even though the Greeks professed to
take part for a single crown, various athletes expected to be substantially and materially
rewarded by his city, for the glory which his victory had brought it. The athletes' search for
42
more lucrative prizes led to the languishing of the old Olympian Games (Young 1984:7 and
Freyne 1989:95).
The magnitude of sport as an economic enterprise has affected numerous industries in every
country. A number of aspects are touched upon in this section. The developments in sport
have resulted in helping sport become a commodity that is produced, marketed and sold to
the public. There are a number of economic advantages when staging a sports event of
international standard in a country. One contribution to the national economy is in the form
of tourism. Tourists stimulate the local economy, especially the hotel trade and restaurants,
taxis, and other retail businesses (McPherson et al1989:115 and The Cape Argus, 20 January
1993:1). The hosting of the Rugby World Cup in South Africa led to a tremendous number
of visitors to the country. Hotels and the transport industry also flourished (White Paper
1995:36).
The building and maintenance of sport facilities across the world constitute a multi-million
dollar industry (McPherson et al 1989: 114). The need for basic sport facilities in SA will
provide a significant job-creation avenue within the construction industry. Especially if SA
should win the bid for the Olympics of 2004 (The Cape Times, 30 June 1993:3; The Daily
News, 21 July 1993:3, and White Paper 1995:36).
The number of professional athletes are increasing by the day. The economic status of
participants is revealed in the astronomical salaries which sports people receive. Sportsmen
and -women often earn larger salaries than people in other professions (Rapport, 8 Januarie
1995:22). Careers in sports medicine, sports law, sports psychology and sports
administration and stadium management, are but a few of the opportunities that are created
by sport (White Paper 1995:36).
Sponsorships offered to sport, gate earnings and expenditures prove that sport is a
moneymaking business (Weekend Argus, 9 May 1993: 17). Companies spend millions of rand
on advertising in order to be able to link their products with sport (McPherson et al
1989:115).
43
The economic value of sport for the labourers of a country, was seriously considered in the
former Soviet Union. Workers who were physically fit were regarded as an asset to help
increase the production of the country. Much the same ideology was advocated in the
People's Republic of China (Calhoun 1987:150).
There are, however, various implications related to the economic side of sport. Due to the
rising costs of sport equipment not everybody can afford to participate. Entry fees,
membership fees and coaching fees are not accessible to everybody. Prize money, and win
at-all costs has caused many athletes to tum to alternative methods (the use of stimulants and
steroids) to reach the top (Simon 1985:65-70 and Padwe 1989:105).
An article in Marketing Mix (1992b:50) indicates that South Africa's renewed involvement
in sport, after 30 years of isolation, has resulted in the increase of broadcast rights. The
international world has been conditioned into believing that unless you have beaten the
infamous South African teams you cannot claim to be the champions. Media coverage,
especially television has become a number one priority. Due to the cost of broadcasting
rights, and the limited air time, broadcasters have to be very selective. High profile sport
such as: rugby, cricket, motor sport and golf, are therefore preferred above less popular
sport. Sponsors as a result have become very selective when sponsoring a team (Marketing
Mix 1992b:50).
The White Paper (1995:36) suggests that the proposed state lottery for SA can help the Sport
Trust fund, to fund the various sports adventures. Other sectors of the country such as
housing, health and education will also benefit from such a development. The offering of tax
rebates will have to be reconsidered, for companies sponsoring sports events serves as an
incentive to companies. The scrapping of this incentive in 1992 according to Marketing Mix
(1992b:44) has resulted in increased financial pressure which the government has to bear for
international events.
To summarise: Sport contains economic advantages as well as disadvantages. Many questions
arise from the previous comments and need to be answered: Should players be paid for
performances? Do school children have to pay to participate in sport? Should teachers receive
44
payment for coaching? What is the financial responsibility of the state towards sport? This
research would, however, like to emphasise the economic advantages of sport for the
country, society and the individual.
2.5 CONCLUSION
From the earliest times sport has played a upbuilding, recreational and reconstructive role
in the life people. Yet no nation has emphasised physical education as much as the Greeks.
Sport formed an important part in the education of humankind and was often included in the
daily school programmes. Modem society has revealed a need of regular exercising, to
compensate for the loss of physical activity imposed on him by modem civilisation.
With regard to a physiological aspect there is no doubt that sport offers an opportunity to
improve health in general. Physical growth and development of motor-skills are stimulated
by participation in sport.
The educational value of sport must never be underestimated. It gives rise to the striving of
higher levels of performance. Discipline in sport creates the possibility of developing
concentration. Proof exists with regard to sport performances leading to good academic
performances.
People are in constant contact with other people and in that way his social growth is
stimulated and developed. Team and individual sports opportunities help strengthen friendship
bonds. Various social problems can be normalised by the participation in sport. During
international meetings people from all over the world are brought together to share a
common interest namely sport.
Research has provided clarity concerning the contribution that sport has made throughout the
centuries not only to the psychological state of people, but serving as a stabilising factor in
emotional life. Sport has unknown value to the retarded in terms of the rebuilding of the state
of mind. The development of an individual's character finds its roots in sport and sport helps
in developing a positive attitude, endurance and sportsmanship.
45
With regard to an ethical point of view, sport teaches people to prove themselves in
participation. Honour and reputation must be placed above greed and materialistic want. By
means of their examples they can become prominent in generations to come.
Economically and politically observed, sport can mean a lot to the community as well as to
individuals. Sport provides countless working opportunities for thousands across the world.
Sport can be politically inspired to the advantage of bringing about change in the society, the
country and the world. Yet attempts should be made to keep sport out of the hands of
politics. The meaning of an individual's involvement in sport differs from person to person
because each person values sport differently.
In order to determine the place of physical education and sport in the curriculum of schools,
requires further investigation. This investigation is undertaken in Chapter Three.
CHAPTER 3
THE ROLE, PLACE AND VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
SPORT FOR THE DEVELOPING CHILD
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter Two an investigation was undertaken of the origins of physical education and
sport and the particular value of sport to humankind. The value of sport inevitably leads to
recognition of ineluctable link between education and sport. Education is the obvious vehicle
for furthering of the role of physical education and sport in the lives of young children.
Education is a universal phenomenon; throughout the ages all societies have educated their
children. Children show a need for education and are dependent on an educator for guidance
to adulthood (Van der Walt, Dekker & Van der Walt 1983:22). It is of paramount
importance in this study to realise that each person has a particular philosophy of life1• The
educator requires knowledge of people and the implications of this innate need for education.
Furthermore, the educator must bear in mind that the essential education includes the optimal
development of the child's potential including his/her physical development. There are
numerous philosophies of which will be touched on in this chapter. The influences of these
philosophies on education, will also be highlighted, as well as the relationship between
physical education, sport and education. This in tum should enable one to determine the
value and place of sport in the development of the child.
Of particular importance to this study is an education which emphasises the complete
development of the child. In this regard Van Schalkwyk (1988:29-33) points out that the
complete development of the child requires the development of all his/her latent potential.
This includes the development of all aspects of the human being such as his/her physical,
intellectual, social, linguistic, and religious potential. Various school subjects are designed
1 A life philosophy is what one believes, but in another sense, philosophy is why and how one believes (Hamm 1981:1).
47
for the specific development of specific aspects of the child's being. In this regard, Physical
Education plays a major role in the development and disclosion of the child's physical
attributes.
Regarding the study of physical education and sport as an integral part of the school
curriculum, this researcher adopts a developmental psychology approach. For this reason, the
particular place and value of physical education and sport in education will be analysed in
accordance with the development of the child. Sport education forms a central place in the
curriculum and therefore requires careful re-thinking and planning.
3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL TENETS DETERMINE THE NATURE OF EDUCATION
3.2.1 Varying philosophies about the essential nature of humanity
From the earliest times educationists have described the child within a particular
philosophical ideology. The search for answers regarding who and what is humanity,
impinges on one of the most complex fields of enquiry into which the philosopher and
educationist can venture.
The answers to abovementioned questions reflect conflicting and even incompatible
viewpoints. Consider for example, the radical opposing viewpoints of Freud, who saw
humankind as psychological beings; Marx who describes humankind as an economic being;
Dewey who views humankind as social beings (Dreckmeyer 1991-2:7). Other philosophies
that may be added are idealism and pragmatism (Coetzee 1993:1-2). A selection of
philosophies will be briefly treated below.
3.2.1.1 Idealism
Idealism was already contemplated by Socrates and Plato as the underlying philosophy of
life. Plato (427-347 BCE) defined people as rational beings. Thus the individual was
considered to be a reflection of the cosmic soul or absolute spirit (Kruger & White 1982:52).
Idealists distinguish between two separate entities namely body and soul. Plato was prompted
48
by his mentor Socrates into inquiring about the nature of knowledge (what knowledge is) and
the nature of reality (what can be known)(Power 1982:73). The main aim of Plato's
education was to devise a theory and a scheme of education which would result in a balanced
and harmonious individual and a balanced and harmonious society (cf Kelly 1987:3).
In educationists who espouse the idealistic viewpoint favour subjects that would shape the
character of children such as religious instruction, music, art and science. These are
preferred above physical education, and handwork (Vander Walt & Dekker 1983:43). For
the idealist the school career is nothing less than real life and it is hereby a preparation for
life in society (Power 1982:85). To show that Plato denigrated play he called children who
dropped balls, "clumsy donkeys"; the silly games children played with their mothers did not
belong to the elite (Cohen 1987:20-21).
3. 2.1. 2 Naturalism
The origin of naturalism or otherwise known as realism also has its root in Greek
philosophy. The founders of this philosophy were Aristotle and Democritus in antiquity and
later Hobbes, Locke and Hume (England) (Hamm 1981:57-58). Aristotle had a supreme
interest in the nature of human thought. He also regarded the individual as a single entity,
composed of mind and body (Power 1982:90).
Kelly (1987:15) points out that the French philosopher Rousseau had a great influence on the
view of the child. His emphasis in education was on the natural development of the child.
He suggested that pupils should be provided with opportunities for experiences. Nature
according to Van der Walt et al (1983:44) is regarded as the end destination of the child
where the strongest will be separated from the weakest. It is here that the expression the
survival of the fittest originated.
3.2.1.3 Pragmatism
Kelly (1987: 16) explains that this philosophy mainly focuses on a practical approach to life.
Its main advocate was the American John Dewey. Dewey's educational philosophy advocated
49
a learning experience where children are facilitated to arrive at an own knowledge and
understanding, rather than that of the teacher. Kruger and White (1982:46) define
pragmatism as an approach where valuable experience from society is learnt. People are also
regarded as products of development, and therefore have the ability to conquer and control
nature.
The pragmatist focuses on the maturing and interest shown by the child. Situations are
selected which teach children new problems and provide opportunities to solve problems
(Hamm 1981:139).
3. 2.1.4 The Christian school of thought
This school prefers to regard the individual as a religious being (Schoeman 1983:5-8;
Dreckmeyr 1991-2:7, and Henning 1993:56). According to this philosophy, man stands in
a vertical God-Man relationship. 2 Corinthians 6:16 (New International Version 1989:1800)
provides a guideline to this relationship: "For we are the temple of the living God. As God
has said: 'I will live with them and walk among them, and I will be their God, and they will
be my people".
The Christian philosopher considers humans as unique beings. No two persons are the same,
each has his/her own identity (Vander Walt & Dekker 1982:69), and should be considered
as a whole and not divided into separate components (De Vries 1985:39). Thus one should
emphasise a balanced development of the child (cf Dreckmeyr 1991-2:8). The various aspects
such as the: physical, intellectual, faith, emotional, social and ethical, have to be considered
in education. All knowledge related to humankind should be seen in relation to God
(Schoeman 1983:157). People are the crown of creation: created according to the image of
God, and they are in three fold relationship: towards God, his neighbour and the world
(Kruger & White 1982:56).
Christian philosophy regards humankind to be experiencing various aspects of reality, or
modes of existence (Schoeman 1980:20). Education is a temporal entity, and has been made
possible by the creation of typical structural laws by the Creator of all things. Both Schoeman
50
(1983:26) and Vander Walt and Dekker (1982:9) summarise the aspects of reality that have
to be taken into account when educating a child, the: pistical; ethical, juridical, aesthetic,
economical, social, lingual, historical, logical, psychical, biotic, physical, kinetic, spatial,
and numerical. It is the responsibility of the educator to have knowledge of these aspects and
accordingly develop children to their optimal potential2•
3.2.1.5 A developmental psychology approach
According to Meyer (1990:3) developmental psychology is defined as the study of humankind
from birth until death. It comprises an enormous area of study, more than merely describing
the development of man through the various stages of life. The main object of developmental
psychology stressed is man as a totality (Vasta, Haith & Miller 1992: 25). Developmental
psychologists are interested in changes which occur systematically as the child becomes
older.
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how we grow and develop. Davenport
(1989:1) explains that this includes trying to understand topics such as: emotional develop
ment, personality development, the development of intelligence, thinking, communication,
and living with others.
Throughout the ages, history has witnessed some remarkable differences of opinion about the
nature of childhood. Various theories have emphasised different aspects of development.
Crain (1992:4-5) identifies two eminent philosophers that set the scene for the fundamental
division in developmental psychology namely, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. The
English philosopher John Locke was an environmentalist. He saw the child as an apprentice
adult. Concerning the development of the child, environment shaped the child's mind. His
emotions developed through associations, repetitions and imitation. The main aim of
2 This viewpoint of education is that espoused by Dooyeweerdian philosophy which divides reality into 15 aspects of reality which comprises all epistemic reality.
51
education was considered, self-control. In order to self-discipline, the child's physical well
being had to receive attention. Children had to have plenty of exercise in order to make their
bodies strong. Children needed to play outdoors in all seasons to teach them to endure the
hardships or all kinds of weather (Crain 1992:4-5).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocated a free and unrestrained environment within which the child
should be educated. This environment would enable the child to develop into a healthy adult,
through active experiment and investigation. He preferred orderly and sequential development
(Gardner 1982:140). Rousseau maintained that children grew according to nature's plan,
which encourages them to develop different capacities and modalities, at different stages
(Vasta et al 1992:31).
Both Crain (1992:102) and Vasta et al (1992:31) elaborate on Piaget's structural theory of
child development. Piaget distinguishes between four stages of thinking in the development
of the child: The sensory-motor stage (0-2 years); pre-operational stage (2-7 years); concrete
operations (7 -11 years); and formal operations (12 - adulthood).
In summary: Each of the above philosophies define people form a different presupposition
and these philosophies in tum spawned of different views of education.
Thus: Idealism sees the child as compartmentalised according to educational needs, namely
physical and psychological; Naturalists advocate an education that equips a child physically,
only the strongest in life survived; Pragmatists are more interested in an education of a
practical nature - the child has to be useful to society. Christian educators are more balanced,
in that all aspects of people are important, in education: psychical, physical, aesthetical,
economic, lingual, historical, biotic, etc. The human being is educated as a total human
being.
Despite the differences in approach one must note that there are four common aspects of
importance in the development of the child that are touched upon. The four areas stressed
throughout are: the psychological; physical; intellectual/cognitive and social.
52
The question which arises in this research is: Which is more important; the academic
programme or physical education and sport education? Does sport fulfil a rightful place in
the present sport programme, and what is the value of sport for the child? In order to decide
this question, and bearing in mind that the development of the child is important, a
developmental psychology approach is chosen in this project. The reason for this is as
follows:
A developmental psychology approach is used because the basis of school sport is the total
development of the child. There is a link between a developmental psychology approach and
sport. Physical education and sport hold incalculable value for the emotional, cognitive,
social and physical development of the child. These aspects complement each other and can
therefore not be ignored in education, since the child has to be seen as an integrated being.
3.2.2 The development of the child
Despite all various approaches in developmental psychology Gallahue, Werner & Luedke
(1975:4-10); Vannier and Gallahue (1978:104-147); Schickedanz, Schickedanz & Forsyth
(1982:x-xi); Lievegoed (1985:29-49); Beaty (1986:35); Meyer (1990:11-13), and Sullivan
(1990:iii) all agree on the various processes in the general development of the child. The
individual is a unique, yet complex, being, developing in various areas of his/her life, as
mentioned above, at different stages. This particular investigation only singles out areas,
namely physical and social development.
3.2.2.1 Physical development
Physical development concerns the growth of the body and the changes in the internal
structure and functioning of the body. The stages of childhood are characterised as follows:
Conception till birth
o The prenatal development of the child is calculated to be 280 days or 40 weeks.
53
o Conception takes place within two weeks after implantation. The zygote begins to
develop.
o Development of the embryo: eyes; beginning of ears; a mouth that opens and closes;
a nose; hands and feet (fingers and toes still webbed); arms with elbows and legs with
knees; primitive circulatory system; a heart that beats, some kidney and liver functions
and a spinal cord develop between 3-8 weeks.
o Weeks 8-40 sees further development of the fetus (Bee 1989:48-50 and Vasta et al
1992:120-121).
Infancy (0-2 years)
o Newborn: good at many perceptual skills; poor motor control (cannot hold head up
yet);
o Canfocus eyes on the same point; responds to sounds; reacts to smells; discriminates
between salty and sweet tastes;
o Actions made by babies at this age are purely at random and due to reflexes (Bee
1989:91-92);
o Extremely rapid physical development;
o Begins to reach, grasp and crawl (Schickedanz et al1982:148 and Biehler & Hudson
1986:212-213).
Toddlerhood (1,5 • 2 years)
o Growth less rapid;
o Further motor skills begin to emerge;
o Coordination and balance improves; learns to run and climb;
o Finer motor-skills emerge;
o The main preoccupation of the child is playing. By means of playing the child gathers
information regarding his surroundings (Schickedanz et al 1982:220).
54
Preschool Child (3-6 years)
o Physical skills develop rapidly;
o Perform complicated locomotor tasks (hopping and skipping; throwing and moving
arms);
o Fine motor skills (buttoning small buttons on shirt; tie shoe laces);
o Exploring the interpersonal world through playing (Gardner 1982:155 and Schickedanz
et al 1982: 227).
School-age period (7 -11 years)
o Increasing in height and weight;
o The acquisition of both fine (Hobbies and crafts) and gross motor skills (games and
organised sport) ;
o Motor skill development can contribute to a child's sense of independence and self
esteem, as well as to social and cognitive development (Schickedanz et al 1982:380
and Biehler & Hudson 1986:437).
The Adolescent (12-18 years)
o Physical changes are dramatic; body growth (height, weight and skeletal growth) and
sexual development (Gardner 1982: 546);
o Physical skills reach a peak, and physical fitness contributes to good health and
improves self-confidence (Schickedanz et al 1982:483).
With regard the child's physical development, it is noticeable that health and motor
coordination are all reciprocal to each other. These also influence the child's learning, social
relationship, and attitude toward himself. This is important motor development for physical
development (Meyer 1990:11). Biehler and Hudson (1986:439) stress the fact that
spontaneous activities of children are inadequate to facilitate cardiovascular health. For this
reason the child needs a wide variety of bodily experiences. Growth of the body, and the
55
internal structure goes hand in hand with obtaining gradual control of the body and physical
movements.
Movement is one of the prerequisites of man's total existence. The child's entire life is
centred around exploration. During his exploration the child comes to know more about his
own identity and reality. Reality is an unknown entity to the child that invites the child to
give it meaning (Sarafino & Armstrong 1980:246-247). Play as means of exploration, forms
most of the daily routine and is essential to the child as well as to education. Play is seen as
important for growth and development (Johnson, Christie & Yawkey 1987:i).
FIGURE 3.1
The phases of motor development
PECIALISED MOVEME SKILLS
(HIGH SCHOOL-ADULTHOOD) 14 YEARS·? YEARS
SPECIFIC SKILLS (QRADES 6 • 7)
11 YEARS • 13 YEARS
GENERAL MOVEMENF SKILLS (GRADES 3 • 5)
8 YI:ARS ·10 YEARS
FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT
PRE-scHOOL· SECOND GRADE
(2 YEARS· 7 YEARS)
RUDIMENTARY MOVEMENT ABIUTIES
(INFANCY 0 • 2)
REFLECTIVE BEHAVIOR (UTERO •INFANCY • 5 MONTliS TO 1)
56
Gallahue et al (1975:6-11) aptly summarises the above content as the phases of motor
development. These phases help to identify where most children are in the development of
their movement skills. The diagram presented above (FIG 3.1), serves as an indicator as to
when teachers and parents should emphasise the development of different degrees of skills.
These developmental phases account for the different needs, interests, and capabilities of
children.
3.2.2.2 Social development
People are social beings, born into a social world. Every aspect of a child's development,
including physical, intellectual, and cognitive development, is affected by society. From birth
children form many social relationships (Vasta et al 1992:406). Social development during
the various ages is illustrated below.
o Infancy, toddler and preschool age
Bee (1989:97) indicates that moments after birth the small infant makes contact with society
in the person of his/her mother. Babies react on instinct and are focused on looking, touching
and exploring their surroundings. Survival is dependent on the providence of consistent care
over an extended period. Newborn infants have the capacity to use their social skills to entice
others, attract and keep the attention of adults.
Parents regulate the basic biological processes regarding feeding and whilst being awake, and
they harmonise the environmental requirements (Schaffer 1989:191). The typical tendency
of infants is to cling to their mothers to evidence dependence. At the age of four they seem
to grow out of this "babyish behaviour". They spend less and less time with their parents and
more and more time with other children. Peer-orientated behaviour sets in when children are
sent to nursery school. Initially children preferably play with only one child, then later with
others (Bee 1989:415). The preschool child develops the ability to use language and can thus
communicate. The child-child relationships are very important and have lasting effects on
social development and behaviour.
57
o School age
Children develop newly found abilities to use language in order to control their behaviour
and influence others. Social circles broaden beyond parents and siblings to include peers,
teachers, the media of communication and other societal institutions (Gardner 1982:275).
Individual friendships start to play a larger role in the social patterns of the child (Bee
1989:416). School age friendships become increasingly cooperative, intimate and durable
(Sarafino & Armstrong 1986: 171).
According to Van Rensburg (1991:69) family life, peer and group interactions offer children
numerous opportunities to learn and practice social behaviour. The great landmark in
socialising, is the attainment of a mature moral outlook. Children begin to understand the
rules of games. They show a strong desire for adventure and competition.
o Adolescent
Biehler and Hudson (1986:582), and Faw and Belkin (1989:442) stress that relations with
peers assume greater importance in the lives of adolescents. Adolescents have to acquire
knowledge, skills and values, that will enable them to become effective members of society.
Their behaviour is determined mainly by social, cultural and situational factors. According
to Schickedanz et al (1982:519) keeping the adolescent busy with physical activities helps to
ease this stressful period in his life. Taggart, Cowan and Alexander (1994:5) describe the
school as the only place where some children and adolescents experience sport, it is therefore
important to create the opportunity for at least one positive sports experience; be it in
physical education or in sport.
The following diagram (FIG 3.2) in McClenaghan and Gallahue (1978:10), illustrates the
total integration of the different components (parts) of development:
58
FIGURE 3.2
Schematic presentation of the interrelatedness of the components of development
MOTOR
COGNITIVE
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE INTERRELATEDNESS OF THE COMPONENTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Movement must be seen as an essential component of the harmonious development of the
child.
In summary: the process of development of the child is made up of a series of alternating
periods of rapid growth and periods of consolidation. Child development must be seen as a
integrated whole. Cognitive development, social development, and physical (motor)
development all interact to produce the character of the child. This reasoning helps us to
59
understand that each child is a unique human being. The environment within which the child
grows up, influences his cognitive, physical and social development. It is therefore important
that all four aspects of development be considered in the education of the child. With regard
to this investigation, the importance of physical activities as part of the school curriculum
needs to be indicated.
3.3 THE GENERAL NATURE OF EDUCATION
Throughout the ages education was viewed differently by each society. This was apparent
after studying a few philosophies of life which exist (cf 3.2). Education is defined as an
assertative interaction between the educator and the child that has to be guided to adulthood
(Van Zyl & Duminy 1980:2). The educational process, according to Wilkinson (1993:38-39),
should be aimed at the total and optimal development of the child with the aim of attaining
a certain call in life. During this process the educator guides the child according to certain
valuable criteria and contents.
The education given to animals only exists in the forms of conditioning (stimulus and
response), dressage and coaching. According to Vander Walt et al (1983:81) education is
a phenomenon that is related to human beings and not animals.
A particular approach to education takes place in accordance with a certain philosophy and
its curricula are planned accordingly. Education of a more formal nature is teaching, and this
brings to mind a whole range of activities that take place in kindergartens, schools, colleges,
institutes and universities (Bowen & Hobson 1987:1).
