PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES ...
Transcript of PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES ...
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES
BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:
A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
In English Language Studies
Gerald John Mallya
Student Number: 166332017
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2018
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
i
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES
BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:
A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
In English Language Studies
Gerald John Mallya
Student Number: 166332017
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2018
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A THESIS
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES
BORROWED f,'ROM STAIIDARD SWAIIILI:
A CIIAGGA. ENGLISH COMPARATTYE STUDY
{€ =ffi*^*ol- W 'oq*r
N fi e! lryri \\ -3by
Gerald John Mallya
Student Number: 166332017Student Number: 166332017
Approved by
Dr.B.B.Ilwiiatmoko. M.A.
Thesis Advisor
fr ru*ftYogyakarta, April 3d, 2018
\
11
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A THESIS
PHONOLOGICALPROCESSESINCHAGGANATIVIZEDLEXEMESBoRRowED
FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:
A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY
Presented by
Gerald John MallYa
Student Number 166332017
Defended before the Thesis Committee
and Declared AccePtable
,1THESIS COMMITEE I
)
: Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. {-Chair Person
Secretary
Members
: Dr.B.B.Dwijatmoko, M-A-
: 1. F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
z.Dr. Fr. B. AliP. MPd. MA
Yogyakarta, April 20th, 201 8
The Graduate Program Director
S anata Dharma UniversitY
'4 /1 il/1,/t/n/ WbL^ {/
{,
Dr. G. Budi Subanar, S.J.
111
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY
This is to certifz that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are
the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full
consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else's idea, phrase, or
sentence without a proper reference.
Yogyakarta,The Writer
m"\^Gerald John Mallya
166332017
iv
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK
Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Gerald John Mallya
NomorMahasiswa :166332017
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karyailmiah saya yang berjudul:
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES
BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:
A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada PerpustakaanSanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk
med.ia lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikanya secara
terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan
akademis tanpa perlu minta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya
selama tetap mencantumkan narna saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pemyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada Tanggal: 05 Maret, 2018
Yang menyatakan,
Stb(Gerald John Mallya)
v
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher would gratefully first acknowledge the great grace of God for
completion of this study. Secondly much gratitude goes to St. Augustine University of
Tanzania administration for the scholarship managed by Hon. Rev. Dr. Thadeus
Mkamwa (The Vice Chancellor), and the Tanzanian Episcopal Conference (TEC) for
the academic and financial support. This study is at stake due to the greatest
enlightenment done by my thesis advisor Dr. B.B.Dwijatmoko, M.A. It is his academic
intelligence and generosity that have made this phonological empirical study to be
academically promising. The researcher is also aware of prominent academic help hence
feels indebted to, Drs. F.X Mukarto PhD, Dr. E. Sunarto M.Hum, phonological
enlightenment by Dr. F.B Alip MPd, MA., Drs. Paulus Sarwoto PhD, Drs. Novita Dewi
PhD, M.Hum and Marnie SJ for her administrative assistance.
The author also acknowledge the Head of Kiswahili Department at St. Augustine
University Dr. Riro Matinde for academic and administrative support. As well as Mr.
Mashaka Ngw`aje, Musa Nasibu, madam Mariane Koki Munyao, Wisni Yuliastuti, Mr.
Bakari Chongowe, madam Zena Machinde, Marry Mushi, Aggnes Gwaltu for their
academic and financial assistance. Furthermore would like to acknowledge, Listiana
Ikawati, Juma Imamu, Mashao Elizabeth, Octovianus Rojack and Maria Rosalia
Planaria for their technical assistance, Leah Lawi, Irene Massawe for financial
assistance and holistic assistance.
Special acknowledgement go direct to my gorgeous mother Ms. Veneranda John
Massawe. Kindly I would also present my gratitude to all students of my batch and the
seniors at Sanata Dharma University. Thanks to everyone who is not mentioned but
should have been.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................................ ii
DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE ................................................................................... iii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ........................................................... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN ............................................................. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ....................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................. xiv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. xv
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................................... xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background to the Study ............................................................................................ 6
1.3 Statement of the Research Problem ............................................................................ 9
1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................ 10
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
viii
1.6 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Review of Related Studies .................................................................................. 13
2.2 Review of Related Theories ..................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis ............................................................................................ 19
2.2.2 Consonant Deletion ......................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Cluster Tolerance ............................................................................................. 20
2.2.4 Feature Change ................................................................................................ 21
2.3 Theoretical Framework............................................................................................. 23
2.3.1 Generative CV Phonology ............................................................................... 23
2.3.2 The Foundation of the Theory ......................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Theory Implication for the Study .................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Type of Study ........................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Source and number of data ....................................................................................... 31
3.3 Data Collection and Data Selection .......................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Interviews ........................................................................................................ 31
3.3.2 Voice Note ....................................................................................................... 32
3.3.3 Introspection .................................................................................................... 32
3.3.4 Sample size ...................................................................................................... 33
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ix
3.4 Data Presentation ...................................................................................................... 34
3.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................ 35
3.6 Result verification .................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Sounds of Chagga ..................................................................................................... 38
4.1.1 Chagga Vowels ................................................................................................ 38
4.1.2 Long Vowels in Chagga .................................................................................. 41
4.1.3 Chagga Consonants ......................................................................................... 43
4.2 Chagga Syllable Structure ........................................................................................ 48
4.2.1 Consonant Cluster at lexeme Initial Position .................................................. 50
4.2.2 Consonant Cluster at the Word Middle Position ............................................. 51
4.2.3 Consonant cluster at word final position ......................................................... 51
4.3 Phonological Processes of Nativized Lexeme in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of
Chagga ............................................................................................................................ 52
4.3.1 Phonological Processes Motivated by Syllable Structure Rules ..................... 52
4.3.2 Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Affects Syllable....................... 60
4.3.3 Assimilation ..................................................................................................... 66
4.3.4 Phonological Processes Motivated by Phonemic Reasons .............................. 79
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 92
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
x
5.2 Suggestions for Further Research ............................................................................. 96
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 98
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 101
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Chagga Vowel Sounds .............................................................................. 39
Table 2. Chagga Consonants .......................................................................................... 44
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Types of tier in Syllable Structure [Cited from Clements Keyser 1983] ........ 24
Figure 2: Vowel Shortening ........................................................................................... 25
Figure 3: Apocope in Swahili Language ........................................................................ 26
Figure 4: Vowel Sequencing .......................................................................................... 28
Figure 5: Gliding due to Phonemic change .................................................................... 28
Figure 6: Phonemic change ............................................................................................ 28
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
CV: Consonant Vowel
PSSRs: Phonological Syllable Structure Rules
RL: Recipient Language
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: The Interview Guide Questions ............................................................... 102
Appendix 2: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga- Noun Category 103
Appendix 3: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga - Verb Category 107
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xv
ABSTRACT
Gerald John Mallya. 2018. Phonological Processes in Chagga Nativized Lexemes
Borrowed from Standard Swahili: A Chagga - English Comparative Study.
Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma
University
Linguistics as a present study, acts as an instrument towards promoting local
languages. This recent study aims at studying some of phonological processes in
Chagga language (Particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties). Chagga is a Bantu
language family of Benue Congo spoken by Chagga people of Tanzania, south of
Mount Kilimanjaro. Borrowing is the act of taking a word or a phrase from one
language and used it in another language. The borrowing process influences the
researcher into empirical searching for the phonological processes in Chagga language
brought about this linguistic phenomenon.
The present study is carried out under Generative CV Phonology Theory,
developed by linguists, Keyser and Clements in (1983). This theory strives to guide the
present study on scrutinize phonological processes with their rules in Kibosho and
Marangu varieties. The very study is the phonological type of study which employs
qualitative method to scrutinize phonological processes of nativized loanwords in
Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language, from Standard Swahili language.
The study employs Interview to observe the pronunciation by native speakers, voice
note as linguistic variable need for homogenous resemblance of the uttered lexical items
and the phonological processes. The researcher applies introspection for cognitive and
empirical observation.