Teaching, according to De Vries (1985:38), has to do with the opportunity which education
provides children in order to know what they previously did not know. Van Zyl and Duminy
(1980:2-6) see it in much the same light as the transferring of knowledge and skills from one
person to another. Teaching is divided into two categories namely, formal and informal
teaching. The latter being teaching received at home and the first more planned, organised
and systematic presentations thereof. Steiner (quoted in Wilkinson 1993: 1 5) defines teaching
60
or instruction as the teaching of subjects, which should be a means to an end and not an end
in itself.
Education cannot take place without the necessary content. Developmental psychologists
maintain that this content should be structured around the physical, social, emotional and
language development of the child (Schickedanz et al 1982:x-xi). Ferreira (1980:5), on the
other hand goes further and emphasises the task of the educator as leading, encouraging,
motivating and equipping the child with norms, values, skills and attitudes to be able to fit
into society. Sport forms part of the so-called skills that are transferred to the child. The
question arises as to what is the place of physical education and sport in the curriculum and
whether it is therefore educationally accountable.
3.3.1 The relationship between play, physical education, sport and education
The origin of physical education and sport as discussed in Chapter Two (cf 2.2) should be
sought in the games children play. To some, play is trivial and non-essential, while others
believe play forms part of the educational process of the child. Many see it as important for
growth and development, in other words, the physical, social and emotional development of
the child (Johnson et al 1987:1-6 and Osness 1992:356).
Play contributes to the physiological development of the child. The Greeks emphasised the
strong and positive physiological effect play had on people. The goals of sport were health
and a longer life (Weiskopf 1982:76-77). Sigmund Freud, described play as having an
important role to play in the emotional development of children (Weiskopf 1982:73; Cohen
1987:3-33, and Johnson et al 1987:7).
Rousseau stressed that children should learn to perform every exercise which encourages the
development of the ability of the body. Rousseau's work was aimed at the educational and
cognitive uses of play (Cohen 1987:22-25). According to Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist,
children engage in the type of play that matches their particular level of development
(Johnson et al 1987:7-8). Each child has his own ability and thus plays in his or her own
way. Play thus contributes to the cognitive development of the child (Weiskopf 1982:74).
61
The social value of play was emphasised by developmental psychologist Sutton Smith, Curtis,
John Bertelson and Joe Benjamin. Children were urged to get off the streets and this was
done by the erection of playgrounds. This provided children with enough space and
equipment to express themselves (Cohen 1987:31-32).
Whether used as a method to study the development of the child or as a method to improve
the development of the child, play cannot be ignored in the life of the child. Research over
the years has provided teachers with a guideline regarding the characteristics of children's
play. There are basically three stages of play: (1) individual play (2) playing along side
others, and (3) playing with others in groups (Beaty 1986:30 and Johnson et al 1987:49).
Only at the ages between 7-10 years when children play with others, do they show the
inclination to seek more competitive games. It is at this stage that play takes a more serious
form, resulting in sport. Play thus forms the basis of physical education and sport.
Physical education and sport are important because movement forms an integral part of the
early stage of development of the child. Activities learnt during primary school years are of
utmost importance and have an lasting effect on the child. For optimal physical and
personality development, the school age child needs a wide variety of experiences in bodily
movements (Biehler and Hudson 1986:439). For this reason Van Zijl and Putter (1987:86)
and Osness (1992:356) stress the importance of properly administered physical education and
sport. A further responsibility of the educator is to provide opportunities for the child to
express him/herself, to become actively involved in his surroundings and to give meaning
to reality. The school cannot assume that the child will discover the meaning of his/her
existence later in life (Smit 1988:123).
Thompson (1991:4.13) adds to the debate regarding the importance of children's basic
movements for physical activity programmes (cf FIG 3.3). From birth, the child learns
different patterns of movement. All children go through stages as they learn basic movements
that will later help with specific athletic skills.
62
FIGURE 3.3
Patterns of movement
0- 2 Years 2 - 7 Years
Beginning movements Basic movements
(crawling, walking) (running, jumping,
throwing, catching,
kicking)
Adapted from Thorn son (1991:4.13) p
7 - 10 Years
Sports related
movements
The primary and junior secondary phases provide an excellent opportunity for the
establishment of basic sports abilities. Priority should be given to the development of
perceptual-motor skills, bilateral coordination, development of these abilities all within the
context of play (Terblanche 1986:86).
Theron and Bothma (1988:212) emphasise the presentation of meaningful extra-curricular
activities, which contain possibilities for expression. This will enable teachers to purposefully
and positively channel the interests of children. Especially during adolescence sport and
physical education can be meaningful to help cope the stressful changes.
The above comments stress the need for sport education and physical education. The term
"sport education" implies that sports activities that are offered as part of the school
programme, ought to contribute to the educational outcomes outlined in school policy (Sport
Education 1987: 3). The question arises as to exactly where sport education fits in the
curriculum. Sport education should form part of all the components of a comprehensive
physical education programme: It is about sport, through sport and participation in sport
(Sport Education 1987:7 and Osness 1992:356-360).
Physical education is about: the development of the knowledge; skills; attitudes and values
related to: fitness; dance; athletics; aquatics; gymnastics; outdoor adventure activities, and
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a wide range of games and sports activities (Confederation of Australian Sport 1984:62 and
Evans 1990:51).
Sport Education should lead to responsible games and sport practises as well as to healthy,
active recreational activities. Furthermore it should lead to positive habits that will help to
compensate for the reduction in physical fitness. Correct sport education should provide self
control, fair play, mutual respect, responsibility and honesty (Evans 1990:50). Sport
according to Vander Stoep (1982:74), and Botha (1985:52) should serve humankind and the
community and not the other way round. It should be emphasised more and more in this
changing world, beset with many ills such as drugs, steroids, foul play and violence.
In conclusion, the goal of physical education and sport participation must be seen as
preparation for life and as an integral part of educative teaching. This researcher is of
opinion that children should take part in organised sport and physical education. It contributes
to the emotional, social and physical development of the child. To summarise the aims of
sport education are:
o To develop skills and fitness specific to particular sports to provided students the
experience of success through enjoyable participation;
o To encourage participation by all students;
o To provide opportunity for playing a wide range of sports of the local and wider
community;
o To develop the capacity to make rational decisions about ethical issues in sport that will
lead to good player and spectator behaviour;
o To develop and apply knowledge and understanding of the capabilities and limitations
of the human body in the performance of sport;
o To contribute through participation to the social, cognitive, emotional and aesthetic
aspects of the individual's development (Sport Education 1987:9 and Evans 1990:50).
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3.3.2 Physical education and sport as educational instruments
Sport can be regarded as an educational instrument that can help in the development of the
child,s personality (Osness 1992:356). Through participation in sport the child learns
discipline and self -expression. The child discovers his/her own limits and potential. Sport
helps the child to act independently and to be more motivated. They learn to handle
challenges in life (Van Rensburg 1991:55). Participation in sport can help to overcome
weaknesses and to accommodate and develop personality traits (Van Rensburg 1991:69).
Using sport as an educational instrument will lead to the enrichment of the quality of life.
This is essential as we enter a decade of communication and a technical environment ( Osness
1992:356).
Sport aims at developing the total individual. The educator requires knowledge and
understanding of the complicated growth patterns of people. Education is aimed at improving
the quality of life and sport can be used to obtain this quality (McEwan 1984:3).
During adolescence internal and external frustrations appear to be most stressful. The
individual is very confused about his/her role in society and finds it difficult to form a life
philosophy. Religious values, political values, social concepts and questions regarding
identity seem to complicated. The majority of adolescents seem to make the transition from
childhood to adulthood. Others tum to deviant behaviour patterns, such as, delinquency, drug
use and abuse and even suicide (Sullivan 1990:75-80). Physical education and sport can be
used to help deviate the stressfulness of everyday life and keep the adolescent positively
occupied (White Paper 1995:35).
The importance of physical education and sport in education is acknowledged by the White
Paper (1995:36). School sport is the single most important feeder system for sport in
general. It is a nursery for the nation and facilitates the learning process. Sport helps to
convey the importance and values of health, welfare, the economy and education. Horkel
(1992:201) stresses the ever increasing important role of physical education. The values of
physical education to health have been ignored and unappreciated. Especially in the present
state of bad health and a decrease in fitness in many countries.
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In the school's involvement with the child, the child is educated to adulthood. Therefore
sport should be included as one of the important educational instruments. During the primary
school phase each child should be granted the opportunity to encounter a wide variety of
sports activities. Mass participation in a number of activities will ensure that children through
their own experience can make a choice later in life. A wide variety will help to stop
boredom. Negativity can also be cancelled out (Oschman 1986:70 and Evans 1990:13-14).
Evans (1990:18) and Osness (1992:356-360) indicate that the ideal situation to learn various
movements, is created in well-organised physical education programmes during the primary
school phase. These movements vary from dance, swimming, gymnastics and general skills
required for other sport events. After acquiring the basic skills children can then get involved
in competitions in the form of modified games (sport). These competitions will only be used
in physical education, then in larger groups as part of the extra-curricular programme and
much later against other schools.
In conclusion: Physical education and sport as educational instruments, can be utilised to
form the child via the physical. Thereby the child is equipped for life. Both effectively
applied as an instrument in education lead to the total development of the child (psycho
logical, physical, intellectual and social development). Individual traits also have to be
catered for. Children spend more hours than before in school and sport can be used to cancel
out possible boredom that could exist.
The child lives in a ever changing society and is faced with considerable stress. Too mention
only a few; crime and violence, poverty, working or jobless parents, drugs and alcohol,
abuse- physical and verbal, limited career opportunities etcetera. Sport can help to eliminate
possible stress. A look into the value of sport for the development of the child is therefore
of paramount importance. Values are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs.
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3.4 THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD
In Chapter Two (cf 2.4) the value of sport was touched on. Although various aspects now
overlap in this section, the contribution of physical education and sport and the influence on
the development of the child needs to be investigated further.
The value of sport within a certain culture according to Coleman (1989:21), is not always
understood and sometimes appear to be contradictory. Since earliest times sport formed part
of communities. In this regard sport and the values it portrays has supplied insight into the
understanding about people. Sport has provided a means for understanding how people live,
work, think and play.
One of the most difficult tasks a teacher has, is to motivate children to get involved in the
school activities. Sport is one of the easiest ways of improving involvement. There is nothing
that satisfies a parent more, than seeing the sport fields occupied by children and sport
coaches. The physical and educational values of well organised programmes are indefinite
(McEwan 1984:3).
Various values of sport for children range from skills, health, fun and amusement,
understanding one self, psychological characteristics, social values, and to a deeper
understanding of human nature and society. Physical education and sport programmes
organised at school level, or sport in the community, has to be planned to provide certain
values to individuals or to the community at large. The ensuing paragraphs briefly discuss
the values of physical education and sport for the child.
It is widely acknowledged, around the world, that physical education and sport have a
positive effect on the development of the child. Even though there are an unlimited number
of values only a selected number are briefly discussed:
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3.4.1 The promotion of immediate and long-term benefits
Physical education and and school sport programmes should provide and promote long term
benefits. For this particular reason the primary school phase is the best opportunity for the
development of basic sport skills. The more the child participates the better his physical skills
will develop. Between the ages of 10 and 13, is the most critical stage to promote a positive
attitude towards lifelong participation in sport (Confederation of Australian Sport 1984:62
and Terblanche 1986:85). Osness (1992:360) and the NSC (White Paper 1995:10) support
this view by stating that if adult participation is desired in physical activity, motivation should
be laid down at a very early age. This is achievable in the physical education programme.
Nieuwoudt (1988:230) stresses that during the elementary phase, each child should be
provided with ample opportunities to build his/her performance potential as high as possible.
Educationists therefore have a very important responsibility. As Zeigler (1982:140-141)
states, children have to be provided with the possibility to develop competency in play that
will provide a firm foundation for joyful and healthful involvement in physical education and
sport. Participation in developmental physical activity in later life is also included.
Oschman (1986:63) acknowledges that this prospect is possible on the grounds that, during
the primary school phase, children are very willing to partake in a wide range of
opportunities. This should be cultivated in the physical education programme. By providing
a wide spectrum, a love for sport can be nurtured. Sport will then remain a free choice
during high school as well as after school. Thus the value of well-organised sport cannot
remain unnoticed. It will lead to multiple outcomes.
3.4.2 Higher levels of fitness
Without a doubt, sport correctly organised, develops fitness in children (Nieuwoudt 1988:228
and Rychtecky 1992:393-410). Concern has been expressed regarding the level of fitness of
all children in SA (White Paper 1995:17-18) and in Europe (Horkel1992:201). The reasons
for inactivity range from the limited number of different sports offered, to disparities in the
provision of physical education and sport (Nieuwoudt 1988:228 and White Paper 1995:3).
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According to Rychtecky (1992:410) physical activities stimulate growth and development and
it is absolutely important for the growing child. It promotes blood circulation, respiration and
digestion. Physical fitness reduces the number of psychological diseases and changes the life
patterns and thoughts of people from a once passive, to a positive, active and healthy person.
In this regard Erbach (1984:32) underlines the argument by stating that participation in sport
and physical education has become an irreplaceable field of physical and psychic development
and completion of the human being. For this reason Osness (1992:356-360) states that it has
become acceptable that physical education and sport are important for health, social and the
psychic well-being.
3.4.3 Better health
Throughout the centuries it has been accepted that sport contributes to better health (ACHPER
National Journal 1984:62 and Confederation of Australian Sports 1984:61-62). Physical
activity is necessary to support normal growth in children. It increases bone density and
mineralization. Horkel (1992:201) comments that scientific tests have proven that the
inactivity during childhood has related to many heart diseases, nervous disorders, diseases
of the respiratory and circulatory system and a number of orthopaedic disorders, later in life.
The White Paper (1995:35) indicates that by improving the physical fitness of the members
of society will result in a decrease in health expenses.
Oschman (1986:69) concurs that inactivity by children also leads to the delay and
underdevelopment of large muscle groups. Small muscle coordination is also effected in that
it develops onesidedly. A further result is unnatural, unhealthy, unfit and bad physical
development.
Encouraging participation in physical education and sport at an early age, will encourage
participation later in life and help eliminate the mentioned disorders.
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3.4.4 Competition
Competition is a form of self-evaluation which is part of human existence. Competition is
found within various playing environments and games. It contributes to the child's
involvement in play. Snyder and Spreitzer (1983:33-34) emphasise that aspects such as,
obedience to rules, discipline, sacrifice, hard work, teamwork, alertness, precision and the
ability to make instant strategic and tactical decisions are taught in competition.
Not only is competition encountered on the sport field but also in everyday living. During
the middle childhood years children seek challenges and can therefore be introduced to
competitions and rules (Schickedanz et al1982:379). The Confederation of Australian Sport
(1984:64) suggests that children between 10-13 years should be developed physically, socially
and psychologically to a point where they are eager, ready and willing to participate in sport.
3.4.5 Nationalism - patriotism and love for country
Riordan (1980:23) indicates that sport forms an important instrument in the development of
nationalism. Patriotism and love for the country was the main aim of sport participation in
the Russian sport system.
Alongside nationalism Bedford (The Citizen, 2 March 1992:39) expresses the need for black
sports heroes in SA- 11 They need to be taught in schools 11• Sarakinsky (1995:176) explains
the role of sports heroes to be an important value which was included in the school sport and
physical education programme. Since 1940, heroes served as role models for young white
children displaying attributes such as pride, fearlessness, skilfullness, integrity, fair
mindedness. Rugby was considered the national sport. The inclusion of physical education
in the curriculum was meant to achieve the same results. Paradoxically, this role of sport
changed in 1985 when the government moved towards promoting multi-racial school sport
in SA. The idea was to bring people together.
The day the South African Springbok rugby team won the World Cup Rugby tournament was
probably the biggest day ever in South African sports history. Rugby previously the nation
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builder of Whites, was only then the nation builder of all races. The motto "one team, one
nation", reunited all people across all denominations (The Sunday Times, 25 June 1995:1-2).
3.4.6 Formation of positive attitudes towards oneself
Van Rooyen (1990:49) stresses that physical education and sport contribute to the
development of a positive self-esteem of the child. Through sport the child learns to know
his/her own body, his/her limitations and his/her potential. Games teach children more about
themselves. Theron and Bothma (1988: 117) suggest that informal activities offer more
opportunities for children to establish relationships and attitudes than in formal class
situations. If children perform well they immediately feel good about themselves.
Schickedanz et al (1982:379) emphasise the need for more of these opportunities which will
enable children to test themselves in terms of success and failure. Good motor coordination
and strength increases a child's independence and self-esteem.
According to Thomas, Lee and Thomas (1988:181-202) doing ongoing evaluations in the
physical education class provides the child with information regarding his/her physical fitness
(power, endurance & flexibility). Building on the positive aspects and helping to improve the
weaker aspects will improve the child's self-esteem.
3.4. 7 The provision of opportunities for socialisation
Sport offers the opportunity for parents and children to move closer together. The shy person
can become part of the partnership if he/her competes in sport (Lamb 1985:55). Sport
enthusiasts according to Terblanche (1986:86) have the opportunity to get together to discuss
their particular interest in sport, thereby getting to know each other better. The amount of
children participating in sport is an indication of how the children experience the school
situation and how happy they are (Garbers 1980:83). The National Health and Medical
Research Council (1988:39) argues that children need to socialise and mix with other children
of the same peer group. Through sport participation the socialising opportunities are far
greater.
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Mass participation offers a wide range of opportunities for underprivileged children. By
doing this all performances, big or small can be acknowledged. Children learn to
communicate better with others (Van Rooyen 1990:50). Well-organised sport programmes
fulfil the emotional and social needs of children (McEwan 1984:3). Children participating
in physical education and sport accept the social way of life better.
Looking at the social development of the adolescent, recognition from peer group members
is high on their agenda (Schickedanz et al 1982:511). Creating opportunities in sport provide
adolescents with the necessary contact and peer group affiliation they desire (Barnard
1987:314).
3.4.8 Participation in physical education and sport involves the total human being
Wilkinson (1993:36-37) points out that the harmonious development of people is aimed at
the total development of the individuals and his/her personality, since people consist of both
body and mind. The development of the intellectual aspects are interrelated with the
development of the physical.
Thomas et al (1988:5) and Osness (1992:356-360) stress the need for a quality physical
education programme to develop the total education of the child. Programmes should be
aimed at the development of: motor skills; metabolism; the psychosocial; the body structure
and cognition.
Thomas et al (1988:5) emphasise that the child's physical needs go beyond food and shelter.
By providing opportunities for daily vigorous physical activity children acquire good health.
3.4.9 Sport moulds character and develops morals
Sport at its best contributes to positive character and personality development. It is therefore
often described as a 'character-building' agent because it teaches values of self-improvement,
how to perform to one's full potential and how to win (Snyder & Spreitzer 1983:33-34).
During sport participation participants have to abide by the rules and regulations. According
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to Botha (1982:23-24) this creates a sense of the formation of attitudes. Sports results in the
development of character on and off the field. Arnold (1984:275) indicates in this regard that
the examples of the coaches as well as parents contribute to the child's perception of
behaviour.
Participation in sport also contributes to the formation of morals and social values. Simon
(1985:153) explains this benefit as the development of moral virtues and vices. Sport involves
millions of people and demonstrates the importance of values such as loyalty, dedication,
integrity and courage.
3.4.10 Physical education and sport comply with the criteria of education
The history of the "Palaestra and Gymnasia" in ancient Greece expresses the relationship
between sport and the educational value thereof. In this regard Coetzee (1981:82) points out
that the role of sport in education has been motivated in scientific research. On international
level the "International Charter of Physical Education and Sport"- UNESCO, stresses the
important part sport has to form in the educational system (Confederation of Australian Sport
1984:63). Sport and physical education in schools contributes to the emotional, moral,
aesthetic, physical and intellectual development of the child (Johnson et al1987:1-6). Dewey
(in Coetzee 1981:96) specifies education not as the preparation for life, but life itself. He
promoted a wide range of activities in school that fall outside the academic activities. Sport
therefore, should not be merely an extra-mural activity and physical education not merely a
time filler. Both should be closely linked and integrated with the whole school curriculum.
To summarise: the value of physical education and sport should never be underestimated.
Both contribute to the motivations of children to achieve the highest possible goals namely
physical fitness and better health. It stimulates the development of the intellectual,
personality, self-esteem, concentration, endurance, provides pleasure, provides an opportunity
for competition. Participation in sport teaches discipline and sportsmanship, and provides a
better quality of life.
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The participation of children in physical education and sport helps to promote a healthy
atmosphere in schools. In the social context they help individuals to develop to the utmost.
As an educational tool they can not be excluded from the curriculum. All possible values
must be incorporated in the physical education and sport programmes of children. It
strengthens psychological, physiological, cognitive and sociological development. To
conclude, all the values considered important by society are transferred by sport and
therefore incorporated in the curriculum in the form of physical education and school sport.
3.5 THE PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME OF THE CHILD
3.5.1 Introduction
Physical education and sport foirn an integral part of the education programme as illustrated
in the previous chapters. The values of sport for the child make it impossible to exclude sport
and physical activity from the curriculum. Until recently the place of physical education and
sport in the curriculum and in the education of the child has seldom been critised. Is this
because it is regarded an essential part of the educational process?
According to Landman (1983:89) it is generally accepted that the role of sport in society is
of utmost importance to the education of the child. Through play, games, movement,
physical activity and sport the child is educated. It is regarded a basic everyday need of the
child.
Vannier and Gallahue (1978:3-5) substantiate the fact that physical activity forms the very
centre of the lives of children. It is the centre of their development and has numerous
implications for their cognitive and affective development as well as for their motor
development. A well-planned physical education programme will contribute to a well
balanced sport programme. If all the needs, interests, and developmental level of children
are met, it will make important contributions to their total development.
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The child discovers him/herself and the world around him/her through movement. Adults
express themselves through "words" and children through "movement". We must therefore
provide them ample opportunities for expression. Movement is essential to all human beings.
If our hearts stop beating or our lungs cease to exchange used oxygen for new oxygen, we
will soon die (Vannier & Gallahue 1978:3-5 and Kirchner 1990:17-31 & 159-171). We
therefore need physical activity to enhance our development.
Primitive society depended on their skills to move in order to survive. Their surroundings
and hostile environment forced them to use their abilities to secure food, erect shelters and
to drive away the enemy. Primitive man had to learn to use his/her body or they would have
died (Coakley 1986:44 and Van der Merwe 1990:1-3). Today modem society also needs
movement to help him in functioning fully. Where primitive societies placed their needs on
the physical, modem man places his/her needs on a struggle against increased emotional,
social and mental stresses. The physical needs however do not cease to exist (Diem: 1960:6-8
and Vannier & Gallahue 1978:3-5).
Human beings are thus total beings and have to develop in all areas if they want to function
to their fullest potential. The growth and development of the child includes the development
of the physical, social, mental and emotional growth. The relationship between these aspects
must be understood and incorporated in the physical activity and sport programme.
As Arnheim and Pestolesi (1978:55-85) and Vannier and Gallahue (1978:3-7) state physical
education and sport are vital ingredients in the school curriculum. They can both be viewed
as educationals tools. This tool makes major contributions to the broad aims of education:
(1) by helping children learn to use their bodies more effectively, and (2) by helping them
to get to know their world and people around them through movement. Physical activity
develops alongside the other subjects. It can be incorporated with other subjects. This
enhances the total development of the child. Social studies, language, art, music,
mathematics, geography and science afford many opportunities for integration with physical
education and sport.
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Physical education and sport make various contributions to the development of ability in the
fundamental processes of speech, reading and writing. Holding sport quiz competitions, and
setting assignments stimulate children's interest in sport and physical education and
encourages them to read about it. Nixon and Jewett (1980:198-204) point out that certain
evidence has proved that if children are exposed to limited movement during infancy it could
have a detrimental effect on later learned speech, reading, writing, and spelling patterns. The
child has to pass successfully through stages of neuromuscular development during childhood.
These stages provide a base for academic activities. If children miss a perceptual-motor
stage, academic difficulties can be avoided by learning the missed perceptual motor skills.
Arnheim and Pestolesi (1978: 17) clearly state that children with learning difficulties often
have poor coordination and definite perceptual problems.
According to Vannier and Gallahue (1978:5-7) the benefits of physical activity for the child
are not only limited to the physical. Development areas as a result of well planned physical
activity incorporate the following: (1) neuromuscular skill development; (2) physical and
motor fitness development; (3) perceptual-motor development; (4) self-concept development;
(5) development of academic understanding, and (6) development of effective use of leisure
time.
Vannier and Gallahue (1978:7-11); Thomas et al (1988:25-36), and Kirchner (1992:159-171),
specifically point out that children need vigorous physical activity in order that their bodies
grow in strength, size and tonus. Other benefits are a more healthy lifestyle and better mental
health. Long-term effects of regular exercise include: reduced blood pressure; a more
efficient and effective heart; weight control, and a possible longer life span.
The positive effects of exercise on growth cannot be ignored. In this regard Thomas et al
(1988:25-36) state that regular exercise increases bone mineralisation, density, and width.
Children exercising regularly have stronger bones that are more resistant to stress.
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3.5.2 The place of physical education and sport
Exactly where does physical education and sport in all its forms fit into the educational
programme of the child?
The first time the child encounters movement is as an infant. The mother helps develop
rudimentary movement by aiding the child in his sitting, crawling and walking. Development
of rudimentary movement abilities helps the child to form a basis for the more difficult
movements that are to follow.
o Creche and daycare centres
The first actual physical activities in the educational curriculum are experienced by a young
toddler. Due to parents who work fulltime, many toddlers are found in creches and day care
centres. The toddler is constantly trying to express his intellectual development through many
types of movement activities. This is done by solving problems. Teachers in the daycare
centres and creches should provide for and stimulate the needs of the child. Activities must
suit the development level of the child (Nixon & Jewett 1980:154).
o The preschool child
This stage ranges between three and six years. The child develops the ability of concrete
operational thinking. He is able to develop certain mental images. Perceptual development
increases very rapidly. Many children encounter the first formal school environment when
they are sent to a playschool or nursery school. Here they learn to interact and play with
others. They learn differences between sex roles. They lead very active physical lives. A
variety of physical activities should be provided during this time to contribute to the cognitive
and attitudinal development (Nixon & Jewett 1980: 155). Development of the both gross and
fine motor skills should be included. Locomotor patterns, includes body awareness, and body
image, balance and stability (Thomas et al 1988:81-83). By adding these activities the
physical growth and development, emotional development, intellectual development of the
child are stimulated.
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o The primary school child
According to Nixon and Jewett (1980:155-156) during this stage the child enters elementary
school education at the age of six until 12 years old. Research regarding child growth and
development has clearly demonstrated the fundamental importance of positive oriented
movement activities (Nixon & Jewett 1980: 155-156). A broad repertoire of carefully selected
and directed movement activities provides young children with a solid and permanent base
from which future types of learning can be developed. This further contributes to appropriate
physical, emotional, social and intellectual growth, development and maturation.
Nixon and Jewett (1980:155-156); Thomas et al (1988:14-18), and Kirchner (1990:17-31),
all echo that children during these years, show rapid growth and development. Muscle,
bones, and other body tissues, become larger and stronger if the child is encouraged and
allowed to participate daily, in appropriate physical activity. It is a time of social importance
too. Boy or girl, they continuously attempt to locate a comfortable place in their social
world. Properly supervised sport and physical activities during this stage contribute
significantly to their social development. During this stage the child is also seeking a personal
identity. Properly organised physical activity programmes contribute to experiences that result
in desirable self-confidence, emotional security and control, the learning of acceptable social
norms and interrelationships with adults and peers. Children also develop a positive self
concept if they experience physical activity in the correct perspective.
Kirchner (1990:35-42) clearly illustrates that the development of body image, spatial
awareness, directionality, time perception are all fundamental processes that are developed
through varied movement experiences. Thompson (1991:4.13) further emphasises that the
ages from six to twelve are the most productive times when children learn sport skills. Skills
taught and interests developed at this stage are usually retained. Children should not
specialise in one sport. A broad base of a variety of activities at a young age ensures the total
development of the child and successful sports achievements at an older age.
During this stage children show a desire to compete against each other. It is now the time
that rules of games can be taught and understood (Arnheim & Pestolesi 1978:140-146 and
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Thomas et al 1988:66-67). The correct implementation of competition is essential as
overemphasis of winning can lead to a decline in physical and sport participation at a later
stage in life. The competition situation, however teaches children sportsmanship and fair
play. Thomas et al (1988:32) stresses that injuries also occur very easily if exercises are to
strenuous. The child's skeletal system is not completely developed and very vulnerable to
injury.
o The adolescent
Nixon and Jewett (1980: 157-158) see this period, as ranging from age 12 to 17. Significant
changes in physical growth and maturation in both sexes appear during this stage. The
adolescent strives to achieve independence from his parents in order to develop the feeling
of maturity. Faw and Belkin (1989:442) observe that most adolescents, especially boys, have
a vigorous interest in physical activities. However they benefit considerably from the
encouragement of peers, competent teachers and their parents. Some adolescents however do
withdraw from voluntary physical activities at this stage. This is due to a lack of successful
background during the early childhood years. Boys feel the need to prove their masculinity
and strength. Their status depends greatly upon their ability in sports and games.
The physical education and sport period should not be merely a time of free play. Teachers
and educators should place emphasis on adequate skills development and intellectual content.
It is the best time to carry over life time sports.
To summarise: Physical education and sport objectives should be consistent with the general
education objectives. Thus contributing to the broader aim of education. Regular participation
in sport offers the child benefits that cannot be ignored. These benefits are not only linked
to the physical but to the intellectual, social and intellectual. Young people who are
physically active: are more coordinated and physically competent, often develop leadership,
teamwork and sound cooperative skills, work well and enjoy people's company, learn better
lifelong leisure skills, study and concentrate better. If sport or physical education is excluded
from the school curriculum, children miss out on a very important part of growing up.
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3.6 CONCLUSION
With regard to this research it is important to analyse people in the light of a particular
philosophy of life. This resulted in sport being viewed in the same light. Each philosophy
of life has a different influence on the approach to education. It gives reason to the
identification of the contents, possibilities and the importance of education. The world in
which people live holds countless wonders for educators to contemplate and to try to
understand. Humankind is the most remarkable creation in this world.
Regarding the essence of people, it is clear that they are complex. Any study of one aspect
requires an analysis of their total framework. They cannot be isolated and have to be seen
as individuals displaying intellectual, physical, social and emotional development. Education
has to run in accordance to this totality and none of the aspects can be singled out as they
are interrelated.
Physical education and school sport undoubtedly form an integral part of the educational
programme. It is therefore influenced by the philosophy of education. The values of physical
education and sport for the child can not be left out of the education programme. Physical
education and sport as educational instruments keeps the child active and positively involved
in school. Through participation the child gets to know his/her own limitations and
possibilities. The correct incorporation of physical education and sport in the educational
programme will contribute to the psychological, physiological, ethical and social development
of the child.
In the light of the background provided in Chapter Two and Three it is important to
consider the present stance of sport in SA, and the changes that have taken place in the sports
world. The mentioned changes undoubtedly effect the place and provision of physical
education and sport in the South African curriculum. These aspects and developments are
discussed in Chapter Four.
CHAPTER 4
INFLUENCES WHICH SHAPE THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SCHOOL SPORT IN THE POST-APARTHEID ERA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
. The previous chapter provides sufficient evidence that physical education and sport form an
integral part of the child's development. Determining the role of physical education and sport
in an educational programme, requires a study into the background of that particular society.
The role of a national government in the promotion and encouragement of sport, physical
education and recreation programmes, determines the sport system of a society (Semotiuk
1981:23).
South Africans are avid sport lovers, whether as participants or as spectators. Baxter
(1994a: 13) regards sport in South Africa as a valuable cultural tradition. The structure of
sport within this society is greatly determined by the needs and values of the members of
society and cannot be isolated from it (Olivier 1985:269).
Sport in society is also greatly influenced by the political organisation, evolving economy and
the values of society (Semotiuk 1981:23-25 and McPherson et al 1989:20). However, there
is a reciprocity here since whatever takes place in sport has implications for the rest of
society.
Allison (1993:4) characterises sport as prowess and as one of the most potent of human
activities in its capacity to give meaning to life. It creates and interconnects senses of
achievement and identity. In this regard sport, culture, politics and society are seen as
interrelated. The cultural significance of sport, and the relationship between sport and politics
is undeniably evident in the history of South African sport, and also forms part of the
education system. This is only one aspect of society. Economic, social and demographic
factors, likewise, have had an effect on the outcome of, provision of and participation in
South African sport; thus these facets of society together form an integral part with sport.
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This chapter investigates the current situation with regard to South African sport and the
events surrounding its readmittance to international participation, as well as the place and
role of physical education and sport in the post-apartheid era within the educational
dispensation. Various external factors that play a role in the development of sport are looked
into as well as the role of the Government in sport. It is also apposite that the implications
of the developments in South African sport on physical education and school sport receive
attention.
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
As part of the continent of Africa, South Africa covers approximately 1 million square
kilometres. The population totals approximately 45 million people and is one of the most
heterogeneous in the world, and characterised by racial, ethnic and cultural diversity. South
Africa has a very pleasant climate and is renowned for its rich fauna and flora, geographical
diversity and natural beauty (Claassen 1995:450-451). This ideal climate, characterised by
blazing hot summers and winters, considered spring-like by most Europeans, has been
extremely conducive in the development of the best sports facilities known to humankind, as
well as engendering the most enthusiastic participants. These ideal conditions therefore,
justify the inclusion of physical education and school sport in the school curriculum.
Since 1993 the constitution has made provision for a national administration as well as for
the nine provincial administrations (Claassen 1995:470-471). South Africa consists of nine
provinces, namely: Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, Free State, North West,
Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng and Northern Provinces. The following factors play
a role in physical education and sport in schools.
Education is presently in the hands of the Department of Education. The previous "self
governing" territories have also been included in the democratic dispensation. There is one
national system of education which is organised and managed mainly on the basis of nine
provincial sub-systems. South Africa shares many of the typical educational problems that
beset the rest of the African continent (Claassen 1995:470-474).
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In 1993 the total number of school-age children registered in schools were approximately 11
million. Due to racial inequalities and the rapid population growth, an estimated one and a
half million youth of school-going age, were not yet accommodated in the formal school
system by 1991. This would have meant a definite increase by 1993 (Claassen 1995:470-
474). In 1995 there was a total of 11 764 919 million pupils enrolled in South African
schools (Strauss; Van der Linde, Plekker & Strauss 1995:2). A total number of 3 000
additional schools and an additional 230 000 teachers would be required to provide for the
educational needs of children until the year 2002 (Claassen 1995:451-453). Furthermore, the
school population is predicted to rise to approximately 16 million, by the year 2005 (Strauss
et al 1995:23).
o Implications for education
In the light of the above it was inevitable that the total number of inhabitants, growth rate
and lack of schools, would hold implications for the education system. The segregation of
the past, and the previously mentioned factors, resulted in numerous disparities in the
inclusion of physical education and school sport in the curriculum, for example: a lack of
sports facilities; equipment; qualified coaches; principals showing no interest in physical
education; segregation in the South African sport structure, and no opportunities for youths
outside the formal educational system to participate in sport (for more detail on this see
ensuing sections).
4.3 SPORT IN GENERAL: PAST AND PRESENT
A brief historical overview of South African sport provides an insight into the relationship
between sport, politics and culture, and the influence thereof on sport in general and school
sport in particular. In order to understand the present situation a historical overview about
South African sport, js'' called for.
83
4.3.1 Sport until 1948
Sport in SA up and until 1948 reflected the policy of the ruling Government. This period is
characterised by the establishment of the Afrikaner-nationalism and the 'apartheid policy'
(Heath 1987:60). Scholtz (1983: 123) observes that separate facilities and participation for all
races, became the official policy of the Government during this period.
4.3.2 Sport from 1948-1967
South Africa's internal policy namely that of apartheid was formally established in 1948
(Olivier 1985:257). Apartheid was more part of daily living than was actually imposed by
law. The law of society, namely the Group Areas Act, naturally prevented multi-racial sports
(Bose 1994:30).
Sport administrators and sportsmen saw segregation as the natural order in South Africa. It
was only in 1956 that the first state legislation regarding sport appeared within the apartheid
framework (pointed out by Roberts 1991:3 and Tshwete 1992:2). This meant that sport was
practised in much the same way. In 1962 the South African Government announced that
racially mixed teams were not allowed to compete, neither inside nor outside SA (Mason
1993:51).
4.3.3 Depoliticisation of Sport (1967-1993)
No contact was made between Whites and other population groups until the end of the
sixties. Olivier (1985:257) and Sarakinsky (1995:160) point out that a gradual move was
made in 1967 to a more flexible approach especially in sport. The international onslaught
against SA's internal policy of apartheid resulted in SA's exclusion from international
participation (Horrell 1968:23-24 and Bose 1994:76-77). Sport boycotts were intended to
force internal change both in the sport policy of SA as well as the internal policy. Thereafter,
years of sport isolation followed. The outside world stood firm and demanded the full and
uncompromising introduction of multiracial sport, at club level (Cheffers et al 1988:33-34
and Sarakinsky 1995:162). These measures were applied to force the Government to
84
accelerate the necessary changes. SA was officially banned from international participation
since 1972 (Mason 1993:51).
Obviously, sport was an ideal instrument by which the international community could show
their disapproval of South Africa's domestic policy (Olivier 1985:259-260). From inside the
country Black sports people who felt they had the right to be considered for national teams
also orchestrated action against the domestic policy. It was a significant change in policy
when in 1978, Springbok colours were awarded to a Black athlete for the first time. Since
then, sportsmen and -women were allowed to compete at any level and in any sport. Mixed
sport became an everyday event. However, there were still separate clubs for each race and
they had to manage their own affairs (Sarakinsky 1995:163).
Undeniably, both socio-political and socio-economic developments of a country have had an
adverse effect on sport in this country. Nevertheless, internal and external pressures were
important factors which contributed to change in SA, not only in the area of sport, but also
in South African society at large (COSAS 1990/1991:37). Sarakinsky (1995: 164) concurs that
the South African Government started to implement a series of political and socio-economical
reform strategies from 1976.
From 1979, the Government left sport to the sporting bodies, town councils and local
authorities (Tshwete 1992:3). Saaiman (1981:24) indicates that the reform in sport resulted
in the "racially mixed" sport policy on club level. This was carried out by various cabinet
ministers, namely Dr PGJ Koornhof, Mr FW de Klerk en Mr TNH Jansen.
Olivier (1985:260-269) argued that the 1982 HSRC- Sport Research recommended that the
discriminatory legislation in sport was an unacceptable principle and that it should have been
totally abolished. This was done later, nevertheless there was still a limitation. It was
recommended that each group was to retain the right to differentiate on the basis of race,
culture, religion, language, etc. Town councils and local authorities were allowed to make
their own decisions regarding mixed sport (so Sarakinsky 1995: 165 reminds us).
85
By the 1980's the damage was done and racial inequalities in the distribution of sports
facilities were widespread (HSRC - Sport Research 1982(10):8-34). Despite the ongoing
pressure from the outside world, isolation regarding international participation remained until
the early 1990's (Roberts 1991:20-23). A number of leading sportsmen and -women
emigrated to pursue sports careers as citizens of other countries. Zola Budd (athletics), Kevin
Curren and Johan Kriek (tennis), Alan Lamb, Tony Greg, Barry Richards and Kepler
Wessels (cricket) and Mark Plaatjies and Sydney Maree (long distance running). They are
still considered ex-South Africans despite their decisions (Sarakinsky 1995:165).
According to Scholtz (cited in Die Transvaler, 15 Februarie 1993:4) during the later years
of isolation, the sports arena was plagued by international boycotts, rebel tours, political in
fighting, racial discrimination, fragmented sports structures, disparity in the provision of
facilities and the moratorium on sport (COSAS 1990/1991:42-44 and Van der Schyff
1993:11). Pre-conditions to the country's return to international competition were set, by the
National Sports Congress (now the National Sports Council). These conditions were:
o For each sport discipline to merge all existing controlling bodies into one, on a non
racial basis;
o For each national federation to have a viable imbalance-reducing development
programme, which is aimed at providing access to all the country's disadvantaged
communities;
o For each national federation to enjoy the formal recognition of its appropriate
international federation (Roberts 1991:15 and White Paper 1995:5).
Concurrent with the above events there was a call for unity in sport in SA in early 1990. All
existing sports bodies had to unite to form one sport structure as well as the formation of
single controlling bodies for the different sport types. The dismantling of a fragmented sport
structure had to make way for a democratic sports system for a new South Africa (Beeld, 23
Julie 1990:2; Natal Post, 25 July 1990:2, and City Press, 5 August 1990:4).
86
Roberts (1992:21-24) points out that the National and Olympic Sports Congress [hence
NOSC] gained recognition in the international world, as the body which had to negotiate
participation. NOSC however, choose to keep the embargo on sports tours to South Africa.
All sports bodies had to first unite to form one structure. International forces and commercial
media placed considerable pressure on NOSC to drop the moratorium. In July 1991 there was
a call for a selective moratorium. The sports codes that were more united than others were
given the go-ahead. Others had to get their house in order.
4.3.4 The readmittance of South Africa into the international arena in 1990 and
subsequent developments
Radical political, social and economic changes in SA provided a new identity, resulting in
an increased international tolerance and acceptance (Marketing Mix 1992a:50). Sport was and
is the role-player in the gradual breaking down of segregation and the promotion of non
racial sport in SA (Olivier 1985:270). The beginning of the 1990's was clearly marked by
the disappearance of isolation and sport boycotts, fragmented sport structures based on race
and total control by the state (Die Transvaler, 15 Februarie 1993:4).
A very significant political amendment in legislation was made by Parliament, in 1990, when
the Group Areas Act was abolished. Sarakinsky (1995: 166) maintains that only then, did
domestic changes begin to take place. On 2 February 1990, President De Klerk announced
the unbanning of the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC),
and the South African Communist Party and a few day later on the 11 February Nelson
Mandela was released from jail. These were momentous events that ended the apartheid era
but only two years later brought about considerable changes in society as such (Guelke
1993:155-156; Bose 1994:2, and Sarakinsky 1995:166).
The official announcement of South Africa's return to international participation in sport was
already made on 6 November 1991. The participation of South Africa in the Olympic Games
was not an easy decision for the International Olympic Committee, but it effectively closed
the chapter on apartheid in sport (Roberts 1991:26). Due to the readmittance, and concurrent
with that readmittance, South African sport underwent significant changes.
87
Samuel (1992:7) reminds us that the developments in sport could not be separated from the
development of social, economic and political policies. The former coordinating body
Confederation of South African Sport (COSAS 1990/1991:37) maintains that three changes
were instrumental in the transition that took place in SA: firstly, the transition from
authoritarian rule; secondly the transition from segregation and apartheid (The abolishment
of the Group Areas Act 1989); and thirdly the introduction of strategies of higher economic
growth. It is against these macro developments that the sports fraternity had to develop their
own alternative approaches, thus creating an acceptable sports provision structure for the
majority of South Africans.
Despite the ongoing controversies regarding the process toward unity South Africa was
readmitted into the international arena with their inclusion in the Olympic Games in 1992
(Roberts 1991:26 and Tempo, 21 February 1992:20). This was a momentous occasion and
has since led to numerous developments in the sports arena. The readmittance was a sign of
the changing political situation in the country (patriot, 31 Julie 1992:4). For twenty years,
sport in SA had been the most potent symbol of the international struggle against apartheid
(Bose 1994:8).
Tom Bedford, one of the Springbok rugby's all-time greats regarded SA's return as a
consequence of contact and reconciliation, a spirit which needed to be carried forward and
into the broader society (Bedford 1993: 142). The following developments have occurred
since the return to international participation:
4.3.4.1 Sports tours
Sportsmen and -women all over South Africa now have the opportunity to see touring teams
participate in South Africa. On the other hand, sportsmen and -women have the opportunity
to participate internationally, outside the country (Tempo, 21 February 1992:20; The Star,
5 March 1992:12, and Pretoria News, 6 July 1995:23).
88
o Implications for education
Readmittance has resulted in schools being able to undertake tours overseas, in order to
experience international competition. Coaches and young athletes will have to be equipped
to handle international stress and participation. Information sessions should include
psychological and physical preparations. Coaches should be assisted in the methods of team
management (Rekord-Oos, 18 Augustus 1995:24).
4.3.4.2 International exposure
Readmittance into international sport also meant an increase of exposure of South African
sports people to world events. Local as well as international coverage of sports events has
placed South Africa on the map again. South Africa no longer has to find entrance through
the back door to participate. South African sports people are no longer the "bad boys" on the
global playground (Marketing Mix 1992a: 50). Local newspapers listed many South African
sportsmen and -women previously excluded now ranking on the international ranking lists.
This also means the inclusion into junior world rankings (Tempo, 21 February 1992:20 and
The Daily News, 22 February 1992: 1).
o Implications for education
International exposure also means the inclusion of juniors into junior world rankings. The
horison is now far greater than during the days of isolation. Far more opportunities are
provided for juniors to prove their abilities. This serves as an incentive for school children
to view sport in a more serious light. The win-at-all-cost is thus accentuated far more at a
younger age, sometimes impeding the development of the child.
4.3.4.3 The staging ofnumerous world cup events
Numerous world cup events were allocated to SA namely, the Rugby World Cup of 1995
(Cape Times, 20 January 1993:1); the World Veteran Athletic Championships (1996); the
World Athletic Championships ( 1997) ; the forthcoming All Africa Games in 1999 (Pretoria
89
News, 15 June 1995:23). SA has even embarked on a bid to stage one of the biggest sports
events ever, the Olympic Games of 2004 (already reported in Die Burger, 6 Maart 1993: 1).
o Implications for education
Staging world cup events could serve as a tremendous encouragement to the youth of South
Africa, children could be involved in many ways before and during the organisation of the
Games. The presentation of such an event could help in the promotion of fitness throughout
the country. This will make the task of trying to motivate children to participate in physical
education and sport far easier.
4. 3. 4. 4 Unity in sport
Sport administration has seen the abolishment of previous fragmented and duplicated
managerial bodies which have made way for new united managerial bodies (White Paper
1995:23). This was a key issue and prerequisite for readmittance. Furthermore, it resulted
in the reconstruction of the structure of South African sport and school sport (USSASA
1994:4 and White Paper 1995:13).
The current minister of sport, Mr Steve Tshwete (Tn·bute, January 1993:82), regards the
unity in sport as a positive influence on society at large. Sport brings together people who
have been kept apart for decades by apartheid. It also has the capacity to reconcile a divided
nation - it is a means of integrating our people.
o Implications for education
Unity in sport, furthermore, resulted in the reconstruction of the structure of South African
sport and school sport (USSASA 1994:4 and White Paper 1995:13). All children, of all
races now have the opportunity to participate against each other. Those previously excluded
from the participation pyramid are now also able to proceed through the different levels.
90
4.3.4.5 A new national structure for sport
Unity in sport resulted in the scraping of all previous structures. Overlapping was cancelled
out. After months of mediation and negotiations, a structure for South African Sport was
established (cf Appendix 1). This resulted in the recognition of the umbrella bodies, the
National Sports Council (NSC) and the National Olympic Committee of South Africa
(NOCSA) at national and regional levels (White Paper 1995:13). Other important bodies
established are:
o Department of Sport and Recreation (DSR): This was re-established on 1 July 1994,
separate from the ministry of Education at national level. This is seen as formal
acknowledgement by the Government, of sport's role in nation-building (White Paper
1995:8).
o A National multi-sport body for tertiary sport (Colleges, Technicons and Universities)
was recognised, namely SASSU - The South African Student Sport Union (White
Paper 1995:23).
o Implications for education
Unity in sport on national level resulted in the establishment of a national coordinating body
for school sport, namely USSASA (United Schools Sport Association of South Africa)
(USSASA 1994:1). The aims and functioning of USSASA within schools will be discussed
in detail at a later stage in 4.6.3.
4.3.4.6 Upgrading of facilities
The upgrading of existing facilities and provision for new facilities was a recommendation
of theHSRC- Sport Research (1982(1):328-335) as far back as 1982. However, due to lack
of funds, no significant changes took place. Despite isolation, the major sports codes in SA
boast of an excellent infrastructure of facilities. However, the need exists to upgrade existing
91
facilities and build new ones on local level, especially in the disadvantaged areas (Williams
1993:4).
Since readmittance, various alterations have been made to stadiums that were used and are
to be used to stage international and national events. Noticeably many new facilities were
added to the disadvantaged communities. These developments took place as a result of
political pressure and negotiations before the readmittance to international participation
(Beeld, 16 Julie 1993:1 and White Paper 1995:47-49).
o Implications for education
The Gauteng Department of Education (GDE 1995:3) and the White Paper (1995:47-49),
however, stress the need to provide more facilities. Recommendations are made for
multipurpose facilities. USSASA (1994:2) pointed out the desperate need for facilities in
schools in disadvantaged areas. This provision has to be attended to, as soon as possible.
Proposals in the White Paper (1995:47-49) were that schools should complement each other
for the maximum usage of available facilities. Provision has to be made for areas with large
unemployment, as well as for disadvantaged areas in general.