To address research question one, two and three the study discovered that
Chagga language has twenty four phonemes comprising five vowels and nineteen
consonants in all Chagga varieties. Chagga has the syllable general structure of `CCV`
constituting a nasal phoneme, an oral phoneme and a vowel. To answer research
question one and two as the rules the study observed there are four major causes of
phonological processes in Chagga as in English with very little variations namely:
Phonological processes motivated by syllable structure rules [insertion], Phonological
processes in Chagga language affecting syllable [deletion, rhotacism], Phonological
processes due to assimilation process [dissimilation, voicing, partial and distant
assimilation] and Phonological processes motivated by phonemic reasons [devoicing,
diaffricatazation, consonant substitution, cluster tolerance, vowel lengthening]. In
adhering problem three the study has found similar phonological processes between
English and Chagga with very little differences especially on phonemes which undergo
the changes hence advocates for further analyses in local African and Asian languages
to pursue a similar study or any nearly phonological study in order to preserve and
promote local linguistics contents from ones native language.
Key words: Phonological processes, Nativazation, Phonological rules, Chagga language
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
xvi
ABSTRAK
Gerald John Mallya. 2018. Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Nativized
Lexemes Borrowed from Standard Swahili: A Chagga - English Comparative Study.
Yogyakarta: Program Pascasarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Linguistik sebagai penelitian saat ini, penelitian ini bertindak sebagai instrumen
untuk memajukan bahasa-bahasa lokal. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti
beberapa proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga (terutama varietas Kibosho dan
Marangu). Chagga adalah bahasa Bantu yang merupakan rumpun dari Benua Congo
yang dipakai oleh orang Chagga di Tanzania, sebelah selatan Gunung Kilimanjaro.
Proses borrowing mempengaruhi peneliti dalam penelitian empiris terhadap proses-
proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga yang membawa fenomena linguistik ini.
Penelitian ini dilakukan berdasarkan Generative CV Phonology Theory yang
dikembangkan oleh ahli bahasa, Keyser dan Clements pada (1983). Teori ini berperan
dalam memandu penelitian ini dalam meneliti proses-proses fonologi dengan rumusnya
dalam variasi Kibosho dan Marangu. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian fonologi yang
menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk meneliti proses-proses fonologi dari nativized
loanwords dalam dialek Kibosho dan Marangu dalam bahasa Chagga, dari Bahasa
standar Swahili. Penelitian ini menggunakan interview untuk mengamati pelafalan oleh
penutur asli, voice note sebagai variabel linguistik yang diperlukan untuk kemiripan
homogen dari kosa kata dan proses-proses fonologi yang disampaikan. Peneliti
menggunakan instropeksi untuk pengamatan kognitif dan empiris.
Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa bahasa Chagga memiliki 24 fonem yang terdiri
dari 5 huruf vokal dan 19 huruf konsonan di semua variasi Chagga. Chaga memiliki
struktur umum kosa kata ‗CCV‘ yang terdiri dari nasal fonem, oral fonem, dan huruf
vokal. Dengan teori Generative CV, di temukan bahwa terdapat 4 penyebab utama
proses-proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga sebagaimana dalam bahasa Inggris dengan
sedikit variasi yaitu: proses fonologi yang disebabkan oleh rumus struktur kosa kata
[insertion], proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga yang mempengaruhi suku kata
[deletion, rhoticism], proses fonologi karena proses asimilasi [dissimilation, voicing
partial, and distant assimilation] dan proses fonologi yang disebabkan oleh alasan
fonemik [devoicing, diaffrication, consonan substitution, cluster tolerance, vowel
lengthening]. Kesimpulannya, penelitian ini menemukan proses-proses fonologi yang
mirip antara bahasa Inggris dan Chagga. Penelitian ini menganjurkan analisis lebih
lanjut dalam bahasa Asia untuk mencapai penelitian yang serupa atau penelitian
fonologi yang serupa untuk memperkuat bahasa asli.
Kata kunci: Proses-proses fonologi, Nativazation, Rumus –rumus fonologi, Bahasa
Chagga.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The at hand study observes an English-Chagga comparative study. The chapter
includes research background and an overall introduction of the study. It observes
research background and the statement of the problem. Furthermore it discusses
research objectives, research questions, and research assumptions, significance of the
study also the scope and limitations of the study. Chagga is a Bantu language spoken by
Chagga people of Tanzania, south of Mount Kilimanjaro. Chagga people are also called
Wachaga, Jagga, Dschaga, and Waschaga (Mushi 2005). This language is categorized
into Bantu language families, as an indigenous African; language spoken by the third
largest ethnic group in Tanzania. Chagga people are traditionally living in the southern
and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and near Moshi. Dialect
continuum is a range of dialects spoken across some natural area that differ only slightly
between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences
accumulate such that the speech from opposite ends of the continuum is no longer
mutually intelligible.
Chagga people descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from the
east of Africa into the foothills of Kilimanjaro. Linguistic evidence proves that the
migration of these individuals predominantly came from the north and east of
Kilimanjaro (Lema 1973). Lema claims that, after Chagga arrival the development of
chiefdoms emerged whereby each of the overriding chiefdoms developed their speech
traditions emerged was not a unified Chagga language but a variety of dialects of the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2
2
same language. That is why these people have several dialects while they are all Chagga
people, staying in the same geographical location. Though there are no clear proofs
about how these people arrived at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro, it is estimated that
their arrival was gradually happened until they are fully established.
There is no evidence of a mass migration to Kilimanjaro; it appears
that small groups of wandering people came to settle gradually on the
mountain at different times and are incorporated into the population.
Famine, drought or political instability forced them to leave their
homes searching for food, better pastures, and higher rainfall areas
and more secure subsistence farming (Lema, 1973).
Chagga people descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from elsewhere in
Africa to the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro. The migration began around the beginning of
11th
century (Mushi 2005). Their language is related to Kamba of north-east Kenya and
Dabida, Pokomo in the east. Mushi further says that the Chagga people live at the foot
of the famous and tallest mountain in Africa Mount Kilimanjaro.
The Chagga ethnic group has their homeland around southern slopes of Mount
Kilimanjaro, on the Tanzanian side of the Kenya and Tanzania border (Fisher (2012).
Chagga population is difficult to estimate because of the migration from Kilimanjaro to
urban and rural areas elsewhere in Tanzania. Fisher gave an example on how 2002
census gives the population of the Chagga dominated districts of Moshi Rural, Rombo
and Hai giving a total population of 908,868, since the population of Moshi Urban is of
more mixed ethnicity though mostly comprises of the descendants, and is given as
144,336 people. Furthermore, within most of the literature and self-observation, Chagga
people themselves readily are acquainted with the situation of diverse origins away from
Kilimanjaro.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3
3
Early migration of the Bantu from the Niger – Congo led the Chagga to settle in
the North Pare Mountains, home of the ancestral Chagga (Mtalo & Rubagumya 2015).
As the increase in demography, some of descendants looked for a new place to live.
They later settled in the Southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro which was a
thick forest by then. All these movements contributed to lexical addition and reduction.
The Chagga phonemes have all parameters of Bantu languages specifically in its
phonological features. Thereafter, comprehending Chagga phonological system
particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties act as a helpful language instrument for the
research to make a deep analysis of Phonological Processes of Nativized words in
Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga from Standard Swahili. Through this the
researcher observed which features are reassigned from Swahili to Chagga, and those
which are not. Sounds of Chagga are derived from field data as the researcher could not
find enough materials on Chagga since there is no enough phonological documentation
of the researched language.
The phonological parameters used to categorize vowels in Chagga language with
its varieties are the same as those applied in English language which marks a similarities
within a comparative study as: tongue height, tongue position and lip shape. In English
language as well as Chagga language the tongue height parameter is concerned with
raising part of the tongue involved when producing a vowel sound. Similarly to vowels,
Chagga has the various consonant sounds in its phonemic inventory. Stops [/ p /, / b/, /t/,
/ d/ and / k/], nasals / m, n. ɳ and ŋ/ fricatives [/ f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/], one affricate /
ʧ/. Also the lateral / l / and the trill / r/ and /w and y/. In Chagga language especially in
Kibosho variety glides cannot function as syllable nuclear without a vowel. Sounds of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4
4
Chagga are derived from field data as the researcher could not find enough materials on
Chagga since there is no enough phonological documentation of the researched
language.