4.3.4. 7 Upgrading qualifications of sports officials
Upgrading of qualifications, and bringing up to par with international standards regarding
coaching, officiating and administration, were keys issues even before readmittance. Athletics
is one example where coaching qualifications have been restructured to comply with
international standards (Noord-Transvaalse Vereniging van Atletiek Afrigters, Jaarverslag
1995:2).
o Implications for education
It is important to stress that 80 percent of all coaches in SA, are school teachers. This
implies that upgrading will affect school coaches as well. The pre-democratic era saw many
teachers within the Black education system not having the same culture and passion for sport,
92
as their White colleagues. Black sports coaches and physical education teachers, had no basic
training in their field of interest. Furthermore, there was an apathy amongst teachers,
regarding their role in sport, as an extra-mural activity (USSASA 1994: 2).
Measures and steps to rectify the situation, are in progress. On national level, the NSC aims
t9 promote two areas, namely coaching accreditation, and sports administration. This is
already evident in the Protea Mmuso Programme. The idea is to create an environment
conducive to an efficient and effective sports administration within the NSC, and its regional
sub-structures (White Paper 1995:43).
4.3.4.8 Winning major events
Although it may be reasoned that this only indirectly effects sport, it is, nevertheless an
important factor within the national and educational sports scenario. One of the greatest
events since South Africa's readmittance to the international sports arena, was SA's winning
of the World Cup Rugby Tournament. Rugby united the country for four weeks during the
duration of the World Cup. Even politicians expressed the full support for the Springboks
(Beeld, 23 Junie 1995: 1). It proved that SA was back in international participation.
The victory was described by Deputy President De Klerk (SABC, TV 1:25 June 1995) as a
victory for the nation. Many supporters took to the streets to celebrate. Rugby, previously
regarded as a White man's sport only (part of the apartheid system), was now supported by
Black and White. "Shosholoza" was sung over and over (this is a tribal song of the Zulus,
which means "push him", previously it would have been disclaimed by Whites). Chanting
varied from: "One team, one nation"; "Amabokoboko"; "Viva the Springboks, Viva"
(Sunday Times, 25 June 1995:2). This event set the ball rolling for South African sport. After
twenty years of isolation, SA is now a country that has to be reckoned with. The uniting role
that sport plays according to the Pretoria News (26 June 1995: 1) undoubtedly serves as a
motivation for all citizens of SA and the basis of a successful sports structure.
93
o Implications for education
Readmittance has also meant that the youth has had opportunities to participate in major
events. Various medals were won by South African juniors in their first inclusion in the
South Pacific Games in Perth (SABC, TV 3:14 December 1996). This undoubtedly proves
that South African school sport has been placed on the map and benefited from international
exposure and participation.
4. 3. 4. 9 Increased opportunities, experience and motivation for participation
The years of isolation provided little or no incentive to top sportsmen and -women. Venues
and opponents varied little during athletes' sports careers (Super Sport, 10 August 1995 and
personal observation) . However, due to the readmittance of SA into the international arena
the sportsmen and -women are faced with countless opportunities (Marketing Mix 1992a:51).
The horisons for athletes has extended to the Olympics and World Class events, previously
out of bounds for all South Africans.
The scenario, therefore, presents implications for the provision of physical education and
school sport in formal education in South Africa. It does, however, also present implications
for the formal education system. To date schools have only been offering a limited choice
in sports events (e g athletics, rugby, cricket, soccer, netball and hockey). Due to the
international exposure children see other sports codes which capture their interest. The lack
of facilities, coaches and time make it impossible to provide all the different codes. Schools
should however, look at means of incorporating a wide variety of sports activities. Physical
education lessons can now be made interesting by incorporating the international sports
events. This can be done either by means of various discussions such as assignments or video
viewing. Also the attendance of events within the proximity can be arranged (personal
observation) .
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4.4 THE ROLE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT
4.4.1 Financial aspects in sport
Probably one of the most problematic areas in the sports world today is, money which is seen
as that aspect which can impair sport, but is nevertheless most needed in sport. Too mention
only a few issues related to monetary aspects: remuneration offered to participants or asked
by coaches; the cost of sports facilities and equipment; the sponsorships involved and
required in sport, and the cost of television rights. Money is beginning to play an ever
increasing role in sport in South Africa.
The elite sportsmen and -women require financial assistance to support them during their
sports careers. Some sports can make adequate provision for their players (rugby, cricket,
golf, tennis and motor racing). Yet young, up and coming stars, are faced with insufficient
funding. Gillingham (1995b:28) underlines that South Africa's aspiring Olympians have to
cope with severe financial stresses, as well as the pressure of competition at the highest level.
There seem to be only a few exceptions - Carl Lewis, Boris Becker and Muhammad Ali.
Factors that concern player remuneration include: players' insurance; transport; equipment;
coaching fees; gymnasium fees; medical expenses; travel and accommodation expenses;
clothing; practising a sports career or a professional career (SABC, TV 1:1 August 1995).
Various means of financial support are available for top sportsmen and -women in SA. The
Sport Trust launched by the NSC aims to advance and nurture sport in all sports codes and
at all levels - from school and club activities to provincial and international competition (NSC
1995: 25). Funds will be available with the possible establishment of a National Lottery.
Twenty percent of the profits will be allocated to sports development (Pretoria News, 31 July
1995:3).
The National Olympic Committee of South Africa have provided some compensation -
Operation Excellence - to potential athletes (in all sport disciplines) for the 1996 Olympic
Games in Atlanta (White Paper 1995:91). Operation Excellence consists of three levels:
95
Nominations are made twice a year for cycles which run from April 1 to August 31, and
September 1 to March 31. Categories are: (1) Medal hope:R30 000 (2) Potential semi
finalist: R10 000 a year (3) Likely participant: R5000 a year. This scheme was welcomed,
yet because it is so widespread, it only offers a mere contribution to the athlete's weekly
grocery bill (Gillingham 1995b:28).
Gillingham (1995b:28) remarks that the newly launched job placement programme had been
welcomed by all. Athletes falling prey to injury can terminate a sports career very suddenly
and would now have a career to fall back onto.
Sport relies on sport sponsorships from the state, private sector parents and individuals. The
Government cannot stretch their R40,0 million budget to all140 national sport federations.
Therefore, certain sports have to do without State funding (White Paper 1995:40). The
attention in state funding is to be moved to disadvantaged areas. Large amounts are required
to cancel out the backlog which exists in the provision of facilities.
o Implications for education
With the involvement of more money into sport, athletes can now consider pursuing a
professional career in sport. The life span of an athlete is very short and therefore, the
talented and potential athletes should be nurtured to be able to reach their potential. This has
certain implications for school sport. The researcher sees no harm in helping the school
athlete financially or by other means as long as the performances can justify the need. Too
many athletes are seen to be potential Olympic champions or professional athletes from the
age of 7 years. Between 7 years and 18 years are the years when the correct and stable
foundation should be laid. Many agree sport is important and an athlete's talent is just the
same as being talented in music, art, mathematical, computer or science. One must still
consider the athlete's life after sport. Active participation only comprises a limited time span
in the life of any sportsmen. South Africa is still a developing country and therefore, there
are at present, only a few who manage to pursue a career in the same field after international
or national participation (personal observation 1985-1995). Other implications regarding
funding physical education and school sport are discussed under 4.6.4 of this chapter.
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4.4.2 Development programmes
Roberts (1991:19) observes that the Human Resource Development (HRD) is regarded just
as important in sport, as in any other sector of the country's economy. Development
programmes were one of the pre-requisites for South Africa's return to the international
sports arena (White Paper 1995: 3). The re-entry into international participation created the
awareness of a need for the abovementioned development programmes. Many sports now
boast their own development programmes that are offered to all children (Roberts 1991:19
and Beeld, 15 Maart 1993:8). These programmes have become the chief priority of many
sports bodies. Examples of listed development programmes, includes the Baker's Biscuits,
Mini Cricket (South African United Cricket Board).
Steps to rectify the disparity, and address the need for development were taken on national
level since 1993. The subsequent announcement was made of a programme "Sport for All",
as well as the setting up of a National Policy Framework in 1995 - "Getting the nation to
play". Players, officials, administrators, sponsors and spectators are all included in the
national policy (White Paper 1995:15). There was a need to emphasise sport, which would
stimulate the development of sport and "Mobilising the nation to play" (White Paper
1995: 14). In support of the previous plan the National Sports Council of South Africa,
launched a national development programme, namely Protea Sport for all the citizens of
South Africa (White Paper 1995:41-42 and NSC 1995).
The development programme, Protea Sport, introduced by the NSC (1995:1), will
concentrate on aspects such as:
o The development of youth and adult sporting, administrative and officiating skills;
o Increasing participation and awareness of sport;
o Maximising the enjoyment of sport and recreation by members of a community;
o Ensuring the provision of opportunities for sports participation, performance and
excellence (NSC 1995: 1);
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The Protea Sport programme as stipulated in the White Paper (1995:85), is organised
according to three age groups and consists of the following categories:
D Super Kids Programme (3 to 6 years): This programme is directed at creche level
children and preschool children. It is a modified programme that focuses on
encouraging children to play and the development of motor skills;
o Sports Pioneers Programme (6 to 15 years): Sports Pioneers focuses on modified sport
regarding thirteen sports disciplines. Teachers involved in this programme will be
trained in a minimum of four disciplines;
o Isi'zwe Stars Programme (12 to 21 years): This is an advanced coaching programme,
involving seven different sports. The emphasis is on training new skills.
Young children are hereby given the opportunity to learn the basic skills of the chosen sport
from which the majority of children in South Africa were excluded. Sport that needs to be
developed from the cradle to the grave, is recognised by the Government. This development
encompasses various facets such as excellence, performance, participation, the foundation
of sport (cf FIG 4.1).
98
FIGURE 4.1
Sports Development Continuum
EXCELLENCE
PERFORMANCE
PARTICIPATION
FOUNDATION
i i
i The previous political isolation, did not only impede the development of sport in South
Africa (White Paper 1995:3), but also the natural development of sport in the entire
subcontinent, which includes more than half a dozen sovereign states (Williams 1993:1). The
White Paper (1995:15) therefore emphasises the need for transformation as envisaged in the
Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). The transformation in sport is
necessitated by the matter of qualifying for international participation. In accordance with this
the Gauteng Department of Education (GDE 1995:1-2) sees the national reconstruction
project to be accepted by everyone in education and training. It is a challenge to create a
system, which discovers and cultivates the talents of children in SA, without discrimination.
The programmes are to be accessible and affordable for all South Africans, including those
in the rural areas, both young and old.
99
o Implications for education
The presentation of development programmes provide certain implications for the educational
dispensation. To be able to create and develop a successful programme, requires the
cooperation of the various sports bodies and the provincial educational departments. It has
to form part of the physical education and sports programme of the school. Teachers and
volunteers have to be trained to implement the programmes. School principals' support is
vital for these programmes to be successful. Their enthusiasm and interest will help to carry
it off. Other aspects which demand attention are: insufficient finances; the lack of equipment;
unsatisfactory (and some times non-existent facilities); the lack of coaches; no specific
allocated period for physical education and for sport, and the lack of a learning culture
(USSASA 1994: 2). These are only a number of the problems which beset the implementation
of development programmes.
In conclusion: The introduction of the various development programmes focuses the attention
on the growing need for developing skills in the sport and promoting physical education. If
these impediments can be overcome all children (irrespective of their abilities) will be offered
the opportunity to acquire certain basic sports skills. In these programmes cognisance also
has to been taken of the different levels of competence of children and the specific needs at
the different levels.
4.4.3 The impact of the mass media
4.4.3.1 General impact
All major international sports events occupy an ever-growing role in the mass media of
today. Practically all newspapers worldwide allot space to sport. Some even have separate
newspapers for sport. Daily television broadcasts, one of the strongest and most powerful
media instruments, spreads sports reports to billions of viewers (The Sunday Star, 26 July
1992:21 and SABC, TV 1:17 June 1995). The mass media shapes and reflects the attitudes
and values of a society (O'Rourke 1994:26). School sport forms part of society and the
influence of sport on society is also accentuated in this section.
100
The influence of television has been so great that the starting times of major events have been
delayed and schedules have been changed to accommodate matches played simultaneously
(Preising 1985: 17). Exclusive television rights to broadcast a major event such as the
Olympic Games calculates to millions of dollars (for example, the American Broadcasting
Corporation payed $225 million for the 1984 Olympic Games).
Since South Africa's readmittance into the international arena there has been an increase in
the amount of coverage allocated to sport. Newspapers have increased the amount of reports
on sport to be able to compete with television. More national and international results are
reported in newspapers, for example in The Sunday Times, Rapport, Pretoria News and The
Citizen. Major news broadcasts have included sports reports at the beginning of the report
(SABC TV 1:18 June 1995). Newspaper reports on sport previously on the back page, now
often occupy the main headlines (Pretoria News, 19 June 1995:1).
o Implications for education
This growing interest in sport has resulted in the establishment of a separate television sports
programme, Junior Sport, which accommodates the ever increasing demand for junior sport.
Recently, newspapers have started to provide separate sections exclusively for school sport
results. These reports provide the necessary motivation and recognition for school
participants (Van Rensburg 1995:/nterview).
4.4.3.2 Steroids and stimulants
An aspect which has received considerable coverage in the press is the use of steroids and
stimulants. This has become a serious matter that has to be dealt with at all levels of
participation. The use of stimulants can be traced back as far as 300 BCE when Greek
athletes used hallucinogenic mushrooms to enhance their performances. Today athletes across
101
the world revert to anabolic steroids3 and stimulants4 thereby trying to improve their
performances (The Sunday Star, 26 July 1992:21).
National campaigns in the mass media (radio, television and newspapers), often make use
of sports heroes to create awareness of dangers and combat the use of drugs. "Springbok
wing joins anti-drug drive" - was a headline in a newspaper (Daily Dispatch, 14 June
1993:5). A locally made television was televised on 3 August 1995 (SABC, TV 1:3 August
1995).
The use of steroids and stimulants amongst school children has aroused the concern of
educationist and coaches. In 1992 after the death of South African rugby player (presumably
due to the use of stimulants), the South African Rugby and Football Union (SARFU)
announced that rugby players would in future be tested for the use of stimulants and steroids
(Beeld, 15 Februarie 1992:9). Organised testing in rugby, at school level, was subsequently
announced. This was greeted with a positive reception by schools and parents, since it has
become a growing problem. Testing for banned substances would make children realise how
dangerous the practice is (The Citizen, 13 February 1992:1). Dr Hugo (cited in Die Burger,
13 Februarie 1992:3) maintains that testing would play an educational role in sport.
o Implications for education
The youngest athlete to be banned in South African sports history was only fourteen years
old (Rapport, 23 April 1995:4). Despite being banned, the athlete failed the first out of
season mandatory test (Pretoria News, 11 October 1995:23). The constant pressure on juniors
to win has resulted in school participants searching for other alternatives to enhance their
3
4
Anabolic steroids are synthetic derives of the male hormone testosterone. They work by boosting ribonucleic acid and protein production which in turn is converted into muscle (The Sunday Star, 26 July 1992:21 and Mason 1 993: 69) .
Stimulants are used to invigorate the central nervous system, allowing the body to tolerate higher levels of pain-causing lactic acid, created during exercise (The Sunday Star, 26 July 1992:1 and Mason 1993:69).
102
performances. Numerous incentives such as the participation in World Junior Championships
and money beckoning on the horison, seem irresistible to a number of athletes. They revert
to any method, legally or illegal in order to get to the top. World wide research has indicated
that this particular problem cannot be solved by occasional testing of sportsmen and -women.
The solution lies in regular testing, punishment for offenses, and the dissemination of correct
information regarding the matter (Mason 1993:72 and Gillingham 1995a:Interview).
Due to the disparities in the past, a large proportion of the school-going population were not
exposed to top level competitions. The result is that they might not have used drugs, and are
therefore, ignorant as these matters. Steps have to be taken to include awareness programmes
in physical education and school sport lessons. Children should be made aware that
overstepping ethical rules will always attract media attention. This attention could be
detrimental to the selfimage of a person.
4.4.3.3 Heroism
Another influence of the mass media on sport is that of heroism. The mass media plays an
important role in the boasting of sports heroes, locally and internationally. Faces of heroes
appear daily on television and in newspapers. The ideal sportsperson is portrayed in these
reports. The way in which sport is presented on television and in the newspapers is very
important in the development of sport. It also provides role models for children (O'Rourke
1994:26). The socialising influence of television is noticed when children imitate the actions
of their sports heroes. Either kicking the same as Naas Botha, fielding like Johnty Rhodes,
bowling like Fanie de Villiers, or holding a javelin like Tom Petranoff (personal observation
1991-1995).
Media coverage of sports stars, has resulted in schools requesting their services and presence
to help encourage their scholars to participate in sport. They are invited to present coaching
clinics. The motivation levels of children are incited on account of this. Even though it is
merely the methods of coaches that are used by sports stars, it is more effective to observe
it from the latter (personal observation as a coach).
103
o Implications for education
The increase in media coverage of sports events has also resulted in an increased interest
amongst children. Many young children now get to know about sports heroes and events
previously unknown to them. They show a keener interest in their own sports careers.
Children have become regular sports viewers of sport televised on television. They collect
pictures of their heroes and compile albums. Teachers and coaches can easily refer to
sportspersons as examples when they coach (personal observation as a teacher of physical
education).
In summary: Sport has grown to such an extent in SA, that it influences the media and vice
versa, and functions in a vital reciprocal relationship with each other. Within each school
itself children idealise older children. Children therefore need to be taught: how to handle
the pressures and attention in top level competition; to communicate with the media; how to
accommodate winning and losing; the correct behaviour on and off the field. Teachers and
coaches too, have to be aware of their behaviour and language on and off the field. The mass
media especially television, should be a constant reminder to sportsmen, -women, teachers,
coaches and children, that one cannot escape the relentless eye of the camera.
4.5 THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN SPORT
It is obvious that political factors per se would tend to have a greater impact on the sport
system, than a sport system would have in changing the political system (Semotiuk 1981:24).
For this reason it is imperative to study the role of the South African Government in sport,
within the post-apartheid era.
4.5.1 The new Government (1994)
The average sports lover has little or no time for political interference in sport. Sport has in
the past and especially during the years of apartheid being used by politicians as a political
ball game. The internal policy of the Government caused many disparities in the provisions
and participation of sport (cf 4.3.1 & 4.3.2).
104
The appointment of a minister for sport for the first time at the beginning of 1993, was proof
that the new policy was a definite move away from the stance of the previous Government
(Die Transvaler, 23 Februarie 1993:8). The scene was set for negotiations regarding a new
sport dispensation for all South Africans. More and more involvement was seen in the
funding of major sports events (Beeld, 15 Maart 1992:1 and The Citizen, 25 July 1992:2).
The change in the South African Government after the elections in April 1994, introduced
a new era for South African sport. Gone were the days of isolation, and there was an
enthusiastic welcome to international participation and renewed government support was
introduced. Structural changes signified the seriousness of government involvement in sport
(White Paper 1995:3). Sport can be recognised as an export product of the country that
contributes immensely to tourism and the economy. More than ever sports persons in SA
require the support of the Government after the return to international participation (Die
Transvaler, 23 Februarie 1993:8).
4.5.2 The present structure of sport in South Africa
Since South Africa's readmittance into the international arena interested parties have been
actively involved in the restructuring of sport in SA. The reason for the restructuring of sport
was to promote a service to all South Africans in order to realise a comprehensive,
democratic, fair and equitable society (Hugo 1994:57).
The restructuring of sport in South Africa was clearly identified as one of the greatest
challenges facing the sports fraternity. Until the beginning of 1994 the existing sport
provision system was cited as inadequate, incomprehensive and contained major disparities
(Roberts 1992:23-26 and Sarakinsky 1995: 165). The provision of sport within certain
departments, revealed overlapping and duplications of functions (Williams 1993:1-4 and
Hugo 1994:48). It was agreed that there was an absence of a State national policy for sport
(Roberts 1992:24 and Hugo 1994:48).
During 1993 the National Sports Congress (presently renamed as the National Sports
Council) was recognised as the major role player in determining the future of sport in SA.
105
Consensus was reached that the NSC would draw up a comprehensive strategic plan that
would determine how sport could be most effectively applied in the broad quest of nation
building (Baxter 1994b: 48).
4. 5. 2.1 The major role players
The present role players in South African sport are the Central Government; The Department
of Sport and Recreation (DSR); the National Sports Council (NSC); the National Olympic
Committee of South Africa (NOCSA), and the National Sports Controlling Bodies or
Federations (NF's). The organisation of South African sport is included in the appendices (cf
Appendix 1). To be able to understand the functioning of the structure of sport, the main
role players are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs.
o The central Government
A separate cabinet minister is entrusted with the sport portfolio, which is at present is Mr
Steve Tshwete. The Government fulfils the supportive function i!l the present sport system
(Hugo 1994:56).
o The Department of Sport and Recreation (DSR)
The Department of Sport and Recreation serves as the voice for the Government (White
Paper 1995:71). Various objectives have been set by this department for the period 1994/5
to 1998/99, namely:
(1) To "lay the foundation" the foundation for mass participation in sport. This means the
promotion of health by ensuring that each citizen engages in a minimum of one sports
activity (White Paper 1995:71). The programme specifically designed for this aspect
is known as "Mobilising the nation to play", which consists of sub-programmes.
(2) The DSR is also committed to funding the Sports Movement meaningfully. This will
enable all citizens to take part in sport.
106
o The National Olympic Committee of South Africa
The National Olympic Committee of South Africa is basically responsible for the
participation of the country in the Olympic Games (White Paper 1995:24).
o The National Sports Council (NSC)
The NSC, according to Hugo (1994:56), is the only fully representative macro multi-sports
structure in the country (cf Appendix 2). Its members are divided into various categories:
(1) The NSC Regional Sports Congresses, which represent, within the various regions of
South Africa, the interests of the NSC on a decentralised basis. Affiliated with them
are the sub-regions representing the interests of area and local sports congresses.
(2) All national controlling bodies of sport (NF' s and recreation sport). Affiliated with
them are provincial sports bodies representing the interest of clubs and individual
members in the various regions.
(3) Associate members could include school and tertiary sports associations, sports
associations of the Forces, etc. Other organisations interested in associating with the
NSC for example, sports and movement science organisations, sport-medical
organisations, etc.
The broad basis of all sports practises are recognised by the NSC. This starts with individual
sports persons that organise themselves into functional sports clubs according to the various
codes of sport and recreation-sport. Clubs affiliate with the regional sports bodies which
represent their freedoms and rights at the relevant national controlling body of sport. This
structure enables democracy to evolve from below - from club to regional to national level.
It finally culminates in the NSC as the supreme guardian of sport autonomy, freedom and
democracy (Hugo 1994:57).
107
The functions of the NSC are those of a macro nature. These functions cannot be managed
by ordinary members; are general in nature, and they encompass all codes of sport, agreed
upon by the NSC. Hugo (1994:58) summarises these functions as having:
(1) coordinating function that serves the common interest of its members;
(2) representative function to represent: the interest of its Members with the Government,
the public at large, as well as that of the international community;
(3) lobbying/caucus function, in order to gain advantages for sport from central or
regional government, the private sector, etc;
(4) group support function, to provide resources and to render services of substantial
nature to the total sports spectrum;
(5) facilitating function in the event of disputes among its members;
(6) ongoing monitoring directive or "watchdog" function, in order to enable it to intervene
if the general interest of sport in not upheld.
The composition of the National Sports council consists of: the General Assembly and the
National Executive Committee (NEC)
o General Assembly
The highest authority of the NSC is the General Assembly. This assembly serves as the
Sports Parliament of the country. The responsibilities of the assembly are:
(1) the appointment of the executive authority of the NSC, namely the National Executive
Committee (NEC);
108
(2) the coordination and formulation of national policy, protocol, strategies and
programmes for sport in general;
(3) the enhancement of national cohesion and direction in sport provision;
(4) the coordination and promotion of those matters of common interest to its members,
and it also serves as a forum for sharing in the planning and activities of the NSC;
(5) the assembly serves as a testing and sounding board for the NSC (Hugo 1994:57).
o The National Executive Committee (NEC)
It forms the executive authority of the NSC and is fully accountable to the General
Assembly. The NEC accepts the full responsibility for the general management and
administration of the NSC. The NEC safeguards the autonomous and democratic character
of the NSC in particular and that of sport in general. The NEC institutes standing
commissions/committees as well as ad hoc committees, when needed, in order to effectively
execute its duties and responsibilities. These include, for example, planning and monitoring,
management, finance and the development commissions/committees (Hugo 1994:57-58).
4.5.3 The Government's policy with regard to sport
The newly elected Government's function (after 1994) was defined in the Sports Charter of
1994, as being only a supportive function (Baxter 1994b:9). Government support was
required:
(1) for state funding for a scientific support service for the country's top sportsmen and -
women. This also implied an internationally accredited drug-testing centre;
(2) to establish a national sports information service;
(3) funding sport on a national level;
109
(4) coordination of sport (Baxter 1994b:9).