The study exceeds other Chagga dialects including, Machame, Mochi Dialect,
Uru dialect and Rombo dialect, which said to borrow also from Standard Swahili. The
researcher focuses on Kibosho and Marangu dialects which shares the same
geographical boundaries, which enabled him to congregate synchronized data. The
study limits itself into analyzing Phonological Processes of nativized words in Chagga
language borrowed from Standard Swahili. Moreover, this study is limited only on
phonological processes of nativized words specifically on vowel epenthesis, consonant
deletion, cluster tolerance and feature change.
The phonological processes taking place on Chagga loanwords nativization are
caused by different factors. Such factors are phonological processes that occur due to
phonemic reason. Second, group of phonological processes is triggered by non-
assimilation and assimilation rules. The third are the phonological changes that are
motivated by Chagga PSSRs. Phonological processes motivated by syllable structure
conditions as in English, also occur on Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga
loanwords in that the loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological level is
governed by syllable well-formedness in the RL. The phonological processes involved
are aimed at realizing well-formed or permissible syllables in a given language. For
example in Kibosho and Marangu varieties, the phonological processes include segment
deletion, insertion and substitution. The study is restricted in analyzing Phonological
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5
5
processes that involved in Marangu and Kibosho dialects. The researcher uses five
prominent respondents two from Marangu and three from Kibosho.
Chagga language is classified by Guthrie (1948) as a language belonging to
Niger – Congo class under the Bantu language family. Chagga language is classified as
a language that belongs to Niger-Congo; Atlantic-Congo, Volta- Congo, Benue-Congo,
Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Chagga. Another classification claims
that, Bantu languages into language families that show genetic relationships (Greenberg
2009), as the historical criteria. Greenberg believes that languages share a common
ancestor by making a list of words in the potential languages that exhibit lexical and
grammatical similarities meaning to say, they are similar in sound and meaning. He
used Niger-Congo to cover the whole family as the proto languages of Bantu languages
with Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga being included.
Chagga language has six dialects namely Marangu, Kibosho, Rombo, Machame, Uru,
and Old Moshi. Chagga people speak various Kichagga dialects as their first languages
(Mushi 2005). One of these dialects, specifically Marangu, was standardized as the
Chagga standard variety.
Kirombo, Kimashami, Kikibosho, Kiuru, Kimochi, and Kivunjo are varieties of
the same language namely Kichagga since they are small in size as they are spoken in a
single geographical area (Mtalo & Rubagumya 2015). For instance, Kikibosho is
spoken in Kibosho ward only, Kimarangu is spoken in Marangu ward only. Thus, each
variety has a few numbers of speakers to consider it as an independent language.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
6
6
1.2 Background to the Study
This study is brought about by the foundations of borrowing phenomenon as the
word formation process. It is defined as the act of taking a word or a phrase from one
language and used it in another language. Mwaliwa confer on levels of borrowing, as,
pure or adopted borrowing and adjusted or adapted borrowing (2014). The concept of
pure borrowing as a type of borrowing involves taking the word in the recipient
language without making any structural alterations in the word whereas adjusted
borrowing as a type of borrowing whereby the loanword undergoes significant
structural changes when it gets into the recipient language. These two categories of
borrowing occur in all languages, depending on the structure of the languages involved.
Furthermore asserts that pure borrowing will take place if the structure of the Source
Language is similar to the structure of the Recipient Language.
On the other hand, the structure of the Source Language is different from the
structure of the Recipient Language there will be adjusted borrowing will occur in that
loanwords are usually modified to conform to the structure of Recipient Language. In
addition, the recipient language adopts loanwords in order to fill semantic or stylistic
slots not occupied by native words (Mutua 2007). Thus, there are some cases where
loanwords co-occur with native forms as doublets. Such linguistic phenomena is
referred as core borrowing and it is, in most cases, motivated by the prestige attached to
the donor language when imported from a source to a borrowing language, loanwords
often contain structures that violate phonological well-formed constraints of the
borrowing language. Consequently, the beneficiary language typically modifies the new
items in keeping with the pre-existing structure of the language. Mutua also observes
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7
7
that although languages share some basic sound characteristics, no language has exactly
the same sound patterns as the other. The phonemic inventories and syllable structures
of languages vary considerably. For example, most Bantu languages have a preference
of open syllables.
In the study of language borrowing, one of the types of borrowings may occur
across language boundaries. The speakers of a language have various options when
confronted with new items and ideas in other languages. Borrowing has the nature in the
sense that speakers may adopt the item or idea and the source language word for each
(Hoffer 2005). This nature of borrowing he termed it as Loanword. These forms now
function in the usual grammatical processes, with nouns taking plural and/or possessive
forms of the new language and with verbs and adjectives receiving native morphemes as
well. Another process that occurs is that of adapting native words to the new meanings
(loan shift) further gave another nature which is Loan-translation where morphemes of
borrowed words are translated item by item in the borrowing language. On the other
hand loan blend is defined as mixed borrowing as there is an element of mixing
characteristics of borrowing and lending languages. Phonological processes affect
nativazation in order for a linguistic item to incorporate features of received language.
The phonological processes of loanword in Bantu languages undergo various
phonological processes (Gardner 2012). He said that when two vowels come together,
various phonological processes can occur to remove the hiatus, including: high vowels
becoming glides, vowel deletion/elision, and vowel coalescence/merging resulting in a
long or short vowel, and even glide insertion usually at the phonetic level. He believed
that Glide formation is common in many Bantu languages like Swahili for the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8
8
underlying /m(u)-/ to be realized phonetically as /mw-/ before a noun stem beginning
with a vowel, as in;
a) /mu-aka/ (mwaka) Year
Bantu languages maintain a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels, which
results into compensatory vowel lengthening following glide formation or before a
prenasalized consonant (Gardner 2012). It also provides prove of the subsistence of a
metrical tier distinct from the segmental. When two vowels come together, one vowel
may delete or a long vowel /e: / may merge with a high vowel, resulting in a mid-vowel
(such as /a + i/ /o :/) and /a + u/ which he term it as vowel merging and deletion
whereby the result may be long or short vowel. Language incorporates linguistic feature
from another language for some reasons. However, through the process of borrowing,
loanwords acquire features of that particular language.
Loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological level is governed by
syllable well-formed in the recipient language (Mwita 2009). When a word is borrowed
from one language to another, in most cases it violates some constraints of syllable
well-formed. The recipient language moves fast to fix the problem. He gave an
example, by saying that many languages try to avoid complex onsets and codas. He
explains how loanwords from Arabic fit into syllable structure of Swahili language
therefore it uses to revamp the nonconforming syllables of the borrowed words like:
Cluster tolerance, Feature change, Vowel epenthesis and Consonant deletion.
It is phonology that determines which combinations are permitted and which
ones are not in any given language/sound patterns of the phonological hierarchy can
combine. Hence the study strives to establish the means by which the words of the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9
9
addressee system deals with phonologically diverse lexical borrowed from the
benefactor languages.
1.3 Statement of the Research Problem
Phonological adjustment of loanwords is a fundamental process accurate to all
languages. Nevertheless since the status of universal constraints is language specific, it
is important to institute the machinery used by Chagga to indicate how words from
Standard Swahili are nativized by focusing on the possible modification the loanwords
undergo in order to conform to the phonotactics of Chagga. Even though Chagga
language has the mechanism of adapting loanwords into its system, other factors have
made it retain the phonotactics of the donor language leading to changes in its
phonology. Meaning to say, the operation of phonological processes on Chagga
loanwords, triggered by some phonological or non-phonological factors, has led to
changes in the phonology of Chagga language that are worth investigating.
Because Chagga language has not been researched much as English language
and others Bantu languages, the study proposes to investigate phonological processes of
nativized words that may occur in Chagga language, particularly Marangu and Kibosho
dialects of the mentioned language by exploring the phonological rules that may take
place in its Phonology.
Prominent linguistics scholars discussed the phonological processes that take
place in different Bantu languages such as Ci-Ruuri and Swahili languages (Massamba,
2010). Having reviewing different researches done by various scholars, the study of
phonological processes of nativized words become a point of interest in Chagga
language and with clear attention on two major dialects as Marangu which said to be
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10
10
standardized variety of Chagga language and Kibosho dialect, that have not been
researched according to the best of my knowledge as I could not come across with any
related materials concerning phonological processes.
Most of scholars focus on Generative Phonology which could not capture certain
features bigger than the segment, such as tone, vowel harmony, and syllables. The
generative phonology never considered the syllable to have a role in the phonological
organization. Hence, the study focuses explicitly on the phonological processes of
nativized words that take place in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language.
1.4 Research Questions
This study is guided by three major questions which encouraged the researcher to
conduct this phonological study. The questions are as formulated as follows:
1. What are the phonological processes of loanword nativization in Marangu and
Kibosho dialects of Chagga?
2. What rules underlie the phonological processes of nativized words occur in Marangu
and Kibosho dialects of Chagga?
3. What are the similarities and differences between Kibosho and Marangu varieties of
Chagga and English in terms of phonological processes in lexeme nativization?
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The study is guided with three specific objectives. This research was aimed at
describing the phonological processes in Chagga lexeme nativization of loanwords from
Swahili. Meanwhile the study has general objective which caters the general and
extensive overview of the study as the title advocates. The specific objectives helps the
study to be narrowed for the linguistic verification of the searched data on the at hand
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
11
11
study. Scrutiny phonological processes of nativized words of Chagga language
particularly Marangu and Kibosho dialects. Since the study observe that Marangu and
Kibosho varieties said to be more standardized they are used to scrutiny phonological
processes and their rules. This general objective develops three specific objectives to the
present study as stipulated below.
This study aimed to identify phonological processes involved in nativization in
Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language. The study observes the stated
phonological processes as used in English language and analyses if they exist and how
they happen/used. In doing so, the study is limited only on phonological processes of
nativized words specifically on vowel epenthesis, consonant deletion, cluster tolerance
and feature change. This will derive some of English phonological processes and their
realization in the two varieties of Chagga.
The study also aimed to discover the underlying rules of the phonological
processes for nativized words in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga. Since the
study come with the phonological processes that occur in Kibosho and Marangu
varieties, the study also analyses the possible formal and informal rules that govern the
processes. The rules are verified by CV-Generative Syllable structure. By the help of
such theory, the study is developing varieties of phonological rules that easily explain
the processes.
The third objective is describing the similarities and differences between English
and Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language. This study is implicitly
observing possible variations occur in between English loan words from different
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12
12
languages of the world and that of Chagga from Standard Swahili. The variation is
explained in each process.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study provides assistance to linguists with information that they may little
have or never been aware of with view to phonological processes of nativized words.
The study also is of, significant as it inserts knowledge to the continuing studies on the
loanword phenomena in Bantu languages. It is expected that this study on nativization
of Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language loanwords is an important source
of information on African linguistic studies and it will add to scholarly knowledge
through the use of ‗CV‘ Phonology theory. It is a useful linguistic study for it emphasize
on upgrading local contents. The study also invites language scholars to engage in the
use of smart instruments for data collection and by doing so one improves his/her
techknowledge ability.
The at hand study is believed of promoting local and Bantu language for it alert
language users all over the universe to come up with the improvement of the same study
and even rather related study. Chagga users get to know how their native language is of
important on how they are to promote, protect and preserve their local linguistics
studies.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section with its focuses on, a review of relevant literature related to the
study and the theoretical framework is well observed. The foremost, session advocates
empirical review of related studies. The second part discuses the theory which the study
is based on and its relevance. The last section of this chapter discusses the tenets of
‗CV‘ Phonology Theory that is be used in this study and the applicability of the theory
in accounting for the loanword phenomenon in Marangu and Kibosho varieties of
Chagga language.
2.1 Review of Related Studies
This part is about literature review based on the works of various scholars who
have conducted study on Phonological Processes and Phonological adaptation in their
respective language including; Newman (2010), Zivenge (2009), Massamba (1991),
Chimhundu (2002), Mahlangu (2007), Ziegler & Goswami, (2005), Mwihaki (1998),
Mwita (2009), Massamba (2010), Ndambuki (2013), Mwaliwa (2014).
Although languages have certain basic properties which they tend to share; it is
very unlikely that any two languages will have exactly the same sound patterns
(|Massamba 1991). Moreover, each language has its own sequential constraints. He
claims that, those sequences of sounds that are acceptable in the formation of words of a
language are said to be well-formed while those that are not are said to be ill-formed.
He further clarifies that, it is also possible to have a form which, according to sequential
constraints of a given language, is ill-formed but it is found in the lexicon of that
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
14
14
language. He gave an example of [skw] as not allowed in Swahili language but it occurs
in [skwea] adapted from the English word [square]. His observation is of great
significance in the present study as the aspect of phonological change as a result of
borrowing will be investigated. Consequently this observation is very important to this
study that looks into how such illicit clusters are dealt with in Chagga language. Later he
came with the discussion on the inventories of some African languages and argues that,
―All languages cannot be the same‖ because each language chooses only a limited
number of phonemes to represent its sounds (Massamba 1996). xTo view the
inimitability of languages, Massamba argues that, ―Each phonological system utilizes
sound segments from the central pool of sounds in its own way (Massamba 1996:14).‖
He moves on to dispute that; ―Each phonological system has its own order of
occurrence of sounds, its own number of possible sounds, its own processes that effect
sound changes, its own nature of distinctiveness of sound features and its own
redundancies (Massamba1996:14).‖ His work is of much use to the at hand study in the
following ways. Firstly, some of the phonological processes he discusses also obtain in
varieties of Chagga language. The discussion on the phoneme systems of languages is
also useful in that the at hand study aims at coming up with Chagga phoneme catalog.
A loanword is a word adopted from one language the benefactor language and
incorporated into another language without translation. This is in contrast to cognates,
which are words in two or more languages that share an etymological origin in
common. Loanword nativization in some Bantu languages has, to some extent, been
explored by various scholars. Mwihaki has conceded out A Phonological Study of
Kikuyu Loanwords Borrowed from English (1998). His study identifies three aspects of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15
15
loanword adaptation: phonemic, phonotactics and prosodic. Phonemic adaptation
addresses the grammatical constraints of unitary sound substitution. Phonotactics
adaptation defines the harmonic motivation for phonemic combination and distribution
in the loanword. Prosodic adaptation considers the principles of syllabification and the
assignment of the prosodic features. The main variation between Mwihaki‘s study and
the present study is on the theoretical orientations. Whereas Mwihaki‘s study employs
Auto segmental and Metrical Phonology in the analysis of loanwords, this study focuses
at Generative ‗CV‘ Phonology.
A study on ‘Comparative Linguistics of African languages’ was done by
Newman 2010. He provides a paradigm of Hausa language which, before the influx of
Arabic loanwords, did not have /h/ as a distinct phoneme. The sound /h/ existed, but
only as an allophone of /f/ before back vowels as in: ‗dafu’ [dahu] meaning {be
cooked}. As a result of wide reaching Arabic influence, subsequently reinforced by
loanwords from English, /h/ emerged as a fully functional consonant in the language.
This over view is of essential as it will guide the research in establishing the extent to
which Kikamba phonology has been affected by borrowing.
Chimhundu writes on the Adoption and Adaptation of English Words into the
Shona language. He looks at consonant and vowel nativization that he prefers to refer to
as adaptation (2002). In his argument, some sounds and consonant clusters that are
found in the English language are not recognized in Shona and as a result they are
rephonologized so that they become agreeable with Shona linguistic rules, the receiving
language. This notion of adaptation in the context of Shona, will provides the in
progress study insight into some of the processes of nativization such as substitution.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16
16
Chimhundu‘s account of adaptation is also insightful in that he establishes that usually
monolinguals completely adapt foreign words, at the same time as bilinguals sometimes
choose to incorporate some aspects of phonology of the foreign language into the native
form. Chimhundu does not account for the various phonological changes that occur
during nativization which will be the major focus of this particular study.
A research on the Effects of Spelling Consistency on Phonological Awareness
and found out that among natural languages, no writing systems without spoken
language but there are spoken words without writing systems (Ziegler and Goswami,
2005). In other words, it is by and large the sound system that determines the writing
system but not otherwise. They further claim that studies on the impact of the first
language orthography thus cannot rule out the confounding variable of spoken language
results may be attributable to first language phonology rather than to first language
orthography.