Since the election of the new Government, various positive improvements have occurred. To
be able to reach the objective of "Mobilising the nation to play", the Government has
stipulated various priorities (White Paper 1995: 71-97). The priorities for 1995-1999 are:
o Priority One:
To confirm roles and streamline responsibilities amongst the various stake holders in sport,
in order to ensure that all efforts are coordinated to take advantage of economies of scale.
Stake holders on the three main levels are:
On National level: The Department of Sport and Recreation; National Sports Council;
National Olympic Committee of SA, and the National Federations.
On Provincial level: The structures of the National Sports Council and provincial sports
codes.
On Local level: School and tertiary umbrella bodies, club and local authorities (White Paper
1995:77).
o Priority Two:
To Provide funds, on an annual basis, for the creation/upgrading of basic multi-purpose,
sports facilities in disadvantaged areas. A minimum of R1 ,0 million per annum is to be
allocated to each province for the creation/upgrading of basic, multi-purpose facilities in the
disadvantaged areas.
The Sports Trust is to contribute a maximum of 50 percent of its funds to creation/upgrading
of basic, multi-purpose facilities in disadvantaged areas (White Paper 1995:79).
110
o Priority Three:
To maintain the focus on the administration of sport and recreation, as well as the
development of a volunteer corps, to help in the implementation of the various mass
participation programmes identified for Phase 1 (White Paper 1995:80).
The abovementioned is to be achieved by:
(1) the launching of a National Volunteer Programme to "gain, train, maintain, and
retain", volunteers in sport. Areas include:
o Club development - help in training administrators;
o The establishment of Administrators' Forums - for example first aiders,
secretaries, referees association, coaches association, etc;
o The drawing up of programmes to help administrators in the hosting of events.
(2) administrator exchange programmes;
(3) appointment of sport organisers and provincial sport and recreation staff.
o Priority Four:
Enhancing health-consciousness by means of various programmes aimed at specific interest
groups in society, along the lines of one-person-one sport, via mass participation drives
(White Paper 1995:84). These programmes include:
(1) Sport for young people - in the form of the Protea Sport programme;
(2) Street Children Programme;
(3) Sport for all;
(4) Youth Sport;
111
(5) Disabled Sport;
(6) Women Sport;
(7) Masters Sport;
(8) Corporate Sport;
(9) National Schools Games.
o Priority Five:
Identifying latent talent from participants with talent as an integral component of the process
of upward movement from the foundation and participation levels of the Sports Development
Continuum (see FIG 4.1).
For this purpose, talent scouts will be used to identify potential participants. The media will
also be utilised to notify the public as to the fixtures of the different provinces. The
combination of both scientific and non-scientific methods of scouting for talent (White Paper
1995:89).
o Priority Six:
Meaningful investment in the preparation of participants who are called upon to represent the
country in major competition, by removing all obstacles in their way and to enable them to
play the role model function that is so crucial in ensuring a continuous flow of participants
from the foundation and participation levels to the performance and excellence levels of the
Sports Development Continuum (cf FIG 4.1).
NOCSA's Operation Excellence has been introduced to help sportsmen and -women to
overcome for example: financial, transportation needs, and the need for sponsors, etc that
might occur (Gillingham 1995b:28).
The building of a National Sport and Leisure Academy (NSLA) for the elite sports activities
is also envisaged. Resident multi-sport coaching and training camps are to be offered. This
would mean that young sport stars can be accommodate from junior level.
112
o Priority Seven:
Helping to cement the sports unification process, by instituting necessary affirmative action
controls which will ensure that club, provincial and national representative teams reflect the
parties involved in the process (White Paper 1995:94).
Conclusion: The abovementioned objectives of the state have only recently been set out.
Whether these objectives are reached can only be determined at a later stage. Political
agendas will have to be set aside and sports persons and the Government should work
together as a combined team. With this objective the involvement of the Government will be
of an advantage to everyone involved. Changes in the national structure of sport, on national
level, eventually has to led to changes in physical education and school sport.
4.6 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT: PAST AND PRESENT
The abovementioned mentioned policies and developments in South African sport, invariably
had to have an effect on physical education and school sport (Sarakinsky 1995:172). For the
purpose of this study it is necessary to verify the influence thereof on school sport and
subsequently on physical education too.
4.6.1 Physical education and school sport from 1948 to 1984
According to the Du Toit (1980:530-531); Sarakinsky (1995:171-176), and White Paper
(J995: 17) physical education and school sport formed an integral part of the curriculum in
many formally, Whites only, South African schools since the 1940's. In Black, Coloured and
Asian schools, physical education and sport were severely neglected. In White schools, sport
(in the form of physical education) had to fulfil the role of nation-building. Rugby was used
for this purpose and its main role was that of promoting Afrikaner nationalism. It was closely
related with other Afrikaner cultural expressions (Archer & Bouillon 1982:65 and Bose
1994:16). Physical education was made compulsory in White schools, but not in Black
schools (Hendriks 1991:220-221). Various disparities existed concerning the provision of
113
facilities in White, Black, Coloured and Indian schools (HSRC- Sport Research 1982(10):19
and USSASA 1994:2).
The 1976 sport policy of the Government namely "autonomy to the clubs", resulted in mixed
sport becoming an issue for the various school departments on provincial level. This policy
was greeted with mixed feelings. In 1981 the Transvaal Education Department announced
a dual policy for school sport (Transvaalse Onderwysdepartement, Omsendminuut 115 van
1981). Two leagues were to run simultaneously, one for mixed sport and the other against
mixed sport. This policy also caused considerable tension between the English medium and
Afrikaans medium schools. The various provinces had their own approach to the issue. The
tension surrounding mixed sport participation, was at a peak from 1979 until 1982. The
position, however, changed and tension was reduced considerably during 1983/4 (Heath
1987:68-69).
4.6.2 The situation regarding physical education and school sport from 1985 to the
present: depoliticisation
In 1985, the Government brought about changes in their policy and allowed multi-racial
sport, but declined from organising it (Sarakinsky 1995:172 and Mondstuk 1992:3). Boycotts,
discrimination and petitions were the order of the day (Beeld, 17 Januarie 1992:8 and Beeld,
22 Februarie 1992:4). Only private schools and a few multicultural schools participated in
mixed school sport. Vorster (1986:14) describes sport in general and school sport as a
political "ball game" which resulted due to the turmoil that existed (cf The Citizen, 16
January 1992:9 and The Sunday Times, 21 February 1993:2).
Until the 1990's, school sport in South Africa emulated the policy of segregation (Olivier
1985:270 and Sarakinsky 1995:171-173). Schooling was segregated and entrenched by law.
Children from different communities were forcefully prevented from integrating on either
educational, sports, or social level. Different education departments existed for the different
race groups (GDE 1995:2).
114
In White schools, school sport was predominantly played on a single coded basis. The Black
schools on the other hand chose to play sport under umbrella structures (GDE 1995:2). Only
since the racially segregated education was abolished in the 1990's, did participation in
school sport become non-racial (Sarakinsky 1995:173).
On the 8th of January 1992, Parliament issued a statement with regard to the choice of
participation and discrimination in sport in state schools. The minister stated clearly, that the
state would not accept responsibility in decisions, regarding participation in sport and cultural
activities that jeopardise the non-discriminatory policy in sport. In non-state schools the
decision of participation was left to the principal, governing body and parents (Heyns
1992:15 and Mondstuk 1992:3).
The need for unity in national sport was a process undertaken on senior level, and served as
an example of what was to follow in school sport, which was previously mentioned as being
organised in the respective Departments. An alternative approach was needed, namely: (1)
one umbrella body to organise school sport; (2) proper contact with the majority of schools
in the rural areas and townships of SA; (3) economic viability of organising sport from
school to national level on a multi-coded basis; (4) one school sport body to liaise with the
Government, the NSC, NOCSA and the International School Sports Federation; (5)
facilitation of disbursement of funds from Government, sponsors and international donors to
individual sports disciplines, and (6) gaining recognition from the International School Sports
Federation (GDE 1995:4-5).
Regarding the participation levels the scenario was much the same for school sport as for
adult sport. Top athletes were restricted to four levels of participation (inter house, inter
schools, provincial/club and national level). This was at both junior and senior level (GDE
1995:15). On the other hand, as a result of segregation and apartheid many sportsmen
(especially Blacks, Coloureds and Indians) were excluded from the main stream of sport
(Williams 1993:2). This was all due to the fragmentation of the education system of SA.
A /,~-t i / - "'0 ,-) r- ! '}' / tV/ '/::1:/;:V - AJ' 7 • '
The implementation of the Government's non-discriminatory policies in sport, resulted in the
opening of tournaments for all races. One such tournament held exclusively for White school
115
children was the Craven Rugby Week. This is now open to all races (Beeld, 13 Julie
1995:1).
' Due to the establishment of one education system for all South Africans since the beginning
of 1995, segregation in school sport has fallen by the way-side. Children of all races now
have the opportunity to take part at all levels.
The newly elected Government has resorted to the policy of democracy. All schools are
under the jurisdiction of the Departments of Education in the respective provinces. They are
compelled to organise and control their sports activities according to the new school sport
policy (GDE 1995:3). The democratisation of school sport now sees the broadening of
opportunities for all children irrespective of race. Participation is now open to all and the
reconstruction of competitions has taken place.
,, Unfortunately, as history shows, discriminatory laws in education caused segregation in
White and Blacks schools. White schools had compulsory physical education and sport, This
researcher would like to stress that the paucity of literature on this topic, renders it
impossible to sketch the exact situation of physical education and school sport in schools
during this period.
Physical education was offered in most previously all White schools in South Africa. The
first encounter with physical education was at preschool level (3-6 years). In the pre-primary
school level Grade One to Standard One physical education was normally provided by the
class teacher. Children were sometimes exposed to sport in the form of modified games. In
Standards Two to Five, children were taught physical education according to the syllabi of
the Department of Education (Transvaal Education Department 1987a-d. Classes for boys and
girls w,ere separate (personal observation).
'·' <",j\
, The inclusion of sport in schools was determined by the various provincial education
departments and differed from department to department, different school offered different
kinds of sports for example, soccer, rugby, cricket, tennis, athletics, hockey, netball (GDE
1995:3). The availability of coaches and facilities determined the choice of sports codes
116
offered at schools. Secondary school sports competitions, were taken far more seriously than
at primary school level. Schools also differed in their commitment regarding competition.
The White Afrikaans medium schools were far more organised and committed to sport than
their White English speaking counterparts (personal observation).
There was however, a possibility, that physical education was to be deleted from the
curriculum of White schools (GDE 1995:2-30 and White Paper 1995:17). A survey
conducted during 1992 in White secondary schools only, revealed important findings
regarding physical education: It stressed the importance of physical education, especially in
the senior secondary phase; and emphasis was placed on the differentiated provision of
physical education in the senior secondary phase and the amount of time spent on physical
education. Statistics drawn from research revealed that 88,4 percent boys and 88,4 percent
girls agreed that physical education should remain in the curriculum. Results proved, that
time wise, the South African curriculum made the least provision for physical education
compared to the rest of the world. The recommendation was made in the research project that
physical education should remain a subject in the senior secondary phase. The situation for
other races was of course different ( Coetzee 1992: 34).
In Black schools the facilities and equipment was glaring non-existent. Many principals of
Black schools declined to enforce physical education, and therefore sport and physical
education was left to diminish._ (Sarakinsky 1995:171 and White Paper 1995:17).
( J 55/~91 /b:x;t>dal.on l ,lO:JI) An investigation conducted by USSASA (1994:2) revealed various weaknesses regarding the
situation of school sport in Black schools before 1994. These weaknesses can be summarised
as follows:
o The majority of schools and townships did not have proper facilities for the playing
and training of sport;
£' cl~j c :;,/()rJ o Teachers in Black schools did not share the same passion for organised sport as the
White schools;
117
o The last bit of organised sport in townships and sport was crippled by a legacy of class
boycotts and insurrections;
o School sport revealed a history of no, or very little, support from commercial giants;
o Equipment was sparsely distributed and only the former 11 establishment11 schools
(White schools) had an adequate supply of funds for the basic sports equipment;
D An apathy existed amongst the teaching fraternity to play a meaningful role in sport
as extra-mural activity;
o Many South African schools were situated in rural areas and players had to travel long
distances to play on standard sports fields;
D School administrators, coaches, officials were willing, but did not have basic training
in the requirements of sports provision for school children;
o An apathy existed with regards to the basic discipline in sport, for example:
punctuality, insober habits, a disposition of win-at-all-cost, a lack of incentives,
unhealthy reward systems, etc.
The position of physical education and school sport in the White schools was not as
problematic, nevertheless, there were a few problem areas, such as: the decline in the
number of male teachers, which brought about problems in the provision of sport in the
curriculum. Many schools did not have an adequate number of male teachers to coach the
boys. Some schools have to, therefore, revert to female coaches to coach rugby and cricket
(SABC, TV 1:29 June 1995). ~bt~~~:~.i , ,~1 (,, , 'C 1 " " I
_ _;
Schools also relied on the parents to help with the coaching. The advantage of this was that
parent involvement was encouraged. However, this arrangement caused a lack of discipline;
when two or more parents shared the responsibility of coaching a group it caused a difficulty
when the respective parents had to reprimand one another's children (personal observation).
~,,\ l
oJ"' 118
In White schools, teachers' unwillingness to help with coaching, due to their academical
work load, also created a problem for school sport. The work load was due to the cutback
~:~~ in the number of teachers at the schools. The previous ratio of 1 per 30 is envisaged to
increase to 1 per 40, during the next five years as from 1996. Coaches' lack of knowledge
and interest in the sport, also impaired children's participation (personal observation).
All the abovementioned factors caused an imbalance in the provision of physical education
and sport in schools. Due to this poor state of affairs, the need exists to remedy the situation.
The DSR, the MEC responsible for sport and the MEC responsible of Education were given
the task to reintroduce physical education and school sport (White Paper 1995: 17-20) .l{~~~~;;C;; Attention also has to be paid to aspects relating to school sport and physical education. Tasks
include:
o reintroducing Physical Education as a recognised school subject;
o assigning to suitably qualified teachers the responsibility of organising sport within
each school in the provinces;
o allowing a minimum of 80 minutes per week, during school time, for the purpose of
sports tuition and playing;
o providing incentives for teachers to take involvement in sports training seriously for
example, such as factors to be considered when promotion's are decided;
o making sport compulsory for all school children;
o organising inter-school competitions both at local as well as provincial levels;
o ensuring that a sports fund exists, at each school, for the purpose of funding school
sports activities and requirements;
119
D ensuring that the DSR provides input to the content of the Physical Education
Syllabus.
The abovementioned tasks had only been assigned at the beginning of 1995. The actual
outcome of the various changes in policy and curriculum developments, can only be
determined at a later stage.
4.6.3 The current structure and organisation of post-apartheid physical education
and school sport
4.6.3.1 The main coordinating body
The situation of South African school sport has, however, changed and school sport is
currently practised under a new united school sport structure in each province, and also on
a national level. A national multisport school structure, namely the United Schools Sports
Association of South Africa (USSASA) was launched on 26 November 1994 to control and
promote sport in schools (GDE 1995:4, USSASA 1994:1 and White Paper 1995:23).
The mission of USSASA is to establish a multi-coded school sport structure which will
organise sport for all schools in South Africa. This organisation has expressed its intention
to ensure that sport takes its rightful place and is developed in rural schools, and in
townships and that those pupils at the top of the pyramid are given the opportunity to display
and enhance their talents (USSASA 1994: 1).
The objectives of USSASA (1994: 1) are to:
o introduce sport to every school in South Africa, however remote and inaccessible it
might be;
o develop a code of sport in all schools;
o broaden the expertise in administration, coaching, umpiring and officiating;
120
o coordinate and control all schools sports activities at national, provincial, regional,
zonal, local and school levels;
o implement and control a broad school sport policy;
o lobby support of the new Government via the Minister of Sports and Recreation and
the Minister of Education;
o affiliate to the school sports federations which control school sport in Africa and the
World;
o affiliate with the NSC and NOCSA.
4. 6.3.2 The provision and organisation of physical education and school sport
The provision of school sport under the newly established body USSASA, makes the
necessary provision for various structures at the following levels: national, provincial,
regional, local and school levels. Since the school level is of particular relevance this will
be discussed fairly extensively below.
o The proposed structure for school sport at school level
The broad basis of school sports practices begins with the individual pupil and teachers who
organise themselves into the various sports codes. The sports codes should have teachers
organising the particular code of sport. The sports organiser should be regarded as the main
coordinator who organises sport under the guidance of the principal. Schools affiliate to the
zonal or local structures which represent the rights and freedoms of the relevant national
sports code controlling body. This structure reveals democracy that evolves from below,
from schools to regional bodies, to national code bodies and finally culminates in USSASA
(cf Appendix 3)(USSASA 1994:5).
121
It is the school that should provide the most important area of participation, development and
competition. The principal's enthusiasm, guidance and authority determines the success of
a school's sports programme. The magnitude of sport calls for the involvement of teachers
of a particular school. Due to the fact that not all teachers share the same enthusiasm in
sport, teachers are encouraged to seek assistance from other competent persons and parents.
Teachers are encouraged to get involved in fund raising, be delegates to meetings, assist with
first aid, etc. The newest development is to train pupils to become umpires, coaches,
athletics officials, referees, etc. The playing of all codes of sport at school is encouraged.
This may however be problematic due to the number of pupils in schools, size of staff,
availability of facilities and equipment, etc. A school has the prerogative to decide which
sport codes to provide. Inter house sport competitions should be encouraged in order to:
increase participation in terms of frequency and numbers of players; to expose pupils to other
codes of sport, and to serve as an alternative for isolated schools (in rural areas) where
transport is expensive or non-existent (USSASA 1994:5).
o The proposed structure at local and zonal level for school sport
Schools affiliate and participate in the local sports competitions within the districts. They also
affiliate with the zonal sports association and participate in the all zonal sports competitions.
In tum these codes of sport are affiliated with the regional sports association (cf Appendix
4) (USSASA 1994:6). The zonal structure should included the following officials:
(1) a zonal executive committee which consists of a chairman, vice chairperson, secretary,
match and registration secretary, a treasurer and a trustee;
(2) a development committee consisting of four members;
(3) a selection panel of five members;
(4) managers and coaches for zonal teams;
(5) a referee's panel to appoint referee's for midweek games.
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o The proposed regional structure for school sport
The regional structure for primary and secondary schools should have separate executives
with one committee which affiliates to USSASA. All zonal and sports structures, as well as
the regional codes structures (as suggested) to affiliate to the regional body (cf Appendix 4)
(USSASA 1994:8).
o The proposed national structure for school sport
According to the draft policy the national structure encompasses the various regions:
Border/Kei; Eastern Cape; South Cape; Western Province; Boland; Southern Transvaal;
Eastern Transvaal; Northern Transvaal; Southern Natal and Northern Free State, etcetera.
These school sports associations are affiliated to USSASA which is in tum affiliated to
NOCSA and NSC. USSASA also intends to seek membership with the International School
Sport Federation (cf Appendix 5) (USSASA 1994:5).
o The proposed structure for physical education
Very little information exists regarding the situation of physical education, other than that
already presented. In 1991 it was proposed that physical education be included in the school
curriculum, of the democratic era (Committee Heads of Education Departments 1991:26).
The proposed curriculum framework includes movement activities (physical education) in
early childhood development (Committee Heads of Education Departments 1991:25 and
Department of Education 1996: 12). It has been proposed that teachers should encourage
activities that allow children to develop large and small muscles, and those which encourage
coordination and balance. Children have to be given the opportunity to express themselves
in lessons known as "movement activities".
Physical education is seen as an important subject in the school curriculum, since it has a
vital role to play in the reconstruction and development of a healthy well-balanced society
(USSASA 1994:38-39 and White Paper 1995:9). Recommendations were made on govern-
123
ment level that physical education be made a compulsory subject in all schools in SA.
Physical education should be seen as a tool whereby sport can be introduced to children. By
laying a sound foundation and turning physical activity into pleasant experiences, children
will be able to acquire a full range of basic movement skills (USSASA 1994:38 and White
Paper 1995:10).
To date, there is no new national school curriculum and syllabus for physical education for
schools in South Africa. The Learning Area Committee (1996:115-127) has, however,
included health and human movement as one of the seven focuses of life orientation, which
forms part of the new curriculum. The focus regarding health and human movement will be
on: a healthy body; mind and spirit; personal well-being; healthy lifestyle; motor skills;
physical activity; safety and fitness (cf Appendix 6). The Government has instructed that the
new curriculum be phased in over a period of four years as from 1998. This proses is is as
follows:
o 1998: Grades- One, Five, and Nine;
o 1999: Grades - Two, Six, and Ten;
o 2000: Grades- Three, Seven, and Eleven;
o 2001: Grades - Four, Eight, and Twelve.
To following figure (FIG 4.2) summarises participation in physical education and school
sport in South Africa:
124
FIGURE 4.2
Participation Pyramid
INTERNATIONAL
t NATIONAL
t PROVINCIAL
t REGIONAL
t
t PHYSICAL EDUCATION
4.6.4 Physical education and school sport funding
The funding of physical education and school sport facilities and equipment, is only one of
the myriad expenditures of the total school fund budget (Kruger 1993:103-104). These days
more and more attention is being paid to school funding. Many parents do not have the
means to pay for schooling, while others have extensive funds. The result is, that the
importance of sport in the school curriculum and the availablity of school funds could
determine; the place of physical education and sport in the curriculum; the quality of the
physical education and sports programmes, and whether children should pay extra for sport
125
or not. Funds supplied by the state only provide for the salaries of teachers and a few
additional expenditures. Schools have to rely on donations and fund raising to increase their
capital (personal observation) .
Additional funds are required to rectify the backlog in the current provision of facilities to
previous disadvantaged areas. If acquired, it could facilitate in canceling out the disparities
of the past regarding provision of facilities and opportunities. In the past this responsibility
was left to the private sector, donations from big business and parents to supply facilities in
the White areas. The charging of exorbitant fees, made them inaccessible to the majority of
people (Roberts 1992:26).
The annual report of COSAS (1990/1991:28) expressed the great need for facilities in
primary and secondary schools. Providing in facilities in the different geographical regions
from 1990 until 2000 is calculated at 17 199 thousand. This is a considerable amount that
has to be supplied to relieve the backlog.
It is only just that equal opportunities and facilities have to be made available to all. The
renewed attention being paid to Blacks schools, is more than justified. Yet, it is not realised
that neither did children from White English speaking schools have the same opportunities
as their counterparts in the Afrikaans speaking schools (personal observation). However, one
should realise that all South African sports people were disadvantaged due to the lack of
international participation.
The provision of facilities implies an enormous amount of funds. There are, however, a
number of measures that may help in this such as: the sharing of underutilised facilities, and
involving the community. Various schools have also looked into the possiblity of setting up
clubs at their school. In this way funds can be generated both from membership fees from
school children, as well as from members of the community (Beeld, 13 Januarie 1993:4).
Irrespective of the source of additional funds (whether sponsors or trust funds), the provision
of sports equipment will have to be carried by the school itself in collaboration with the local
sports federation. The GDE (1995:23) has made many proposals, but these have remained \
126
theory. South Africa is a Third World country. Many are jobless and only the affluent have
funds to cater for sports needs.
A recommendation of the NSC (White Paper 1995:58) is that coaches at school level should
be paid and receive promotion for their coaching tasks. Many parents encounter considerable
expenses while helping their children in their sports careers. It happens that individual
persons are often taken in by bogus coaches, pretending to be "professional coaches". Thus
these parents end end up paying for poor quality coaching (Metro, 4 August 1995:47). There
are schools that can afford to pay their own coaches and others have solicited the services
of outside coaches. This is determined by the availability of funds at the school or by
possible sponsors and parents' contributions (personal observation). To date, no educational
law exists that specifies that coaches have to be paid. All extra expenses encountered by the
school other than specified, will have to be carried by the school itself.
4. 7 CONCLUSION
During the next decade, sport in South Africa will be faced with various challenges regarding
the implementation of the new national structure for sport and school sport. International
impact on South African sport also has to be taken into consideration. In this regard, the
White Paper (1995:12) stipulates that the approach to sport has to based on South African
values and beliefs, South African geography, South African communities, South African
history and heritage. Nevertheless, the national sports structure will also have be responsive
to the global impact on South African sport.
The implication of the developments, undoubtedly impacted on all sections and spheres of
South African sport, since South Africa's readmittance to the international arena. A study of
the present state of physical education and school sport within the South African curriculum
finds that the implementation thereof, is currently in a transitional phase, as yet no new
national policies exist for the implementation thereof in the curriculum. In order to determine
whether there are valuable lessons to be learnt from any other country in this regard which
could facilitate the South African situation, attention is given to the state of physical
education and sport in Australia context in the Chapter Five.
CHAPTER 5
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT IN THE AUSTRALIAN
EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THE RELEVANCE THEREOF FOR SOUTH AFRICA
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter investigated the role and place of physical education and sport within
the post-apartheid educational dispensation of South Africa. Detail was given regarding the
structure of sport in general, physical education and school sport in particular.
In many countries across the world, the importance of sport and physical activity proves to
be equally important. There are, however, countries where school participation is hampered
for some or other reason. Sport and physical education in Brazil is in the hands of private
initiative as well as the random availability of school facilities (Ferreira 1984: 11). In India
and Honduras the important place of sport rests totally on the theoretical implications since
sport facilities are lacking (Johnson 1980:307). In Norway, sport participation does take
place, yet it is often hampered by the long and cold winters that are experienced. The
distances between towns also cause a problem (Volla 1980:481).
There are, however, certain aspects of other systems that can be of relevance for the
implementation of physical education and school sport in South Africa. Due to the complexity
of sport practices around the world it is impossible to analyse each and ever country. For this
reason this researcher has chosen one country only namely, Australia, to provide a broader
scope and insight regarding the place of physical education and sport in the curriculum. The
reason why Australia was chosen is that the South African and Australian sport cultures are
very similar and the presence of new initiatives within their education and sport system could
be of relevance to South Africa. Factors that can be considered to be of relevance:
o the reintroduction of compulsory physical education and sport within state schools;
o the organisation of physical education, school sport and youth sport;
o government involvement in physical education and sport;
128
o an effective support service for physical education and sport.
The lessons learnt from the Australian situation can provide the researcher with a means to
evaluate South African physical education and school sport and provide possible solutions to
problems encountered in South Africa.
5.2 SPORT IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT
Sport is as much part of the Australian culture as gum trees and kangaroos and goes without
saying that Australians are passionate about their sport. Sport is considered an essential
experience for young and old in Australia (Robertson 1984:6 and Evans 1990:5). Evans
(1990:7) acknowledges that sport reflects both the dominant social values and serves as a
transmitter of popular culture.
Reference to the colonial days in Australia, explains the roots of their sports heritage. The
sporting origins are related to the tradition of games that were part of the English public
schools system (Johnson 1980:5 and Evans 1990:6).
5.2.1 Demographic factors
The vast island continent of Australia covers approximately 7,5 million square kilometres.
The population totals 17,2 million people. Eighty percent of the population live in urban
centres generally situated in coastal areas. A multicultural diversity is found as twenty
percent of the inhabitants are born outside the country (Oldenhove 1995a: 1).
Australia is a federation of eight states and territories and it has Federal, State and Local
governments. The eight states include; New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (VIC), Queensland
(QLD), South Australia (SA), Western Australia (WA), Tasmania (TAS), Northern Territory
(NT) and Australian Capital Territory (ACT). Education is the responsibility of state and
territorial authorities, and provision is made for a state, Catholic, and independent school
system (Oldenhove 1995a:1 and Evans 1990:Interview). In 1995 the total of 6-12 year olds
129
attending 8 500 primary schools was 1, 76 million. There are 2 200 high schools and a total
of 1,28 million children attended these schools (Oldenhove 1995a: 1).
5. 2.1.1 Relevance for the South African situation
South Africa is in a similar position with regards to its sports culture. There is no reason to
elaborate further on the origin of South African sport since Chapter Two has already given
full detail thereof (cf 2. 2. 2). The passionate love for sport is just as characteristic of South
Africa (cf 4.1).
The exclusion of South Africa from international participation had, however, resulted in the
negligence of certain areas of physical education and sport. The different cultural groups
were not given an equal opportunity to develop and express their support and interest in
physical education and sport (cf 4.6).
The enthusiasm that has existed in sport since South Africa's return to international
participation does, however, prove that opportunities can be created and a workable structure
can be established. There is no reason why South Africa should stand back for any of the
world's leading sports countries, with regards to management and the organisation of sport.
A demographical analysis of Australia shows that there are certain differences that have to
be accounted for in South Africa. South Africa is 6,5 million square kilometres smaller than
Australia, while their total number of inhabitants exceeds that of Australia by approximately
27,8 million people (cf 4.2). The implications thereof is that South Africa has to provide
sports opportunities for far more people than Australia. This means that substantially more
resources such as money, coaches, equipment and facilities have to be provided for, than in
Australia. Being a country that is not as economically prosperous, as Australia, South Africa
will have to come up with a way of meeting their own needs. The strain on all the resources
is a major concern for all education and sports planners.
Both countries experience problems with regard to the provision of physical education and
sport in the rural areas. Australia's use of the radio and television as a method of distance
130
education, could be a solution to South Africa's problem. The complexity of the provision
of physical education and sport is therefore much the same.
5.3 THE ORGANISATION OF YOUTH SPORT IN AUSTRALIA
Youth sport in Australia, refers to sport offered by the community. In Australia it is in the
hands of the school-community club system. Access to sporting opportunities in small and
remote communities is limited, compared to their city counterparts (Evans 1990: 15).
Australia offers numerous diverse sports options as there are about 140 recognised national
sports. Almost all sports are encouraged at an early age.
Government at national, state and local levels, all make a significant contribution to sport.
The Australian Sport Commission provides support for the achievement of excellence in sport
and for the development of broad base participation (Evans 1995:1nterview; Lamb
1995:1nterview, and Oldenhove 1995a:2). More detail regarding support services will be
discussed at a later stage.
Children are involved in physical activity from a very early age, playing backyard games,
physical education and school sport. Programmes with local sports clubs are also provided.
Many children have the combination of all the mentioned opportunities, but the majority have
to rely on schools to provide the first point of discovery for a myriad of sport, recreation and
leisure opportunities (Evans 1990:16 and Oldenhove 1995a:1).
In Australia, all children should be able to reach their potential in sport, in whatever field
they choose. The reasons being that their youth has the opportunity to be involved in the
Sydney 2000 Olympics and it is a fundamental national responsibility to provide a healthy
start to life (Evans 1995:Interview and Oldenhove 1995b:Interview).
5.3.1 Possibilities for the South African situation
South African children just like Australian children are actively involved in physical
education and sport from a very early age. This encounter is made at school level. However,
131
as previously indicated, not all races in South Africa have had the same exposure in the past
(cf 4.3 & 4.6). The rural areas are also limited in their opportunities. The recommendations
in the White Paper (1995:79) stress the need to pay more attention to the development of
sport in rural areas.
The contribution of the Government at national level has been discussed in Chapter Four.
Whether the priorities as stipulated in the White Paper 1995:77-96) will be meet can only be
determined at a much later stage. Due to the recent division of the provinces and the
decentralisation of power, it is also impossible to determine the exact contribution of the
Government's at provincial level at this stage (cf 4.2). Sport at local level will have to be
closely linked to the delivery system of the school and the community in order to cancel out
the disparities of the past.
Youth sport in South Africa differs, in the sense in that it is mostly provided by the schools.
Very little has, however, been available for children that are not part of the formal
educational structure (White Paper 1995:22). It is only recently that a recommendation has
been made in the White Paper (1995:87) for greater provision of sport by the community and
better working relationships with clubs.
There are over 120 registered sporting organisations in South Africa which provide a
diversity of sports events in society. The staging of the Olympic Games would be of great
relevance to South African sport, if we are given the opportunity. It could once again serve
as a factor in uniting the divided nation (cf 4.3). The tremendous amount of opportunities,
for example job opportunities, advertising, educational opportunities, and so forth would be
of value to each individual and to the country as a whole (cf 2.4. 7).
5.4 THE ORGANISATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORT
IN AUSTRALIA
School sport, in this sense, is referred to as the sport in which children participate in for the
school only, thus only representing the school.
132
The sports programmes which serve as an extension to the physical education programmes,
are provided in primary (age 5-12) and secondary (age 12-18) schools. The choice of
participation in extra curricular programmes is optional. Often young children choose to play
for a school team in either the same or a different sport that they participate in with the
community clubs (Evans 1995:Interview). There are those who choose to participate only for
the school or only for the club. Teachers are involved in coaching capacities or umpiring.
This is done voluntarily and they do not receive any monetary or time compensation from
their employer (Oldenhove 1995b:Interview).
The Australian Schools Sports Council (ASSC) and their affiliates of Primary and Secondary
School Sports Associations are responsible for the organisation of formal competitive school
sport. The organisation of these competitions is at regional, state and interstate level for both
primary and secondary schools. A major international event is held biannually involving
Pacific rim countries in athletics, swimming and gymnastics. The event is known as the
Pacific School Games (Australian School Sports Council 1995:55; Kalend 1995:Interview,
and Oldenhove 1995a:3).
The Australian school system consists of three main providers of schooling, namely the
Independent schools, Catholic schools and State schools. Independent schools which represent
twenty six percent of all schools, have a strong commitment and obligation to provide all
their students with a comprehensive and sometimes compulsory physical and sport education
programme (Oldenhove 1995a:3 and Pau 1995:Interview). The Catholic school system
provides sport and physical education on the same basis as the State schools ( Coarsley
1995: Interview and Lamb 1995: Interview) .
Evans (1995:Interview) points out that participation levels (cf FIG 5.1) regarding physical
education and sport is very similar to other countries. In the state schools there are various
levels that a child proceeds through. Participation in physical and sport education complement
each other. Participation in physical education leads the child from basic skills to competitive
sport.
133
FIGURE 5.1
Participation Pyramid
NATIONAL CHAMPIONSHIPS
t STATE
CHAMPIONSHIPS
t REGIONAL PLAY-OFFS
t INTER·SCHOOL SPORT
t INTRA-SCHOOL SPORT
t PHYSICAL EDUCATION
(Obtained from the Victorian School Sport Association 1995).
In physical education (Pre-primary to Grade 3) various skills are taught such as
dance, gymnastics, aquatics, bat and ball skills, and athletics. The choice of activities
increase as children move through the grades. At times skills are put into a game
context, but the emphasis still remains on skill mastery. Physical education can not
be ignored as it forms the basis of sport education (Evans 1990: 17).
Intra-school sport offers the middle- and upper-grade children the opportunity to
employ the skills learnt in physical education in a game context. Evans (1990: 17)
concurs that physical education and intra-school sport offers the opportunity to play
134
minor games and modified major games. A competitive environment where children
can play with and against other children of similar ability is provided in intra-school
sport.
Inter-school sport offers children the opportunity to play and/or compete against other
schools. School teams are often selected on a very competitive basis, with only the
best performers earning a place in the school team. Individuals and teams that win
at inter-school level can then compete in the regional championships. Highly
successful athletes then proceed to state and thereafter to national level (Evans
1990:17-18; Brown(b) 1995:Interview, and Evans 1995:Interview).
Participation in sport takes place according to the various age groups which starts at
under 6 (U6) until under 21 (U21). The age groups vary according to the needs of
the sport. Possible age groups are U6, US, U10, U12, U14, U15, U16, U17, U18
and U21 (Brown(b) 1995:Interview; Evans 1995:Interview, and Victorian School
Sport Association 1995:29).
5.4.1 Possibilities for South African education
In the South African education system there are only two main providers of
schooling, namely, the private schools and state schools (South African Schools Act
84 of 1996). The delivery system for physical education and school sport in South
Africa closely resembles that of Australia. The only difference being that the South
African system is still in a relatively developing stage in most Black schools in the
townships where physical education and sport were sometimes non-existent (cf
Chapter 4).
Referring to the participation in school sport in Australia reveals that South Africa
follows a similar structure. The implementation of the structure in South African
school is only in developing stages at present. The coordination and successful
management thereof is an aspect that will need considerable attention. Guidance and
135
help will have to be offered to schools that have not had the same exposure to such
a structure.
5.5 PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL
SPORT IN AUSTRALIA
5.5.1 School Sport: An inquiry into the state of physical education and
school sport in Australia
During the eighties physical education and school sport in Australia was however in
great jeopardy. Both the primary and secondary schools neglected the physical
education and sport programme. However, the delivery of the curriculum varied from
primary to secondary school (Senate Standing Committee 1992:75-77 and Directorate
of Sport Education 1993:29).
Subsequently, in 1992, concern was expressed concerning the apparent neglect of the
health and physical fitness of students. In 1993, the Minister of Education approved
the establishment of a committee to do intense research regarding the state of sport
and physical education in the compulsory curriculum. This led to the release of the
Moneghetti Report at the end of 1992 (Directorate of Education 199 3: 1) .
Regarding participation, research showed that over 50 percent of 10-15 year olds had
high blood pressure, that the number of 10-17 years old participating in sport had
declined, that 60 percent of boys and 75 percent of girls did not participate in
organised sport (Senate Standing Committee 1992:55 & 89 and Memorandum 23
November 1993:2).
In many primary schools physical education classes, students end up playing games.
The development of skills fell by the wayside (Directorate of Education 1993:30 and
Evans 1995:Interview). These children were found to be leaving primary school
without the necessary basic skills. Reasons for deterioration was the ageing of the
teaching profession and the loss of specialist teachers of physical education, especially
136
in the smaller primary schools. Physical education specialist had to choose between
career advancement and continuing to teach physical education. The large number of
untrained staff taking ·physical education had made lessons become mere game or
aerobic sessions. Most students had the opportunity to be involved in sport at intra
and interschoollevel. Pupils in years P-3 (Primary to Standard One) did not take part
in sport but were involved in minor games. Sport was formally timetabled for years
4-6 (Standards Two to Four). It comprised modified sports that was often supported
by the Aussie Sport programme (Directorate of Education 1993:31 and Oldenhove
1995b:Interview). The lack of skill development during the primary school years
meant that students were unable to perform successfully in school sport and which
would subsequently result in a lack of interest in sport in later years.
There were, however, schools that offered excellent programmes. Some schools had
undertaken programmes, such as Health in primary schools. Those programmes were
aimed at promoting healthy and sustainable lifestyles that would continue into adult
life. Programmes encompassed all aspects of the schools' physical education
programme and also incorporated regular exercise and related studies in biology and
nutrition (Directorate of Education 1993:32).
In secondary schools the picture was somewhat different. In 1989, most secondary
schools offered physical education as a compulsory subject in years 7- 10. Evidence
received by the committee showed that by 1994 physical education was facing a
significant threat in the school curriculum. Many secondary colleges were offering
physical education as an elective subject in years 9 and 10. Some even considered to
make physical education elective from years 7 and 8. Findings had shown that girls
in particular tended to drop out of physical education and sport in adolescence
(Directorate of Education 1993:34).
Sport in secondary schools was seldom timetabled. The only opportunity for
participation had been games in physical education classes, lunchtime activities and
participation in interschool sport. If provision was not made for interschool sport and
lunchtime activities, further opportunities to engage in sport were non-existent.
137
Students were missing out on bridging the transition from school sport to participation
in community sport programmes (Evans 1995:Interview).
As in the case of primary schools, there were, however, secondary schools that
provided excellent programmes in physical education and sport at years 7 - 10.
Additional physical education and sport units were offered to students. Fitness testing
was conducted on every student and programmes were designed to improve fitness.
There were a number of well-established links with community organisations. In a
number of schools, the needs of girls were being addressed in the curriculum.
Secondary school students in years 10 were also involved in the Sportsfun programme
in primary schools (cf 5. 7. 2).
Major discrepancies in the presentation of physical education and sport can thus be
summarised as:
5.5.1.1 Time allocation for physical education
A summary of the amount of time spent on physical education (cf FIG 5.2 and FIG
5.3) in the whole of Australia was calculated and the results spoke for themselves.
Physical education was seldom provided for is some schools and in others it was non
existent.
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FIGURE 5.2
Participation in state primary school physical education
NSW - New South Hours not specified Wales
QLD - Queensland 2 X 30 minute lessons per week
~<: - "ictoria Ad hoc: often less than 1 hour per week
SA- South No data available about physical education participation Australia in primary schools
WA- Western No data available about the degree of involvement of Australia primary school children in physical education, although
the Department of Education suggests it is between 30 and 180 minutes per week
TAS- Tasmania Daily physical education and 1 lesson per week with a specialist teacher
NT- Northern PE conducted infrequently, although some schools Territory provide daily fitness activities
A<:T- Australian Schools determine their own curriculum Capital Territory
{:Senate :Standing Commtttee li.JI.JC..:i~J
139
FIGURE 5.3
Participation in state secondary school physical education
NSW - New South 100 Hours total in Years 7 - 12 Wales
QLD - Queensland New Policy. 3 periods/week in Years 7 - 12
"I(; - "ictoria Hours not specified
SA- South Hours not specified Australia
WA- Western 140 mins of PE in Year 7 Australia
TAS- Tasmania 100 or 150 hour p a over Years 9 - 12
NT- Northern Between 45 mins and 1 hours of PE per day Territory
A(;T - Australian Not specified Capital Territory
l:Senate :::>tandmg Committee lYY2:77).
5.5.1.2 Factors that contn'buted to the lack of physical education and sport in
Australia
The overcrowded curriculum caused some subjects and physical education in
particular, to become electives or even disappear in some schools. Other factors
pointed out by the Senate Standing Committee (1992:73 & 83) and Oldenhove
(1995a:3) that contributed to the lack of sport and physical education in schools were:
o increased devolution of decision-making to schools;
o lack of coherent sport and physical education policies by state education
authorities;
o reduction in the number of physical education specialists;
140
o limited pre-service and in-service preparation and support for generalist and
physical education specialists and sport teachers;
o reduction of the support budgets for competitive school sport;
o lack of facilities, role models, skills, interest and boring or inappropriate
programmes;
o distance and isolation;
o attitudes held by the principal and school administrators;
o involvement in community sport viewed as replacement for physical education;
o pressure to undertake 11 academic 11 or 11 Career-oriented 11 subjects
o other pressures of homework and study;
o concepts of masculinity and femininity;
o cultural background;
o predisposition of parents.
The factors that influenced physical education were found to have an influence on
sport participation as well. There were, however, additional factors that added to
absence in sport participation, namely the teachers lack of knowledge regarding
sporting rules, dislike of violence in sport, perceptions of the risk of injury and cost.
The percentage of sport participation in the various age groups gave an indication of
the state of school sport participation (Senate Standing Committee 1992:83-84).
5. 5.1. 3 Implementation of physical education and school sport policies
Results regarding the implementation of the policies and programmes designed for
primary and secondary physical education and sport also revealed various
inconsistencies (cf Appendix 7 & 8). The lack of adequate resources also posed a
problem for the correct implementation of physical education and sport.
Executive Memorandum No 764, was compiled to indicate the recommendations for
the practice of sport and physical education. Schools had to reallocate their priorities
within the timetable to facilitate the phased reintroduction of physical education and
141
sport (Memorandum 23 November 1993:3; News Education 1993:1 and Directorate
of School Education 1993:40-41).
5.5.2 Recommendations regarding the reintroduction of physical education
and sports education
The Directorate of Education (1993:40) made various recommendations regarding the
reintroduction of physical education and sport education. Recommendation were as
follows:
Time Allocation for Physical and Sport Education
• Years P - 2/3: 20-30 minutes physical education per day
• Years 3 - 6: three hours per week, with at least 50 percent
allocated to timetabled physical education
• Years 7 - 10: a minimum of 100 minutes of physical education
and a minimum of 100 minutes of timetabled sport
(P = pre-primary ; Years = school year)
Dtrectorate of Education 1993:40)
142
Phased introduction of Physical and Sport Education:
Physical Education
• By 1995 all schools had to timetable physical education and sport
education p-1 0
• Years p- 3 PEcore by 1994
• Years 4- 6 PEcore by 1995
• Years 7- 9
• Year 10
Sport
PE core by 1994
PE core by 1995
• By 1996 all schools had to timetable sport 4 - 10
• Years 3/4- 8 Sport core by 1995
• Years 9 - 10 Sport core by 1996
Directorate of Education 1993:44-41T
The overall recommendations were aimed at the improvement of the delivery and '
quality of physical education, these include:
o the development of physical education and junior sports policies for schools and
for the states to provide better support for the teachers responsible for physical
education;
o concerns about the National Curriculum Statement and Profiles on Health;
o commonwealth sports funding and support for research into physical education
and sport;
o the need to develop physical education and sports policies that address needs
of children with disabilities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children,
children, especially girls, from non-english speaking background and girls;
143
o the need to identify and monitor specific learning outcomes from Physical
Education programmes;
o the training and professional development needs of teachers and community
members involved in the delivery of physical and sport education in schools;
o the need for departments, local government, schools and sports organisations
to develop complementary policies and co-operatively provide and maintain
facilities for youth sport (Directorate of Education 199 3: 25) .
5.5.3 Implications for Australia
The introduction of increased physical education and sport in primary and secondary
in Australian schools has subsequently resulted in the shortage of trained
teachers/staff to present physical education and sport sessions. The Government
cannot fund a physical and sport education specialist in every school. They have,
however, provided money for in-service training of tutors to train classroom staff.
The main idea is to increase children's participation in school sport. Tutors are
offering refresher courses to train sports teachers in primary schools, and courses in
coaching skills for secondary school teachers without a physical education background
(Pau 1995:Interview).
A total of twenty exemplary schools have been established in the state of Victoria that
will serve as a model school for other schools that have not had an ongoing physical
and sport education programme. They offer help and assistance to other schools with
the setting up of physical and sport education programmes. The exemplary schools
are to be the focus of the delivery of professional development programmes. For a
school to be able to be recognised as exemplary schools they had to adhere to certain
requirements. Requirements included an excellent programme in place, the schools
commitment to further development of programmes, the physical and demographic
profile of the school had to be such that it adequately reflected the circumstances in
a wide range of schools, diversity of the programme had to hold options for other
144
schools and the location had be suitable (News Education 1993:1 and Kennedy
1995:Interview).
5.5.4 Possibilities for the South African education system
The relevance of the inquiry into the state of physical education and sport in
Australian can not be ignored in this research. The need for the inquiry proves that
the physical education and sport is still regarded to be an important component of the
curriculum. In this particular research the above mentioned forms the key issue of the
research problem.
The findings of USSASA (1994: 2) regarding the reintroduction of physical education
and sport within South African schools as the most important measure to restore the
poor state of children's physical fitness. The results were similar to the
recommendations made by the Directorate of Education in Australia (cf 5.5.2).
Aspects that correlate are:
o developing of applicable sports policies;
o better support for teachers;
o funding of sport and funding for research;
o teacher upgrading and training;
o the need to readdress physical education and sport for the disabled,
underprivileged and girls;
o recognition of the national Health policy.
Following the example of exemplary schools would be of a great advantage to the
South African situation. The only problem that could be foreseen is that most
previously all-White schools are quite a distance from the schools in disadvantaged
areas. The costs involved in such an implementation could amount to thousands, and
the number of volunteers in sport would not be sufficient to help in schools. Teacher
training and in-service training will have to be improved.
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5.6 CLUB SPORT
Australia has 35 000 sport clubs. These clubs cover the 140 different types of sports
offered. All age groups are catered for starting at the age of five years. Children
move through the different age groups from modified sport until adult sport. Clubs
are therefore community based catering for the youth and senior players. Many
families are involved in clubs which encourage the long term benefits of sport (Evans
1995:Interview and Oldenhove 1995a:3).
5.6.1 Relevance for the South African situation
The club system as used in Australia can be of relevance to the South African
situation. The cooperation and working relationship between clubs, schools and the
community proves that if implemented South Africa can achieve the same results. The
system used in Australia helps adolescents bridge the gap between school and
community participation. The aim of a closer integration between schools and clubs,
and the handing over of the role and place of the school as the primary providers of
sport. Numerous opportunities could be provided to encourage children to participate
in sport. Teachers could also benefit in their coaching were they to come into contact
with professional coaches. This is one area that needs considerable attention in South
Africa.
Duplicating participation at club level in Australia has caused many athletes to focus
on too much winning (cf 5.3). In this regard South Africa is possibly in a favourable
position in that few children participate for a club and the school simultaneously.
However, clubs could provide for opportunities not provided for in the schools, as
not always the case in South Africa.
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5.7 SUPPORT SERVICES FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
5. 7.1 The Australian Sports Commission
The Australian Sports Commission [hence ASC] was only established in 1989 by the
Australian Sports Commission Act 1989. It subsequently operates under the same act.
The ASC is the body of the Commonwealth Government that is responsible for
funding and developing sport (Australian Sports Commission Report 1994:3-4).
This particular Commission as reported by the Australian Sports Commission Report
(1994:3-4) is a sub-program of the Sport and Recreation Programme of the
Environment, Sport and Territories Portfolio. The ASC reports to the Federal
Minister for Environment, Sport and Territories. A wide range of programmes are
supported that are designed to develop sporting excellence and increase participation
in sport by all Australians.
The organisational and evaluative design of the ASC is based on a hierarchy of
outcomes which are independent on one another (cf Appendix 9). The top level
represents the over-arching goals which are articulate as the mission statement. The
next level specifies two objectives which articulated the desired outcomes for the
mission to be achieved. The other levels represent specific outcomes that must be
attained for the achievement of the higher order outcomes (Australian Sports
Commission Report 1994: 5-7) .