Besides, Mahlangu (2007) has studied and depict how Ndebele, a South African
Bantu language, phonologically and morphologically adopts lexical items that come
from Afrikaans and English. Mahlangu‘s study considers the possible rules that Ndebele
applies in the adoption of foreign words. The study reveals that not all Afrikaans and
English consonant clusters conform to the Ndebele consonant system. Some of the
donor languages‘ consonant clusters, for instance, are adopted ‗as is‘, meaning that they
do not conform to the CV syllable structure of Ndebele as is the case of most African
languages. Although the approach taken by Mahlangu, is different from the one taken
by the present study, his study is relevant as it lays foundation for the phonological
scrutiny of Chagga language which is also a Bantu language.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
17
17
Nativization is the process of adapting a loan word to the phonetic structure of
the native language. Nativization is the process of developing a pidgin language into
Creole. Zivenge (2009) in Phonological Nativization of English Loanwords in Tonga
accounted for the phonological performance and changes that take place in English
words that enter into Tonga. The study analyzed phonological processes that are
employed during nativization of loan words by analyzing how Tonga speakers handle
aspects of English language such as diphthongs, triphthongs, cluster consonants, CVC
syllable structure and sounds in repairing unacceptable sequences in Tonga.
He found that many phonological processes found in Tonga‘s main purposes are
to break English diphthongs, triphthongs and cluster consonants which are illegal in the
language. He discusses the language‘s syllable structure. He notes that like many Bantu
languages, the optimal syllable structure in Tonga is the canonical CV. His study is
advantageously in the scrutiny of phonological processes in Chagga language. Ziveng‘s
study considers only substitution and vowel epenthesis in the adoption of foreign words
whereas at ease study observes much on all possible phonological processes that occur
in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga loanword nativization.
A donor language refers to the language from which a loanword is derived.
Standard Swahili is a donor language in this perspective. Meanwhile a receiving
language can refer to language which acquires a loanword. Hence Chagga language is
hereby a receiving language. Mwita did research on The Adaptation of Swahili
Loanwords from Arabic and came up with results that the processes that loanwords
undergo when they are adapted from Arabic into Swahili (2009). The data used is from
Bosha (1993) and a constraint-based analysis was used. The results also shows that
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
18
18
Swahili language mainly uses vowel epenthesis to repair syllables but other procedures
like consonant deletion, cluster tolerance and feature change are also used.
It has also been confirmed that Kiswahili is susceptible to consonant clusters
within syllables because of its long association with non-Bantu languages, mainly
Arabic and English. He further claims that rules of phonological borrowing contain little
actual analysis of the phonological adaptations that loanwords undergo in the course of
being borrowed. He noted that the P rules (Phonological rules) accounts for only
phonetic information in their environment. The phonetic information includes syllable
boundaries of borrowed words which is the use features which have instristic phonetic
content. His conclusion is on phonological rules which occur in loanword nativization;
assimilation, strengthening and weakening. The morphemes deleted and inserted in the
borrowed word justify these rules.
2.2 Review of Related Theories
Borrowing refers to the act of taking a word or a phrase from one language and
used it in another language. Mwaliwa confer on levels of borrowing, as, pure or
adopted borrowing and adjusted or adapted borrowing (2014). The concept of pure
borrowing as a type of borrowing involves taking the word in the recipient language
without making any structural alterations in the word whereas adjusted borrowing as a
type of borrowing whereby the loanword undergoes significant structural changes when
it gets into the recipient language. These two categories of borrowing occur in all
languages, depending on the structure of the languages involved. In borrowing
processes, one of the types of borrowings may occur across language boundaries. The
speakers of a language have various options when confronted with new items and ideas
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
19
19
in other languages. Borrowing has the nature in the sense that speakers may adopt the
item or idea and the source language word for each (Hoffer 2005). This nature of
borrowing he termed it as Loanword. The researcher needed to review the related
theories from various sources for adhering to the objectives and research questions
particularly the first and the second question. The study goal is to find any differences
and similarities in between English and Chagga languages pertaining some selected
phonological processes. The discussed theories provide a range of the study to be of
equal observation hence avoidance of biasness in study discussion. The following are
the related theories that this study cater to discuss.
2.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis
This phenomenon deals with the insertion of vowel between two consonants or after
a consonant in a syllable final position. The below example provide lexemes from
Arabic language to standard Swahili with its transcriptions and the gloss of such
lexemes. This is shown in data beneath;
Arabic Coding Swahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding
a) Sebab sababu /sa.ba.bu/ reason
b) Unwan anwani /a.nwa.ni/ address
c) Adhuhr adhuhuri /a u.hu.ri/ trouble
d) Urs arusi /a.ru.si/ wedding
The above data provide the vivid of what is referred to be phonological vowel
epenthesis whereby some vowels undergo changes soon after been borrowed from
Arabic language to Swahili. The process happens also for making native speakers of
Swahili easier pronunciation of nativized lexemes.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
20
20
2.2.2 Consonant Deletion
In this phonological process, some words violate consonants so as to respect the
syllable structure of the Bantu languages which is CVC. The process is done for that the
lexemes adopt the word system of the target language. Examples are stipulated below;
Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding
a) Ammar amiri /a.mi.ri/ begin
b) Budd budi /bu.di/ alternative
c) Assubh asubuhi /a.su.bu.hi/ morning
This is to say the nativized lexemes from Arabic language are experiencing consonant
deletion phonological process for making phonotactics resemblance of the borrowed
lexemes. The syllable structure of Bantu language influences the process to take place
hereby speakers could easily utter the nativized words.
2.2.3 Cluster Tolerance
There are few cases where recipient language maintains the cluster that was in
borrowed language as stipulated in the below extract.
Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding
a) Izz enzi /en.zi / power
b) Unwan anwani /a.nwa.ni/ address
c) Amr amri /am.ri/ command
As stated above the example provided are borrowed lexemes that abide with the rule of
retaining their former state of phonetics. The change of the phonotactics are not
emphasized in such lexemes from Arabic language shifted to Swahili. Thus there is a
great retain of lexeme cluster as the words do not change their structure.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21
21
2.2.4 Feature Change
Sometimes, features of the borrowed words like as observed in English language,
are changed since it might happen that there are some phonemes that are in borrowed
language but not found in the recipient language. If this happen, then it has to be
changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. The following are the
examples where Arabic /q/ and /kh/ are realized as /k/ and /h/ respectively.
Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding
a) Waqf wakfu /wak.fu/ religious endowment
b) Usquf askofu /a.sko.fu/ bishop
c) Waqt wakati /wa.ka.ti/ time
Afterward, Massamba states that in phonology of a language there are some
natural processes which could not be found in every language (2010). He further argues
that during the phonological processes a sound segment is made alike to behave more
like a neighboring segment? In other words a segment may acquire features from a
neighboring segment. The process may be whether progressive or regressive. Moreover,
there also non assimilatory processes which could also occur in a language and it is very
difficult to provide clear reason as to why they occur.
Ndambuki studied on A Constraint-Based Analysis of Kikamba Nativized
Loanwords .His study has investigated the strategies used by the recipient system,
Kikamba, to handle phonologically different words from English (2013). The study
noted the beneficiary language has open syllables and does not allow consonant clusters
in the onset. English has closed syllables and allows consonant clusters in both onset
and coda positions. Moreover the phonemic inventories of the two languages also differ
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22
22
considerably. The borrowed words are, therefore, significantly modified in order to
conform to the phonotactics of Kikamba. The scrutiny have revealed that in dealing
with disallowed codas and consonant clusters, three main strategies: insertion, deletion
and feature change are used in order to satisfy high-ranked markedness constraints in
Kikamba. In addition he points out that content word are borrowed more easily than
function words since the former have a clear link to cultural content and the latter do
not. The findings are very important as it contribute to analysis of phonological
processes of nativized words in Chagga from Standard Swahili language.