The Australian Sports Commission's mission is to enrich the lives of all Australians
through sport. To achieve this they are focusing on two main objectives and nine
strategies, the objectives are: (1) increased participation in sport and sports activities
by Australians, and (2) striving for excellence in sports performance by Australians.
The major strategies of the Australian Sports Commission Report (1994:5-6) for 1994
- 1997 are briefly:
147
o utilising the Sydney 2000 Olympics as a catalyst to encourage and take
advantage of a wide range of sport and sport-related opportunities for
participation and enjoyment;
o fostering and encouraging education and training in all elements of sport;
o developing and implementing policies, programmes and practices aimed at the
improvement of access and equity in all aspects of sport;
o encouraging the provision of integrated, coordinated and quality support
programmes for athletes and sporting organisations particularly in the build-up
to the Sydney 2000 Olympics and Paralympics;
o promoting ethics and safety in sport;
o maximising the availability of resources for the development of Australian
sport, especially through opportunities generated by the 2000 Olympics;
o utilising the focus provided by the Sydney 2000 Olympics, by emphasising the
profile and increasing the awareness of the benefits of sport and the ASC 's
programme;
o participating in international activities for the benefit of Australian sport and the
staging of the Sydney 2000 Olympics;
o assisting in staging the Sydney 2000 Olympics and the Paralympics and to
ensure that these events make a long-term and broad contribution to Australian
sport.
148
5.7.2 The Aussie Sport Programme
5.7.2.1 General remarks on Aussie Sports Programmes
The Aussie Sport Programme launched in 1986 and was initiated by the Australian
Sports Commission in conjunction with state departments of sport and education. It
is a national sporting initiative that is committed to the development of young people
through sport. They provide the younger generation with the best possible sporting
experience (Australian Sports Commission 1993:1-3 and Oldenhove 1995a:13).
All clubs, school and parties involved in junior sport have access to Aussie Sport
units which operate in every state and territory of Australia. There is a unit of
qualified staff which provides constant resources, technical support, help and advice.
The Australian Sports Commission actively promotes and markets Aussie Sport to the
entire Australian community ensuring maximum public awareness. They foster
relationships between groups - schools and clubs, community groups and sports
associations, professional sports associations and local clubs in the community. Aussie
Sport produces and distributes a wide range of resources and information throughout
the country.
5. 7.2.2 Brief discussion of aims of the Aussie Sports Programme
The aims of Aussie Sport is developing skills, promoting fun and enjoyment,
encouraging participation and fair play across the board.. This programme relies
strongly on community support and involvement (Oldenhove 1995b:lnterview).
The broader aims of the programme are:
o supporting quality teaching and coaching;
o promoting and developing quality sport for young people;
o making sport more accessible, easier to play and enjoyable;
o developing essential sports skills in young people;
149
D fostering greater community involvement in junior sport (Australian Sports
Commission 1993:3).
Provision has been made by the Australian Sports Commission for Aussie Sport in
various areas. Firstly, Aussie Sport was designed to contribute and compliment
physical education and sport in schools. Emphasis is placed on the needs of the
children and the needs of the teachers. The majority of the programmes can be
adapted to suit the primary school child. Sport It! and Ready Set Go! are specifically
designed for the primary school teachers. In secondary schools; Sport Search, Active
Girls Campaign, Sportsfun and Caps contribute to the needs of the secondary child
and teacher (Brown(a) 1995:Interview).
At club level the programmes concentrate on community support and involvement.
Personnel work with local groups to ensure a coordinated approach to junior sport in
their area. Clubs that are registered as Aussie Sport Clubs receive all the necessary
support regarding the leadership programmes and coaching development. There is a
very close working relationship with national and state sporting associations and the
Australian Coaching Council. They work together regarding the training of coaches
and club officials. Aussie Sport Programmes also offer services between schools and
clubs, to encourage a close co-operation , exchanging of facilities and resources. This
enables qualified coaches to assist schools right through to more specialised strategies.
By doing this enables clubs to bridge the gap between school and outside sporting
clubs.
In tertiary institutions, Aussie Sport provides in-service training, curriculum development
resources, external training options for staff and assist in training undergraduate students.
This task is fulfilled with the help of key education and sporting authorities.
5. 7.2.3 Respective Aussie Sport Programmes
The programmes all focus on the sporting needs of young people at different stages
of their physical and social development. Some programmes have been modified to
150
suit the needs of the individual groups. To cater for the needs of young people
various programmes as mentioned previously have been made available throughout
Australia:
o Sport Start
The aim of this programme is to help parents and anyone working with young
children (3 - 6 years) to increase the child's confidence and interest in sport through
very informal play activities. It is fun for both parents and children. It adds to the
development and awareness of the world around the child. Resources for Sportstart
include a book of ideas for simple games and activities (Australian Sports
Commission 1993:5 and Oldenhove 1995b:lnterview).
o Sport It!
This programme is a 15 week programme designed for primary school children. The basic
motor skills used in sport, namely kicking, striking, locomotion, tracking, throwing and ball
control are included in this programme. Children are organised into groups to learn these
fundamental skills which they would use for the rest of their lives.
This programme also provides the teacher with a comprehensive range of materials
which are suitable for any existing physical education or sports timetable. There are
various incentives available such as charts and certificates which help teachers
motivate children, keep them interested and reward them for their efforts (Australian
Sports Commission 1993:5-6 and Brown (a) 1995:Interview).
o Kellogg's Ready Set Go
This programme is aimed at bringing adult sport 11 down to size 11, to suit the needs for
children. The sport is modified at schools or in the clubs. Playing conditions,
equipment and rules are changed to suit the children. Over 40 national sporting
organisations have modified their sport. Packages are available to the schools which
151
include, the rules and equipment (Australian Sports Commission 1993:6; Evans
1995:Interview and Oldenhove 1995b:lnterview).
o Active Girls Campaign
Despite the fact that sport is available to everyone, research still proves that barriers
exist and prevent girls from participating in, and enjoying, a wide range of sport. For
this reason Aussie Sport in conjunction with the Australian Sports Commission's
Women and Sport Unit created a strategy exclusively for this group. A public
relations and media campaign was designed to heighten girls and the public's
awareness of the various benefits of sport to girls. Strategies have been implemented
to increase female participation in all sporting organisations (Australian Sports
Commission 1993:6, Oldenhove 1995b:Interview).
o Sport Search
The Australian Sports Commission has designed a computer programme that help
youths select a sport that is suitable for them. It assists the upper primary and
secondary children to make informed sporting decisions by using this programme.
This activity involves simple tests of their physical characteristics and interests. A
whole list of ideas on which sport suits the child and what they are like and how to
get involved are supplied. Children are offered the opportunity to look beyond the
school gate and help on contacting outside sporting groups (Australian Sports
Commission 1993:7 and Brown(a) 1995:Interview).
o Sportsfun
Sportsfun is a programme designed to get older pupils (std 9 & 10 and tertiary
students) involved and interested in a variety of activities in sport administration or
management. Getting involved in sport training and coaching builds confidence,
increases leadership skills and helps develop communication skills. The focus is
involving older students in teaching, guiding and helping the primary school children
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not already in junior sport (Australian Sports Commission 1993:8 and Brown(a)
1995: Interview).
o Caps
This particular programme is a sports-based leadership development programme for
14- 20 year olds. Persons choose to be involved in a range of sports activities which
include coaching, umpiring, administration, involvement in Sports fun, team or event
management and sport health activities, as well as participating in the chosen sport.
A mentor or coordinator works with them learning and attaining credits for their
activities as part of a school subject or curriculum (Brown(a) 1995:Interview and
Oldenhove 1995b:lnterview).
5. 7. 2. 4 The value of the Aussie Sports Programme
The value of the programme has proven to be very successful in Australia. The 1989
research findings indicated that all participants viewed the programme positively.
Teachers and children regarded the variety of sports available as the main factor for
increased participation and builder of self confidence (Clough & Trai111989:63-67).
Robertson (1992:10-16) who conducted the 1992 research points out thatAussie Sport
made an important contribution to the teaching of physical education and sport to
children. It was essential for this programme to continue as it would help to assist
schools and sports organisations in providing children with sound sport education for
the future.
Furthermore, the goals that need to be sought in children's sport are; more enjoyment
and satisfaction from sport participation; longer involvement and better sporting
performances; a greater number of children continuing involvement in adolescence
and adulthood, and more teachers and coaches appreciated their contribution to the
development of the child (Roberston 1992:16).
153
The Australian Sports Commission forms the comer stone of development in sport.
It a unique opportunity for all the interested parties to collaborate in their efforts to
support the child in his physical education and sports career. It is an indispensable
resource to physical education, school sport, club, coaches, teachers, officials, parents
and administrators.
One of the finest characteristics of Aussie Sport is the fact that it is wholeheartedly
supported by the Government, Education Departments and sports associations and all
those connected to them. This working relationship ensures: (1) support regarding
finances, quality teaching and coaching; (2) availability of resources, staff and
development programmes, and (3) access to national sport strategies, incentives and
award schemes. The total benefit of Aussie Sport has been measured in terms of the
benefits for the child's physical education and sport opportunities. Without a doubt
Aussie Sport has made an enormous contribution to the total development of physical
education and sport in Australia.
5. 7.3 Possibilities for the South African situation
South Africa can learn a great deal from the Australian experience. The type of
programmes used, are applicable to the South African situation in this regard
obviously with the necessary adjustments to suit the current development of sport in
South Africa.
The current development programme of the National Sports Council, Protea Sport,
in collaboration with the Australian Sports Commission proves the relevance of a
working relationship that which has recently been established and the necessity of this
particular analysis of the Australian situation.
Both countries have found it necessary to encourage mass participation. The focus of
Protea Sport for South Africa should be adjusted to meet the needs of all citizens and
not only the disadvantaged areas (cf White Paper 1995:79). Due to the abolishment
154
of certain internal regulations (cf Chapter 4) and the restructuring of education, areas
and schools are no longer as segregated as in the past.
The inclusion of the development programmes as part of the physical education and
school sport programme is one of the most valuable attainable assets from Australia.
The school is the place where the basis is laid for creating life long participation (cf
3.5). Better cooperation and communication with regards to the implementation of a
national development programme needs to be sought in order to be successful. The
National Sports Council and the education authorities on all levels seriously need to
work on incorporating the development programme into the current syllabus of
education.
5.8 CONCLUSION
Key issues that eminate from this study, are found to be relevant for both South
African and Australia, are:
o the need to research the state of physical education and sport was found
necessary in both countries;
o the relevant parties called for the reinstating of physical education and sport as
compulsory components of the curriculum;
o the need for ongoing development;
o the vital role of the Government and Education authorities in sport.
Chapter Six contains the final conclusions and recommendations with regards to the
entire study.
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS, CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This investigation was undertaken to determine the place of physical education and
sport within the school curriculum of the post-apartheid educational dispensation of
South Africa. Providing in the needs of society needs to be reflected in the
curriculum, in order to produce a quality physical education and sports programme.
Each society attends to its curriculum differently. Therefore knowledge concerning
factors that have an influence on the development of physical education and sport is
of paramount importance.
Sports participation provides the channel not only for the physical progress of a
person, but also for psychological, sociological and educational development. For
these obvious reasons then it is imperative that an efficient sports system will be
functional in South Africa.
Demographic, social, economic, religious, and political factors influence the outcome
of provision of sport. The Government's interference for political reasons in sport can
also be detrimental to the sports system of a particular country.
6.2 SURVEY OF THE INVESTIGATION
Chapter Two of the research firstly determined the origin of physical education and
sport for all societies and secondly the main values of sport for a society. The
educational value of sport is undeniable. Sport as part of the daily school curriculum
can be traced back to the times of Ancient Greece. Sport contains a physiological
benefit for society in that it offers opportunities to improve the general well-being
of the individual. Physical growth and motor skill development is also stimulated.
156
The social value of sport is inherent because people are social beings and they depend
on contact with other people.
Sports participation strengthens friendship bonds and develops character because of
interaction with others. Psychologically individuals benefit from sport in that it
facilitates the stabilisation of their emotional life. It regenerates the restoration of
distorted thinking, since it facilitates the acquiry of a balanced self image. The
ethical value of sport is a sine qua non; participation in sport can facilitate the
inculcation of value such as fairness and justice. The most valuable aspect is
sportsmanship. The potential economic and political benefits for society is quite
obvious and could for instance create jobs, revenue, or even be used as a vital
propaganda tool.
The value of sport for the child as indicated in Chapter Three, makes it inevitable
to exclude sport from the curriculum. The child should be an integrated being and
should therefore, be educated in his/her totality, this includes, inter alia, his/her
physical, socio-emotional and intellectual development. The various facets of human
development are interrelated. As is indicated physical developments have a reciprocal
effect on the socio-emotional, as well as on the intellectual development of the child.
Changes, issues and trends regarding sport as indicated in Chapter One were
resumed in more detail in Chapter Four. The current situation regarding physical
education and school sport practices in South Africa reflects national changes in South
African sport but also reflects changes form the international sports arena. These
changes also have implications for the incorporation of physical education and sport
within the school curriculum.
Within the next decade South Africa will face the challenges on account of the
implementation of the new structure for sport and school sport. It will only be
possible to determine the overall impact of these developments on the matter of the
participation pattern in sport at a later stage. The implementation of the new sports
157
structure will also influence the vital place of physical education and school sport in
the curriculum.
To be able to corroborate the findings regarding physical education and school sport
in South Africa, an analysis of sport, and in particular school sport, in Australia was
undertaken in Chapter Five. South African and Australian societies share the same
love of sport. The inquiry into the state of physical education and sport in Australian
schools, substantiates that its place in the curriculum, is also of importance in other
parts of the world. Other research findings have made it possible to evaluate the
South African physical education and school sport situation, and put it into
perspective.
6.3 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
The research findings have identified and highlighted challenges and opportunities,
that face the relevant role players in sport as well as in education, with regards to the
various developments in post-apartheid sport of South Africa. The challenges and
opportunities can be distinguished as follows:
o The role and place of sport in society
One of the greatest challenges facing South Africa is undoubtedly to regain its rightful
place in the international arena. Since readmittance in 1993, South Africa has
succeeded in proving its strengths and dedication on the playing fields, by winning
numerous major events (4.3.4.8). In order to be successful in international sport
requires a well designed and efficient sport system. The various structures and role
players have been put into place but they are now faced with the daunting task of
creating the best opportunities for administrators, officials, players and spectators.
The potential benefits which sport generates for society should be exploited in the
development of sport throughout South Africa.
158
The new structure for sport which was created out of desperation by the
underprivileged will have to be accepted by the privileged. To date this has not been
an easy task since many decisions during unity formation were seen as politically
motivated (4.3.2 & 4.3.3). The transformation process will still require tolerance
from all the role players in South African sport. The emphasis should, however, be
placed more on the achievement of success in the international arena together with the
enjoyment created from participation.
The emphasis should be placed on the important role of sport in society, by placing
the Government's policy of "Mobilising the nation to play" even higher on the
agenda. Whether the recommendations stipulated in the White Paper (cf priorities
4.5.3) can be met is an enormous challenge set out by the Government. Succeeding
in these priorities would imply a healthier nation, reduced medical costs, economic
growth, psychological benefits, social and political benefits for all citizens.
Furthermore the role players are faced with the task of eradicating past injustices
which resulted in the preclusion and marginalisation of the majority of South
Africans. Opportunities and avenues have to be created for all citizens to uplift and
develop sport in South Africa. The vastness of latent talent creates a viable
opportunity for sport coaches to develop potential and to increase the depth in teams
to the utmost. The proposed sport structure has been put into place and the challenge
now lies in the implementation thereof.
o The place of physical education and sport in the curriculum
The strategy of the South African Government to reorganise the structure of sport
resulted in the restructuring of physical education and school sport in the curriculum.
This resulted in the establishment of a new structure for school sport and the call for
compulsory physical education and school sport (cf Chapter 4).
Reinstating physical education and school sport in South African schools was
necessary to help eradicate the imbalances of the past. Physical education and sport
159
is no longer seen as the exclusive privilege of the chosen few. By making physical
education compulsory children would be able to acquire a broad basis of movement
skills. The primary school plays a vital role in the formation of healthy physical
education and sport practices (cf 3.5.2).
At school level this reintroduction means that opportunities have to be provided for
upgrading and training of physical education teachers and sport coaches. These
courses are a necessity that can not be overlooked. This will of course require
considerable financial support that is not available at the present time. The role
players will have to look at a well designed volunteer programme and increased
parent involvement, as is the case in Australia (cf Chapter 5).
It is necessary to stress the urgency of the implementation of a national physical
education policy that is designed within the framework of the national curriculum.
This will enable children to acquire a full range of basic movement skills.
Furthermore, there is a wellspring of talent undeveloped in the majority of the
children of South Africa. Steps should be taken to make physical education classes
as enjoyable and as exciting as possible for these pupils. This researcher suggests that
more emphasis be placed on a broader selection of activities in the physical education
lessons. The greater the exposure to variety, the greater the opportunity to
accommodate as many children as possible. By training secondary school children as
officials, referees and first aid helpers, a keener interest could be created in the
physical education lessons (cf 5. 7. 2).
The new school sport structure in South Africa has made it possible to provide equal
access to all races in the country (cf 4.6.4). A well formulated policy is required for
the correct functioning of physical education and school sport. It further reinforces
the ethos, values and aims of physical education and sport in the school curriculum.
Without a constructive policy at this level, sport will, no doubt, not come to its
right. Restructuring school sport also provides opportunities for children of all
cultures to socialise through sport, and acquire knowledge of the different cultures.
160
Lessons from very well organised "White schools" sports system must, however, not
be discarded as it is pointless to reinvent the wheel. Experiences from the past should
be incorporated and used in the new school sport system. Schools are faced with the
task of acquiring sufficient volunteers, equipment and facilities. Providing incentives
for teaching staff for their services in sport, should help to alleviate the problem of
unwillingness, the lack of interest, and shortage of teachers who could be involved
in coaching.
o Development of sport
Since the unification of sport in South Africa, development has been the main
commitment of sporting bodies. The launch of a national development programme
Protea Sport was the consequence of the working relationship between the NSC and
the Australian Sports Commission. The implementation of the current development
programme will not go without hitches. It will take time before it is established in the
community. Far more can be learnt from the Australian experience and the challenges
now rests in possibly designing similar programmes to suit the South African situation
and context (cf Chapter 5).
The emphasis on the development programme in the rural areas and for the
underprivileged people is fitting, yet development can only be successful if it is
included in all schools and teachers are compelled to commit themselves to play an
active role in extra-mural activities. At primary school level modified sport should
be made compulsory to help assist and encourage all children with different abilities
to take part in physical education and sport. The assistance of parent involvement and
community volunteers stould be properly utilised by schools. They could be of
assistance in administration, coaching, refereeing, umpiring, organising, financing,
maintenance of grounds/fields/courts.
One of the national measures which could be implemented to generate the necessary
funds for sports development, is the institution of a state lottery for sport. These
funds could also be utilised to create additional facilities and supply equipment.
161
o Government involvement in sport
This investigation reveals that the Government played a foremost and leading role in
determining the ideology of South African sport (cf 1.2.2). The post-apartheid
Government has an enormous task on its hands to eradicate the past injustices caused
by apartheid. All citizens have to be included in the system of sports provision. The
Government has a supporting role to play in this provision (cf 4.5.3). The
government's involvement in sport will also largely determine the focus of the sports
system of a country.
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS EMANATING FROM THE STUDY
In the light of the research findings the following recommendations are made:
(1) That compulsory physical education and school sport be reintroduced, and
phased in, over a period of four years into the curriculum of South African
schools
Probably the most important development since the readmittance of South African into
international participation was the urgent request to reinstate physical education and
school sport. This is seen as a major priority of the Department of Education, the
Department of Sport and Recreation, NSC and other role players (cf 1.2.3 and
Chapter 4). To achieve the abovementioned, the following needs to be achieved:
o Taking the history of South African sport and the involvement of the
Government in sport into consideration, the policy regarding the reintroduction
of physical education and sport involves certain implications. A whole new
culture of physical activity and sports participation has to be developed and
propagated in schools. Principals and teachers have to take the responsibility
and ownership of this policy implementation. Its ultimate success will depend
on the commitment and support of the various role players in physical
education and school sport.
162
o This researcher would like to stress that the implementation of such a policy
does not require a complete change of the entire situation. It is of utmost
importance that the initiatives of the past have also contributed to the
reintroduction of physical education and school sport. In this regard, the newly
formed structures for sport and school sport provide a firm basis for the
incorporation of physical education and school sport. It is essential that
cooperation be sought at local, zonal, regional, provincial and national levels
(cf Chapter 4). The implementation of the policy will require ongoing
consultation within the various provinces. Working parties need to be
established in the suggested regions to coordinate the reintroduction and phasing
in of physical education and school sport within the post-apartheid educational
dispensation of South Africa.
o It is suggested that the phasing in of the new syllabus for physical education
coincides with implementation of the new syllabi from 1998-2001, as is
stipulated by the Government (cf 4.6.3.2). The phasing in should be as follows:
o 1998: Grades - One, Five, and Nine
o 1999: Grades - Two, Six, and Ten
o 2000: Grades -Three, Seven, and Eleven
o 2001: Grades- Four, Eight, and Twelve
Regarding school sport:
o By 2001 all schools should have included sport in Grades Three to Twelve
o Grades Three to Seven by 2000
o Grades Eight to Twelve by 2001
163
(2) That South African national policies for physical education and school sport
be rewritten and distributed as a matter of priority
The necessity of a national policy in both physical education and school sport for SA
should not be overlooked for the following reasons:
o Such a policy would recognise and provide in the strong educational and
community demand for a clear set of principles and guidelines which emphasise
the importance of physical education and sport in the curriculum.
o This policy could encourage a coordinated and cooperative delivery system for
physical education and school sport in the post-apartheid educational
dispensation.
o The Government has to support and facilitate sport nationally. This policy will
therefore, provide a major foundation for sport in South Africa.
o The purpose of this policy, would be to ensure the provision of opportunities
to develop and enrich the lives of all young South Africans through physical
education and sport.
o The policy would provide a framework and guideline for those responsible for
the development and organisation of physical education and school sport.
The aims of this policy could be translated into distinct objectives, namely to provide:
o the best opportunities in physical education and school sport for children to
enable the achievement of lifelong participation in sport (cf 3.4.1).
o adequate resources and facilities for the incorporation of physical education and
school sport (cf Chapter 4).
164
o an environment that is enjoyable; a wide variety of physical activities;
opportunities for the development of physical fitness, skills and good behaviour;
support and encouragement (cf 3.4).
o equal opportunities for all children of all races in South Africa in order to erase
past disparities (cf Chapter 4).
It is essential that policy makers should take cognisance of the following elements
when developing this policy. The suggested aspects are: the rights and responsibilities
of children; appropriate sports (choice and modified sport) ;competition structures; the
role of teachers and coaches (teacher training and qualifications); school and
community links; involvement of other interested parties (Government, parents,
officials, administrators, the media, and the private sector); and safety guidelines
(equipment and facilities, drugs in sport, stress, medical conditions).
(3) That the Minister of Education and the Minister of Sport and Recreation,
jointly support a promotion strategy for physical education and sport in
South African schools
o It is of utmost importance to publicise the successes schools have had in the
provision of physical education and school sport. It can be highlighted in an
ongoing way through events such as an Education Week; a Junior Sports Week,
and Youth Day. The Department of Sport and Recreation, together with a
physical education and school sport team should be the responsible for
developing this strategy.
o In addition, the Department of Sport and Recreation should work with the
Directorate of Education and Department of Health, to jointly undertake a
promotion campaign for physical education and school sport in the electronic
and pn·nt media. A well-planned campaign can effectively compliment the
physical education and school sports programme by supplementing existing
programmes. These programmes, however, should not be used as a replacement
165
for the physical education and school sports programmes. They will continue
to supplement physical education and school sport and be a valuable asset for
physical education teachers and sport coaches. It is suggested that major
companies within the private sector, be approached to become sponsors for
such a promotion strategy.
o It is suggested that the responsible parties explore and consider involving high
profile sports heroes to stress the benefits of lifelong fitness (cf 4.4.3).
D Another means of promoting physical education and school sport, is the
incorporation of Protea Sport programmes developed by the National Sports
Council. These programmes should be made available to all schools in South
Africa. By doing this, the aim of "Getting the nation to play" will be
achievable. This is important as the South African society as a whole has
undergone dramatic changes since the abolishment of the Group Areas Act and
the unification of the previous segregated education system (cf 1. 2.1 & 4. 3 .4).
It will help in the promotion of physical education and sport as important
components in a healthy lifestyle and improve their inclusion in the post
apartheid educational dispensation.
(4) That each school or educational institution develop a policy and plan for
the delivery of quality physical education and school sport programme in
South African schools on local level
o It is imperative to ensure that a mandatory physical education programme is
being delivered in all primary schools, which ensures the delivery of
fundamental motor skills. Fitness testing should be conducted on a regular basis
with the aim of improvement. Award systems should be designed to act as
motivation for children.
o Parents and interested community members should be supported and
encouraged to assist with the physical education and school sport programme
166
where possible. For this reason proper parent involvement programmes have
to be developed. The principal and staff must work together to improve the
fitness of the children. In the light of the needs and interests of children, and
with the aim to improved provision, of the choice of sports codes should be
reviewed each year. The international trends have a definite influence on the
choices children make in deciding their areas of participation.
o The physical education and school sports policies must be in accordance with
the national physical education and school sports policies. It goes without
saying that policy makers need to include the value of physical education and
sport for the child as discussed in this investigation. One, therefore, only needs
to highlight these values briefly: promotion of immediate and long-term
benefits; higher levels of fitness; better health; opportunities for competition;
promotion of nationalism; formation of positive attitudes towards oneself;
opportunities for socialising; involvement of the total human being; moulds
character and develops morals; sport serves as an educational tool (cf 3.4). The
multifarious value of sport also needs to be taken into consideration during the
policy-making proses; that is, educational, social, economic, psychological,
physiological, ethical and political values (cf 2.4).
(5) That structured and comprehensive programmes for implementation in
both primary and secondary schools of South Africa regarding compulsory
physical education and school sport be written.
o A diversity of aspects need to be taken into consideration when planning a
comprehensive and structured programme for the above mentioned areas. A
logical progression of experiences, which will assist all young children to
develop fitness, motor skills, knowledge and positive attitudes through physical
education and sport should be provided. Structuring a programme in accordance
with the development of the child is imperative. The overall development of the
child should be the prerequisite for the proper delivery of physical education
during early childhood education and the primary school phase. Chapter Three
167
(cf 3.2.2) elaborates extensively on this aspect. Programmes must suit the
physical development of the child (cf 3.2.2.1 & 3.2.2.2).
o Primary school physical education, and school sport should comply with the
child's basic requirements. Emphasis needs to be placed on the various foci of
human movement as identified by the Learning Area Committee (cf 4.6.4.2 and
Appendix 6); Accordingly the importance being: a healthy body, mind and
spirit; personal well-being; a healthy lifestyle; motor skills; physical activity;
safety, and fitness. School sport in the primary phase should be modified to suit
the needs of the child. The incorporation of the play is of utmost importance.
This includes: incorporating individual play; playing alongside each other and
playing in groups. Games and competitions should be introduced at a beginners
level.
o The secondary school physical education programme should include, for
example; skill development; development of fitness; leadership opportunities,
and career opportunities. A sport programme should include opportunities for
specific skill development; competition sport; leadership opportunities; career
opportunities; talent squads, and sport camps. Teachers and coaches need to
take cognisance of: the overall development of the adolescent (cf 3.2.2.1 &
3.2.2.2); individual differences, abilities and interests. The possibility of
opportunities for adolescents to qualify as coaches, umpires/referees, officials
and first-aid helpers will provide an incentive for the senior secondary school
child. This project has proved to be very successful in Australia (cf 5. 7 .2).
(6) That it is a priority that South African principals and teaching staff be
encouraged to cultivate a lifestyle of fitness and well-being
o Principals and teachers who experience and value the benefits of a healthy
lifestyle and fitness in life, provide good role models for pupils. Not only do
they perform better in their profession, but they offer enthusiastic support for
physical education and sport in the curriculum (cf 4.6.4.2).
168
o Teachers who are fit along with fit pupils will contribute to a whole-school
approach of fitness. The health of less active teachers needs to be addressed.
The Department of Education and the Department of Sport and Recreation
should look into a pilot programme for this purpose. Special rates should be
negotiated with local gymnasiums and recreation clubs, to assist them in their
efforts. Outside sponsors can be approached to help sponsor a gymnasium on
the school premises. This will enable the teaching staff and pupils to be actively
involved in physical activity.
(7) That teacher training and in-service training in South Africa receives top
priority
o It must be explicitly stated that school teachers in South Africa form a very
important part in the provision system of sport. Sport in Black schools, as a
result of apartheid, suffered an impediment, due to the apathy of teachers and
principals regarding the overall educational process. The lack of qualified staff
has to be dealt with (cf 4.6).
o Quality physical education and school sport is dependent on quality trained
teachers and coaches. They should have the necessary qualifications or training
to provide excellent learning experiences for children. Both education and
community organisations are responsible for such training. Educational
organisations entail teacher training institutions, educational authorities and
sporting associations. Community organisations include sport clubs, state and
national sporting bodies, the Department Sport and Recreation, and local
government organisations responsible for such training.
o It is vital, that well-written, easily accessible, and user friendly resources by
made available to teachers and coaches. Educational planners, officers of the
Department of Sport and Recreation, and the various role players in the sports
code need to develop high-quality material, possibly with the support of
sponsors from outside companies.
169
o In-service training courses should be encouraged to provide professional
development in order to maintain and develop skills of each professional group.
Level One coaching courses should be set as the minimum standard for coaches
coaching children's sport. Opportunities to further qualification opportunities
in Level Two and Level Three should be offered.
o Institutions should be identified to provide the highest quality physical education
and sport training for initial teacher training and refresher courses for teachers.
In this regard, distance education courses should be designed to help equip
teachers with the basic knowledge of physical education and sports coaching;
especially in the light of the large majority of the Black teachers in rural areas
who are enthusiastic and willing to teach physical education and undertake
coaching (cf 4.6.3). The course content should include a theoretical content as
well as practical requirements (an accredited course in a specific sport). The
theoretical content of courses must include, for example teaching children's
basic skills, group organisation, lesson planning, child development, safety
aspects, codes of behaviour, etc.
o Taking South Africa's opportunity of international participation into
consideration, the courses have to equip teachers and coaches with the
necessary knowledge in undertaking an overseas tour or participating in an
international meeting (cf 4.3.4.2 & 4.3.4.3). This will include the team
manager's role, the duties of a team chaperon, the role of the coach. Teachers
also need to acquire knowledge regarding characteristics of Modem era sport
(cf 2.2.1.5). The reason being, sport in general is far more specialised; the
pressure to win is more intense; competition structures are often complex, and
sportsmen are lured into using drugs to enhance their performances. Teachers
must be helped to cope with the mentioned situations.
o The theoretical content can be provided by identified distance educational
institutions. The presentation of practical requirements, however does pose a
problem. Group discussions and practical sessions by lecturers of institutions
170
could be considered. It is suggested that the various national/provincial
coaching bodies and experienced qualified teachers in collaboration with the
institutions offer these practical sessions.
o A national accreditation scheme for teachers and coaches should not be ignored.
Providing incentives for teachers and coaches will serve as a motivation for
those involved. Educational planners and the Department of Sport and
Recreation should look at financial incentives or the relevant promotion to
acknowledge their involvement. Once again sponsors should be approached for
this project. These recommendations could alleviate the current unwillingness
to coach and shortage experienced in staff (cf 1.2.3 & 4.6.3). Additionally,
incentives need to be provided for teachers involved in extra-curricula
activities. It is recommended that principals negotiate with the school governing
body to provide monetary compensation for teachers and coaches involved.
(8) That attention be given to the provision of financial resources and facilities
in the South African educational dispensation
o The scrapping of Government tax reductions for sponsors of physical education
and sport need to recalled as a matter of priority (cf 2.4. 7). Financial support
should be sought to provide adequate facilities and equipment for disadvantage
schools where physical education and sport was virtually non-existent. This can
be achieved by establishing an active an constructive sponsorship programme.
This will result in erasing the backlog in the provision of facilities and
equipment during the apartheid era (cf 1.2.3; 4.3.4.6 & 4.6.3).
o Companies within the private sector should be approached to sponsor schools
with, for example, soccer balls, netballs, cricket sets, tennis balls, etc. The
possibilities of providing a kit for each sport (resources, modified equipment,
rule books, etc), would erase the lack of equipment and resources. The
initiative of Aussie Sport in this regard has to be considered (cf 5. 7. 2).
171
o It is suggested that teachers and coaches be encouraged to make their own
equipment where possible. By involving the parents and members of the
community, valuable ideas can be obtained to make the most essential
equipment. The following can serve as examples: Wooden or steel poles can
be used to construct soccer goals, rugby posts, netball posts. Rolled up and
taped newspaper can serve as a ball. Coat hangers bent in the shape of a bat,
covered with a stocking can serve as a bat or racket to hit papers balls. Even
a bat cut out of wood, will serve its purpose. Principals, teachers, coaches and
pupils should be supplied with a general manual regarding the use and care of
facilities and equipment.
o Schools should liaise as to the sharing the available sport facilities. The local
community clubs need to be contacted to encourage the dual use of facilities not
occupied during the mornings. A timetable can be drawn up to accommodate
the various schools.
(9) That better links between schools and communities be developed in South
African communities
o The education department needs to look at strengthening its links with the
various sports bodies. Schools would benefit if they cooperate with clubs in
their area. Closer links will provide a smooth transition between schools and
community sports competitions. No school has unlimited resources. By working
together, they can reduce duplication and make the best use of the resources
available, whether it be facilities, qualified personnel or equipment.
o Sports associations in the same geographic area can also provide a wealth of
information and assistance to help teachers with a particular sport. They could
for example:
172
o o be invited to schools to provide information sessions on identified subjects (for
example, drugs in sport, how to liaise with the media, weight-training, skill
development, etc) ;
o o provide information on coaching courses and clinics being conducted for a
particular sport;
o o discuss career opportunities with older children;
o o provide advice on the appropriate modifications to a sport for a particular age
group;
o o provide printed resources to assist teachers teach a particular sport;
o o help in the institution of high profile players/athletes to speak at school
presentations and gala evenings. Both male and female, young and old, and
sports people from different ethnic groups should be invited;
o o provide coaches and so provide in this need often found in schools. Clubs are
able to help with the presentation of courses and clinics in order to help
teachers acquire the knowledge and skills needed for teaching skills and sports
coaching.
Teachers cannot be expected to have expertise in the teaching of every available
sport. Even the most skilled teachers can enhance their programmes, by providing
appropriate contact with community sport.
6.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The findings of this research on physical education and school sport, suggest the
following areas of priority in the search of further knowledge:
173
o how to evaluate the impact of the Protea Sport programme in order to access
the successfulness and the acceptance thereof;
o how to ascertain the willingness and commitment of teachers with regards to
coaching in the country. This would help to determine the various courses that
have to be designed for in-service and initial teacher training;
o how to determine the possibility of examinations and certification of promotions
for teachers. Suggestions regarding an acceptable model need to be
investigated;
o how to access the impact of parent involvement in sport and devise a training
programme for parents. Principals need to determine how to overcome the
shortage of coaches and helpers for sports programmes at each individual
school. The need also exists to design programmes that will educate parents
regarding the finer detail of coaching, for example, how to teach skills, correct
warming up exercises, etc;
o how to evaluate effectiveness of training and to determine how to make use of
senior secondary school pupils as coaches, officials, umpires and referees in
sport. Interested pupils could help to relieve in the shortage of coaches at the
primary schools;
o how to incorporate sports administration, sports coaching and physical
education courses, at distance education institutions in SA. The availability of
these suggested courses needs immediate attention so as to negate the shortage
of coaches;
o as how to involve the media in order to establish more effective links with the
community. Schools will benefit tremendously if they were to seek more media
coverage and thus improve their relationship with their communities. Physical
education teachers and sports organisers need to take an initiative in this regard.
174
6.6 PRECIS OF CONCLUSIONS
The findings of this study corroborate the following conclusions:
(1) Sport forms an essential part of the daily life of society.
(2) The comprehensive development of children is of undeniable importance.
(3) It needs to be accepted that Physical education and school sport should play an
integral part of the development of the child.
(4) Adequate financial resources is a sine qua non in the provision of sport.
(5) The complexity of the sports system, demands a professional and highly
efficient structure.
(6) Government involvement (not interference) should play and ever important role
in determining the provision of sport within the curriculum.
(7) Ongoing development, is of utmost importance for the provision of an effective
sports system.
(8) School principals and school teachers are key persons in the successful
implementation of any educational programme regarding sport.
(9) The local community should play a vital role in the implementation of an
educational programme which adequately incorporates aspects of physical
education and sport.
The attainment of a healthy and physically vigourous youth in society, is dependent
foremost on an adequate physical education and school sports programme. This will
provide all children with the opportunity to take part at all levels of competition.
175
Oschman (1986:7) and Osness (1992:356) emphasise the need for well-organised sport
and physical education at school level, which will ensure the development of sport,
throughout the life span of a person.
The justification for such a necessary provision can never be overrated, because
physical education and school sport are integral to sport and can not be excluded from
the curriculum. Physical education and sport therefore, should be seen as an aspect
of the educational function of the school. Both physical education and school sports
programmes need to be responsive to the needs and demands of the society in which
it exists. These needs should be aimed at the optimum physical, intellectual,
emotional and social development for a well-balanced personality.
APPENDICES
I GOVERNMENT
I ~ISTER OF SPORT AND
RECREATION
I =»ARTEMENT OF SPORT AND RECREATION
I PROVINCIAL
1VERNMENT MINISTERS OF SPORT (MEC's)
I PROVINCIAL
PARTMENTS OF SPORT
I SPORTS COUNCILS _OCAL AUTHORITIES
ORGANISATION OF SPORT SOUTH AFRICA
I NON-GOVERNMENT I
PRESIDENT OF NSC PRESIDENT OF NOCSA
l J NATIONAL SPORTS
NATIONAL OLYMPIC SPORTS FORUM
COUNCIL (NSC) COMMITTEE OF SOUTH
AFRICA (NOCSA)
I I 25 REGIONAL
STRUCTURES OF NSC NATIONAL FEDERATIONS
l 1 PROVINCIAL SPORTS REGIONAL SPORTS
FORUMS BODIES
I CLUBS
Adapted from Sport SA Warehouse 1996:9
)> "'C
~ ::l c. )(' ~
.... -...1 -...1
MEMBERSHIP BASE
NATIONAL MEMBERS + NOCSA + NAPCOSA
NATIONAL FEDERATION
I NATIONAL SPORTS COUNCIL OF SOUTH AFRICA I I GENERAL ASSEMBLy I
I COUNCIL I
EXECUTIVE AND MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
I NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
I NATIONAL OFFICE
MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE HEADQUARTERS(CEO)
I STANDING COMMITTEES
L.....--
f A~SO~IATE M~MB~RS ·1 Strategy
REGIONAL STRUCTURES Development
Scientific and Medical
+ 9 Prov. Councils Womens Sport
+ 25 Regions Commonwealth All Africa Games
Adapted from NSC 1996
I
I
> "C "C CD ::l c. )(" N
"""" -....1 QO
179 ( Appendix 3)
STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL SPORT AT SCHOOL LEVEL
CODE CONVENOR CODE CONVENOR NETBALL ATHLETICS
NETBALL ATHLETICS
Managers Managers Umpires Officials Coaches Coaches First-Aid First-Aid
House Masters House Masters Team Captains Team Captains
Delegates Delegates
TEAMS TEAMS in various age in various age
divisions divisions
Adanted from USSASA 1004:11
PRINCIPAL
SPORTS MASTER
CODE CONVENOR SOCCER
SOCCER
Managers Referees Coaches First-Aid
House Masters Team Captains
Delegates
TEAMS in various age
divisions
CODE CONVENOR RUGBY
RUGBY
Managers Referees Coaches First-Aid
House Masters Team Captains
Delegates
TEAMS in various age
divisions
CODE CONVENOR CODE CONVENOR TENNIS CRICKET
TENNIS CRICKET
Managers Managers Umpires Umpires Coaches Coaches First-Aid First-Aid
House Masters House Masters Team Captains Team Captains
Delegates Delegates
TEAMS TEAMS in various age in various age
divisions divisions
180 ( Appendix 4 J REGIONAL, LOCAL AND ZONAL STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL SPORT
BORDER NETBALL
K.W.T. NETBALL
LOCAL NETBALL
BORDER ATHLETICS
K.W.T. ATHLETICS
LOCAL ATHLETICS
BORDER SCHOOLS ALL SPORTS
ASSOCIATION
BORDER SOCCER
BORDER RUGBY
K.W.T. SCHOOLS ALL SPORTS ZONE
K.W.T. SOCCER
K.W.T. RUGBY
LOCAL ALL SPORTS STRUCTURE
LOCAL SOCCER
SCHOOL
LOCAL RUGBY
BORDER TENNIS
K.W.T. TENNIS
LOCAL TENNIS
BORDER CRICKET
K.W.T. CRICKET
LOCAL CRICKET
~ I BORDER I KEI SCHOOLS ~ SPORTS ASSOCIATION
"t:l lit l:l._
~ c ;:§
§ ~ z ~ SOUTH CAPE SCHOOLS )> = '-' SPORTS ASSOCIATION
--IC I en
'C) •en -~
m)> 0
=!en '-'
O)> z
en WESTERN PROVINCE en
,.. .... SCHOOLS SPORTS (J)
ASSOCIATION 0-oc z ~
,oz 0 (J) .... o- :::a (J):;:u_ () ,:cz
BOLAND SCHOOLS ~ ~' 1\~0~rrl (J) morri c
SPORTS ASSOCIATION I )> n
~-c)> CJ oo:::u .... --1(/)(J) mrz c .... :C(J)() :::0(1))> :::a QC
)>(J)--1 .... SOUTHERNTRANSVAAL ~ /J' ~~)>O:c SPORTS ASSOCIATION I )>,oo z --1-oo m
:::0)>0 (J) Ooz 0
0--lr () Z:;:u)> ""1'1
)>0(/) (J) --lr
EASTERN TRANSVAAL r 111 )> (J) ~
SCHOOLS SPORTS z n ASSOCIATION
:::c 0 0
NORTHERN TRANSVAAL ~ I I CHOOLS SPORTS
.... ASSOCIATION
~ -a 0
SOUTHERN NATAl r 1 == )>
SCHOOLS SPORTS "C
ASSOCIATION "C CD ::::s c.
NORTHERN FREE STATE ~ SCHOOLS SPORTS I
)('
ASSOCIATION en
FOCUSES OF LIFE ORIENTATION
ing, thinking I I Wonderoflife I Tenets I Realistic goa1s I Healthy body, mind and spirit
sion-making Natural heritage Spiritual needs Abilities/ limitations, Personal well-being >lem-solving talents and potentials
ming Universe Religious diversity Opportunities Healthy lifestyle
ecting, analysing Challenges Belief system Unique individuals Motor skills municating information
ttifying I I (a) Cultural I Faith I Identity, self-concept I Physical activity
.fidence, positive self- (b) Environmental Almighty Quality of life, I Safety :ept personal safety
ponsible, appropriate Healthy relations I Fitness iuct
Personal development . I and growth
pted /rom Learning Area Committee 1996:124
Richness of society
Human and civil rights, democracy
Ubuntu, human dignity
Policies and laws
I Ideological & political systems
I Safety (community)
I Families, groups and communities
Informed decision-making
Self-knowledge
I Evaluate information
I Challenges in real life situations
I Enhance potentia), talents
I Identify opportunities
~ thics
I
)> "C
i ::s c. s:c· en
.... QC N
.MARY: PHYSICAL EDUCATION POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STATE SCHOOLS
::e a b c d e f g h
Personal Development, I Yes Yrs 7-12 Health and PE
PE under Personal I No Development
Health and PE Policy for I PE is a core subject P-10 developed but not released
PE under Health and I Yes Personal Development
PE under Health I Primary level only
PE under Health I Core curriculum K-12. Mandated Yrs 9-12
PE under Health I Yes
PE under Health for K-10 I Yes but no consistency about what years it is mandated for
SubmissionNo 216, Hobart Declaration on Schooling
100 hrs in Yrs 7-12 I No
3 x 30 mins Yrs K-7 I 156 full-time and 76 part-time
3 periods/week in Yrs 7- 1149 in primary and 12 special schools
No No
Yr 1 - 90 mins PE & sport. Itinerant- responsible for Yr 7-140 mins PE, Yr 8- several schools 10 80 hrslyear
100 or 150 hrs over Yrs 85 % of primary schools 9-12 have access to a PE
specialist
A contradictory policy. 45 I No min-1 Hr/dayfor PE, and 1 Hr 40 mins Health and PEfweek
No I No
I 1 curriculum support person
PE Branch abolished 1992
PE Branch abolished in 1992
Support staff reduced from 25to 2
PE Branch abolished
Reorganisation. Sport rosters now devised by Sport & Recreation
PE support staff reduced to2
I 3 officers in Sports Administration Unit
Submission No 55, p 18, Submission No 109, p 2, Evidence, pp 573, 581, Advice from NSW Department of School Education 15/12192 Submission No 58, p 4, Submission No 60, p 1, Submission No 55, p 19, Submission No 207, p 10 Submission No 12, p 2, Submission No 96, p 6, Evidence, pp 125, 127, 138, 139, 144 Evidence, pp 363, 372, 376, 383, 385, Submission No 57, p 3, Submission No 112, p 3 Evidence, pp 521-523, Submission No 57, p 3, Submission No 112, p 3, Submission No 94, p 21, Submission No 186, p 3 Evidence, p 234, 239, Submission No 59, pp 1, 3 Submission No 55, p 18, Submission No 103, pp 3 - 4 Submission No 190, pp 2, 9, Submission No 45, p 6
pted /rom Senate Standing Committee:24
I
~ "C CD :::l c. )(' ......
~ QC CM
;UMMARY: SPORT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STATE SCHOOLS
Sport under I Yes 12 hrs per week I Notstated I No I None I Y~, but under I Ye~, but under Personal rev1ew reVIew Development
QLD- I Policy to be Yes Yes Parallel !Yes I Encouraged I Yes I Yes released 1. 1. 93 competitions
SA- I Junior Sports Yes Yes Single sex Yes Encouraged Yes, but no I Interstate at Policy competition- competitive Secondary Level
mixed classes sport _I
WA- I Sport under PE Yes Yes Not stated Not stated Encouraged Yes, but no Secondary only I ~ QO
& Health interstate but few funds ,. TAS' I Sport a Yes Not usually Not stated Yes Required for all Not in school No
community teachers & time responsibility community
members involved
No sport policy I Yes I Usually I Notstated I Yes I Encouraged I Yes I Yes, but costs borne by parents
Sport as part of Yes Yes, but mostly Not stated Yes Teachers Yes Yes, but under PE outside encouraaed review
5ource a Submission No 109, pp2, 3, 9, 18, 21, Evidence, pp 576,577,585,595,596 b Submission No 21, p 2, Evidence, p 679, Submission No 192, p 6, Letter to Committee 7.12.92 c Evidence, pp 133, 137, 138, Submission No 56, p 4, Submission No 189, p 15, 24,25 d Evidence, pp 368, 369, 382, 393, Submission No 48, p 1 )> e Submission No 112, pp 4 - 11, Evidence, p 485, 487, Submission No 94, p 4, Submission No 186, pp 3 -4 "'C f Submission No 59, pp 1, 3, Evidence, pp 238, 253 "'C g Submission No 217, p 8, Information provided through Curriculum Assessment DMsion, NT Department of Education CD h Submission No 190, pp 2- 3, 6, 7, 9, Evidence, p 865 ~ c.
Adapted /rom Senate Standing Committee:26 I~
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE: THE AUSTRALIAN SPORTS COMMISSION
Mission Statement
ommission Objectives
Division Objectives
AUSTRALIAN II SPORTS II NSTITUTE OF DEVELOP-
Centre & I SPORT MENT Council
Objectives
I I SE~ONS I
I I
SECTIONS COUNCIL
Program Head Coaches • Sports Objectives Elite Sports Particiipation
Elite Athlete Services • Australian Educ & Welfare Coaching Council
• Policy & International Relations
MINISTER
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
II SPORTS II SPORTS I MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
I SE~TION I I CE~ES I
• Sports Funding • Sports Science & • National Sports Sports Medicine
• National Sports Research Centre • Health Mgt Centre
Adapted /rom: The Australian Sports Commission Report 1994:7
Strategic Plan
Portfolio Budget Measures Statements
I CommonweaHh
AduH I
Internal Audit
I Portfolio Evaluation
I Annual Report
Annual Operational
"'""' QO ua
I CORPORATE II MARKETING ''INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SERVICES
Plan
I
I SEC;IONS II SEC~ONS I
• Human Resources • Marketing • Financial Services • Public Relations • Commercial • Australian Sports Operations Foundation • Assets and Property • Computing • Planning & Review
CENTRE SECTIONS
• National Sport Information Centre • Publications • Records Management
Business -
Plans
Management
)> "'C "'C CD ::s c. ;c· CD
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