Additionally, Mwaliwa conducted a study on Analysis of the Syllable Structure of
Standard Swahili Loanwords from Modern Standard Arabic and argues that syllable
structure rules {PSSRs} are the rules that convert complex or abnormal syllable
structures to simpler or normal ones (2014). PSSRs are the syllable structure processes
that are motivated by syllable structure constraints of a language. That is, these
processes determine the positions of consonant and vowel segments in a syllable or
word as governed by the language‘s phonotactics rules. For instance, preferred syllable
structure rules in Kiswahili are vowel coalescence, segment deletion, glide formation
and segment insertion. Maximum differentiation rule is also referred to as a
dissimilation rule. In Kiswahili, glide formation is an example of maximum
differentiation rule. This process occurs in the environment of two contiguous vowels,
where one of the vowels changes to a glide due to this change, one of the vowels
becomes less similar to the other, such that there is a sequence of a glide followed by a
vowel.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23
23
2.3 Theoretical Framework
This study is carried out by Generative CV Phonology developed by linguists,
Keyser and Clements 1983. This theory strives to guide the present study on scrutinize
phonological processes with their rules govern in Marangu and Kibosho varieties. This
theoretical framework provides a great and prominent significant role on a Bantu
language analysis from north eastern part of Tanzania.
2.3.1 Generative CV Phonology
Phonological environments refer to the surrounding sounds of a target speech
sound, or target phone, in a word. The phonology environment of a phone can
sometimes determine the allophonic or phonemic qualities of a sound. Meanwhile
phonological processes are prescribed ways of analyzing speech sounds of any language
of human. They are the patterns that young children, use to simplify adult speech.
Generative CV-Phonology is a non-linear model focused on the syllable structure that
was developed by Clements and Keyser 1983. The theory grasps that many
phonological rules only receive appropriate formulations regarding the syllable.
Clements and Keyser affirm that a syllable is a phonological unit that plays a
noteworthy role in determining the organization of segments in a language. Many
phonological processes in language are motivated by the need to maintain the preferred
syllable structure of the language.
The Generative CV Phonology model was built upon Kahn‘s 1976 theory of
syllable representation. Kahn‘s model of the syllable has two tiers, to be exact the
syllable line and segmental level. Clements and Keyser modified Kahn‘s model by
introducing a third layer, known as CV tier to reconcile between the syllable tier and the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
24
24
segmental level. The CV line was introduced so as to tackle the shortfalls identified in
Kahn‘s model. Clement and Keyser clarify that in his study Khan proposed to expand
the notion of phonological representations assumed in such works as Chomsky and
Halle‘s Sound Pattern of English, 1968 by introducing a new tier of representation
involving strings of the symbol [s] representing the node ‗syllable‘ (1983: 3). Hence the
modification of Khan‘s notion was done.
Also, according to Clements and Keyser claim, ―The CV Phonology theory
provides a complete characterization of all statements and processes referring to the
syllable and its constituents.‖ In light of this observation, the present study will employ
this concept in order to insightfully account for syllable structure processes such as
glide formation, epenthesis, assimilation and substitution in Chagga language
particularly Marangu and Kibosho varieties. Clements and Keyser major concern is to
demonstrate a syllable structure. They argue that syllable is a hierarchical unit, which
has tiers as immediate constituents. Clements and Keyser, demonstrate that the syllable
has three tiers, the syllable node, the CV tier and the tier for the bundles to differentiate
the segments, as stipulated beneath:
Syllable node ζ ζ ζ
CV tire C C V C V C
Segmental tier M w a l i m
Figure 1: Types of tier in Syllable Structure [Cited from Clements Keyser 1983]
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
25
25
2.3.2 The Foundation of the Theory
Clement and Keyser (1983) provide that a universal theory of syllable has, in their
view, three specific tasks or main aspects (pp: 25). These are stipulated below;
commencing with, CV Phonology must specify the well-formed expressions of the
theory. Thus, it provides an alphabet out of which syllable units are constructed together
with a characterization of the permissible array of alphabetic units. Thus, it must specify
the parameters along which individual languages vary in their choice of syllable types.
Moreover, it must exemplify the class of language particular rules which modify or
extend the underlying syllable representations (syllabification rules) and state how these
rules are integrated into the general organization of the phonological component. The
theory can be clarify and exemplify by considering some examples from the following
study which have used the theory.
Clement and Keyser (1983) in CV Phonology: A Generative Theory of the Syllable
collected and analyzed some data from Turkish. In their analysis of Turkish syllable
they discovered that phonological processes have an effect of eliminating extra-syllabic
segments from representation either by deleting them degemination, inserting an
epenthetic vowel epenthesis or else deleting one mora of a long vowel/vowel
shortening. These processes are illustrated below:
ζ ζ ζ ζ
C V C V V C C V C V C
z a m a n [Earlier] z a m a n
Figure 2: Vowel Shortening
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
26
26
ζ ζ ζ
C C V C V C
M w a l i m [Teacher] (Apocope)
Figure 3: Apocope in Swahili Language
Thereafter, figure two (2) provided an example of phoneme shortening whereas Swahili
borrowed lexeme appeared to be shortened for easy articulation by speakers. The
shortening is observed while pronunciation of such lexeme. Meanwhile for figure three
(3), apocope happened to the nativized lexeme after deletion of the vowel and insertion
of semi vowel/approximant phoneme into the lexeme also purposely on utterance need.
In the analysis of phonological processes of nativized words in Chagga
language, the research focused much on Generative CV Phonology. The rationale is that
Generative CV Phonology is a non-linear model focused on the syllable structure that
uses the hierarchical model in analyzing a segment. Many phonological processes in
language are motivated by the need to maintain the preferred syllable structure of the
language. Under Generative CV Phonology model it was found that when the onset first
principle is applied, it obtains a different syllable structure. The stated syllable-based
theory will be applied to conduct an empirical analysis of the Phonological Processes of
loanwords borrowed from Standard Swahili language in Chagga language.
2.3.3 Theory Implication for the Study
Tanzania has got many scholars dealing with linguistics studies, but almost have
usual focus on the phonological studies that the Bantu languages apply in the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
27
27
nativization on loan words especially content words like; verbs, noun. Never the less,
Linguists do not heated discussion the fact that borrowing is never the same in
borrowing languages. Adoption and adjustment of loan word in the phonological and
morphological system of the borrowing language are the key principles that every
borrowing language implies, meaning that area on loan item has to be pronounceable in
that receiving language.
A study using CV-phonology was done and came up with result that languages that
have C+C+V syllable pattern, vowel sequencing can be realized as VV (-C+V-C+V),
where each V element is a nuclear of a syllable. Example is drawn from the Tonga
language word /muenzi/ meaning visitor, where /ue/ is a VV vowel sequence. In other
words, these are two syllables (–C+V-C+V) and not diphthongs, since Tonga does not
allow diphthongization of vowels (Zivenge 2009). This VV sequencing is acceptable in
Tonga language. Conversely, glides may be epenthesised to have +C+V+C+V
sequencing. In the language, only glides may be epenthesised to function as onsets in
VV vowel sequencing but cannot function as codas, since it does not have codas on its
syllables.
a) ζ ζ ζ
C V V C C V
m u e d z i [moon]
VV {vowel sequencing}
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
28
28
Figure 4: Vowel Sequencing
b) ζ ζ ζ
C V C V C C V
m u w e d z i [moon]
{Phonemic change: Gliding}
Figure 5: Gliding due to Phonemic change
c) ζ ζ
C V C V
C C
m w e d z i
Figure 6: Phonemic change
The phonological process advocated by figure six shows its relationship from
the feature change occurred from figure five due to gliding process of the two long
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
29
29
vowels /u/ and /e/ changes to semi vowel/approximant, /w/. This process is affected by
the phonological environment. It is claimed that the change is experienced on segments
that are both dominated by V-elements, thus with greater sonority especially in English
language, it follows that the outcome should have vowel characteristics. The only class
of segments with vowel characteristics is that of glides. This provides a gap for the
recent study to be conducted.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
30
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
In this section, the study observes research methodology and its design.
Discussed components include the type of study to be used for recent study, source and
number of data. Furthermore, data collection techniques thus methods to be used for
collecting data are shown. The section also includes data analysis steps and how data
are presented. Lastly this chapter discusses result verification of the study since it is an
empirical scrutiny.
3.1 Type of Study
This thesis is a phonological study in Bantu language particularly Chagga
language. The study employs qualitative method to scrutinize phonological processes of
nativized loanwords in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language, from
Standard Swahili language. In order to understand well phonological processes occur in
Chagga language the study advocated by qualitative approach so as to sort out all
possible nativized Chagga loan words from the data source. A case study design is of
useful for this study.
Two study areas are used for the means by the researcher has a limited range of
time to conduct the study. He used the data source for interview to testify the borrowed
words and analyzing the phonological processes found in the words from standard
Swahili language. The studied areas provide at hand study with accurate information as
the chosen respondents were of well informants three from Kibosho and two Marangu
varieties of Chagga language. The number of respondents (five) shapes the study to be
of qualitative in nature by providing prominent information as was required.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
31
31
3.2 Source and number of data
The well dexterity of (2009) with a total numbers of (201) data both verb
inventory and noun inventory category, is of useful data source with current usage of
the lexemes by the five prominent speakers of the two selected varieties of Chagga
language. The criterion used to select informants is the fact that the informants are
Chagga speakers and of the two selected variety with standard Swahili ability. Not only
native and active speakers were selected, but also aging was a prior factor for selecting
respondents for analyzing the corpus with much wisdom and credibility to the linguistic
knowledge for Bantu speakers.
The study covers Kilimanjaro region particularly Kibosho ward at Moshi rural
district, and Marangu ward at Vunjo district. Kibosho and Marangu five language
skilled native speakers of Chagga language are the target of the study. Also the selection
observes respondents who are well interactive with the standard Swahili language.
3.3 Data Collection and Data Selection
In this section the study discusses much on sample size and the study techniques
used in the study. The at hand study employs interview technique for stimulating the
knowledge on nativazation phenomenon towards respondents. The researcher employ
voice note to acknowledge advancement of science as well as getting the pure utterance
of lexemes from respondents. Furthermore he uses introspection linguistics data
collection for lexeme categorizing.
3.3.1 Interviews
It was worthy employing interview for that the researcher uses the secondary
data namely dexterity lexical data project. The point of view is to testify the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
32
32
pronunciation by native speakers of Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language.
Respondents were also kindly requested to utter the corpus 2 and 3 of Swahili version. It
later helps in identifying the borrowed words from standard Swahili language by means
of voice note. Respondents without any prior information of such phonological
processes uttered the words from the provided corpus by the researcher and this
analyzes the homogeneous pronunciation of the sorted words from the two varieties of
Chagga language.
3.3.2 Voice Note
This study finds the need to acknowledge the advancement of science and
techknowledge, by using voice note from smart phones. Respondents are being recorded
willingly by the researcher using smart phone program on voice detection for
pronunciation purpose. Later the recorded voices are to be deleted by the researcher
after pronunciation verification since is the agreement between researcher and his
respondents. The researcher does not exemplify the notion of phonological processes to
respondents for the main reason of getting the pure utterance of the selected two
varieties of Chagga language. The other purpose of using voice note is a linguistic
variable need for homogenous resemblance of the uttered lexical items from the two
varieties hence the researcher easily determine the phonological processes.
3.3.3 Introspection
This study aims mostly on loan words. Introspection refers to linguistics data
collection procedure where at stake are inner states and processes. For a while it was
thought that in some strands of linguistics that the linguists could obtain data by
introspection. Therefore the use of introspection is purposely to clearly find the notable
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
33
33
Chagga words even out of noun and verbs that undergo phonological process before
shifted to beneficiary language. It is also mostly used by linguists for categorizing word
classes in a large number of lexeme (like the present study) for easy sorting.
The researcher mostly applies introspection since he individually wanted to get
data at hand. He didn‘t want to get all the data from respondents as he has competence
and well performing abilities on selected varieties. It is a cognitive and empirical
observation of the researcher on the word category of the selected (201) nativized
lexemes from standard Swahili. Meanwhile it has not only become empirically obvious
that such products are often unreliable, but there is also a consensus that in view of the
methodological standards set out in the section on data they are not data in the sense of
any scientific discipline as this of phonological processes.
3.3.4 Sample size
The study employs five native and active speakers of Chagga language. Three
respondents from Kibosho and two from Marangu variety were chosen. Respondents‘
selection is advocated by the age significant since the researcher believes the study
requires personnel of the studied language hence a range of 40 and above fits the study.
The sample size is believed to be of useful so as to avoid bias. The other prominent
criterion used by the researcher for selecting respondents is education level of his
respondents. The study requires most of the data to be of linguistics benefits and
avoidance of redundancy hence employs the best respondents to suit the intended
objectives.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
34
34
3.4 Data Presentation
The study observed that there are four major causes of phonological processes as
those motivated by syllable by syllable structure rules, phonological processes in
Chagga language affecting syllable, phonological processes due to assimilation and
those processes motivated by phonemic reasons therefore the researcher discussed the
processes in the four range. In each of the processes discussed first the study observed
whether there is existence of such phonological process, then the study derived the rule
underlying observed process and at each discussion the study provided the variation
between English and Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga for easy understanding
and avoidance of data redundancy.
Firstly; the researcher discussed the phonemes of studied language in
comparison with English language with its syllable structures and cluster. Then
empirical analysis is done to categorize collected corpus and arrange them
systematically referring to their word classes as data 1 to be named appendix one (1)
thus verbs, and data (2) two as nouns. This has softened the reduplication of contents.
Researcher then provides some interview to respondents for brainstorming their little
understanding about lexeme nativazation from Standard Swahili to Chagga. This will
provide the study with clear classification of the selected lexemes of (201) from the two
varieties of Chagga language which are said to be more standard.
Secondly; Phonological processed words are sorted for instrumentalizing
syllable structure that the researcher easily analyzes the collected data. Since the
researcher is prominent and an active speaker of Chagga language, he linguistically
transcribed the collected data (Phonetic transcription), and with the guidance of the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
35
35
theory he determined the phonological processes that occur in the preferable dialects
(Kibosho and Marangu), of nativized Chagga language as a way of presenting the
collected data and come up with both formal and unceremonial/ informal rules. Each
process is separately presented with prominent examples from the required dialects and
the formulated rule(s), thus formal and informal ones. The English – Chagga
phonological processes comparison is in a range of observation by this study to find any
similarities and differences exist in between English and Chagga.
3.5 Data Analysis
The study data are sampled and collected from a well dexterity lexical project
data of 2009. Implicitly it was verified by respondents from Kibosho and Marangu to
find either there are any phonological processes occurred in those loan words. The
researcher systematically selects the respondents who suit the study. The required
respondents are from native and active speakers of the two dialects chosen. Expected
number of days to spend finding the prominent respondents is four to five days. Three
days were used for Kibosho speakers and two for Marangu speakers by confirming their
willingness and trustworthy on providing assistance towards fulfillment of this study.
3.6 Result verification
The study on phonological processes of nativized words from standard Swahili
is firstly verified by the help of the CV-Generative Phonology structure theoretical
framework. Thus the foundation of the study is guided with the overview of this theory.
The theory determines the results as when they co-occur one another. This phonological
rule is used to test the collected data and the information provided by respondents. The
researcher is using the theory to verify the linguistics empirical information obtained so
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
36
36
as to come up with rules that provide the vivid on existence of such phonological
processes in the two selected varieties of Chagga.
The related literature review also plays a great prominent role towards results of
this study as most of the studies are from Bantu languages as well as the most recently
searched studies which have close relation to Chagga. Various prominent scholars in
this linguistic field like lecturers, writers, are used for result verification in due their
knowledge about the present study. At most the implicit comparison between English
phonological processes with their rules and the two dialects of Chagga will provide a
vivid verification since there is great resemblance of the processes versus the formulated
rules.
The researcher also verified the study data by assuring that the provided research
questions have met their required answers. Since the study is a linguistics approach
thesis, its answers and the formulated rules if matched with known rules then the study
marked them as empirical verified analysis. The study questions and objectives were the
mostly targeted goal for this study verification. Hence this marks the third means of
study verification for the present research.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
37
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section scrutinizes the data collected by the researcher from the informants.
The main guide for the findings and analysis was the objectives of the study and
research questions more specifically the informants were interviewed and relevant as
well as required information was provided. This chapter includes sounds of Chagga and
the findings. The sounds were discussed here for easy understanding and reader friendly
of the present study. In order to understand sound of Chagga the study further discussed
the syllable structure so as to allocate how one can derive the phonological rules of a
certain phonological processes. It should also be noted that, the sounds of Chagga and
syllable structure are not the data analysis but they provide prior information for one to
understand how phonological processes and their formulated rules brought about. This
analysis deals only with the borrowed words from Standard Swahili.
The implicit comparison between the selected dialects and English language is
implicitly observed. It is phonologically enlightening for the study to make an easy
discussion for readers to understand the discussion by commencing with sounds of
Chagga language, also syllable structure rules for determining the rules underlying the
processes as well as the cluster in the studied language for one to comprehend how a
certain rule is derived. Then the study describe the processes according to their four
causes with their formulated rules and hence the comparison for readers easy adhering
to the study.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
38
38
4.1 Sounds of Chagga
An inclusive scrutiny of the sound segments and the sequences in which sounds
appear could give us grounds for predicting which sounds a speaker would be likely to
substitute in each given case. It is necessary to describe the phonemic inventories of the
languages under study. The Chagga phonemes have all parameters dealt with the study
of lexicon of Bantu languages specifically on phonological features. Thereafter,
comprehending Chagga phonological system particularly Kibosho and Marangu
varieties is helpful language instrument for the research to make a deep analysis of
Phonological Processes of Nativized words in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga
from Standard Swahili. Through this the researcher observed which features are
reassigned from Swahili to Chagga, and those which are not. Sounds of Chagga are
derived from field data as the researcher could not find enough materials on Chagga
since there is no enough phonological documentation of the researched language.
4.1.1 Chagga Vowels
The phonological parameters used to categorize vowels in Chagga language with
its varieties are the same as those applied in English language which marks a similarities
within a comparative study as: tongue height, tongue position and lip shape. In English
language as well as Chagga language the tongue height parameter is concerned with
raising part of the tongue involved when producing a vowel sound. Hence, in terms of
tongue height, a vowel can be [+ high], [+ low] and [- high, - low]. The tongue position
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
39
39
parameter shows the point along the tongue that is involved in the articulation of the
vowel sound1.
Nurse and Philippson (1977) discussed on the Chagga sound inventory as a
result, they came up with five vowels: [a, e, i, o, u]. According to study observation,
Chagga language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties also has five vowels [a, e,
i, o, u]. The stated vowels of Chagga by this study constitute all varieties of Chagga.
The five dialects uses the same vowels regardless of their variation in either
pronunciation, orthography or even meaning. Chagga descendants recognize the vowels
in their level of language usage. The mentioned Chagga vowels are represented by the
following table with their tongue height, tongue position and lip shape as the basic
categories on classification of vowel sounds.
Table 1. The Chagga Vowel Sounds
Front Mid
Back
High
i u
Mid
e o
Low
a
Bantu languages are grouped into two. One group are languages with five vowels [a, ɛ,
i, ɔ, u], and in the second group are those with seven vowels [a, ɛ i, e, o, ɔ, u]. Guthrie
(1948)
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
40
40
The above Chagga vowels with their distinctive phonological features namely;
tongue height, tongue position and lip shape can be observed in the following Chagga
lexemes with the initial example of English lexemes for the study comparison.
1. /a/ {mid, low unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; car/kar/, party/pa:r.ti/,
park/pa:rk/, calm/ka:m/, drama/dra:ma/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
a. ura /ura/ ‗buy‘
b. kumba /kumba/ ‗sell‘
c. maruu /maru:/ ‗bananas
d. nangu /nangu:/ ‗calabash‘
e. enna /enna/ ‗drink‘
1) /e/ {front, mid, unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; let/let/, tell/tel/,
end/end/, send/send/, press/pres/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
a. deda /deda/ ‗talk‘
b. ende /ende/ ‗bring‘
c. madende /madende/ ‗legs‘
d. mremi /mremi/ ‗farmer‘
e. terewa /terewa/ ‗ask‘
2) /i/ {front, high, unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; it/it/, tip/tip/,
pick/pik/, busy/biz:i/, pity/pit:i/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
41
41
a. ichoondi /ičo:ndi/ ‘sheep’
b. ikari /ikari/ ‗ a car‘
c. ikumbi /ikumbi/ ‗hoe‘
d. kilima /kilima/ ‗mount‘
e. iriwa /iriwa/ ‗lake‘
3) /o/ {back, mid, rounded vowel} as in English lexemes; not/not/, copy/kop.i/,
rock/rok/, bottle/bot.l/, model/mod.l/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
a. mdo /mdo/ ‗head‘
b. mso /mso/ ‗flour‘
c. pfo /fo/ ‘not’
4) /u/ as in English lexemes; look/luk/, book/buk/, put/put/, could/kud/,push/puʃ/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
a. busua /busua/ ‗pour‘
b. ura /ura/ ‗buy‘
c. kulya /kulya/ ‗to eat‘
d. runda /runda/ ‗work‘
4.1.2 Long Vowels in Chagga
A long vowel in Chagga is the result of vowel coalescence. Heine and
Philippson (1977) claim in their study that in Chagga as well as in English language the
rules of vowel coalescence should be emphasized that the coalescence of any two
vowels does not automatically result in a phonologically long vowels. There are
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
42
42
basically four long vowels in Chagga language; /a:/ mid, low and lax vowel, /e:/ a front,
mid lax vowel, /o:/ a back, mid, rounded lax vowel, /o/ a more back low, rounded lax
vowel. The further illustration on their occurrence is stipulated in example six (6)
below. They said that we should not always consider the result of the coalescence to be
a phonologically long vowel. Let us consider the word lia in Chagga which means ‗(to)
eat‘
6) a. /lia/ [lya]
b. /lia / /li+a/ [la]
However in some cases the result of coalescence generates phonologically long vowels
as in data below:
aamelia ‗he has eaten‘
a+a a
/aamelia/ [amelya]
In Chagga as in English, phonologically long vowels can arise from the following cases
of coalescence.
Lexeme Gloss
5) a. /a + e/ [e:]
/wa-e-ke-ka-a/ [we:kekaa]2 ‗they usually stay/live'
b. /a + o/ [o:]
2 Almost 97 percent of Bantu languages are tonal and agglutinative in nature in which
verbs have an elaborative set of affixes. Most Bantu languages have SVO structure.
(Heine and Philippson: 2003).2
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
43
43
/wa-ose/ [wo:se] 'all'
c. /u + a/ [o:]
/wu-ah-w-a/ [wo:o] 'killed‘
d. /u + e/ [o:]
/su-e/ [so:] 'we'
Phonologically long vowels are also to be found before nasal clusters in at least one
case in Chagga. Let us consider the following data
6) a. /waandu/ [wa:ndu] 'people
b. /waana/ [wa:na] 'children‘
4.1.3 Chagga Consonants
Similarly to vowels, Chagga has the various consonant sounds in its phonemic
inventory. The phonemes found in Chagga language are categorized similarly to those
of English. There are five stops which are produced with a pose in oral cavity and
suddenly released with a burst sound [/ p /, / b/, /t/, / d/ and / k/]. Also nasal consonants
which are produced when oral cavity is in complete closure hence the air passes through
nasal cavity and they are four [/ m, n. ɳ and ŋ/]. The language is having five fricative
sounds; [/ f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/] and only one affricate / ʧ/. Moreover there is one
lateral / l / as in English and one trill sound / r/ with the other two approximant which
are [/w/, /y/. In Chagga language especially in Kibosho variety glides cannot function as
syllable nuclear without a vowel. As claimed by Nurse and Philippson (1977) glide /w/
is realized into two allophones. They can be realized as phoneme [β] before sound /i/
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
44
44
and [e], meanwhile [w] before sound /a/, o and u/. Sound [w] realization is stipulated in
the following data;
a. /nguwe/ [nguβe] ‗pig‘
b. /nguwe/ [nguwe] ‗pig‘
At hand study provides the good example of Chagga consonant sounds with
their phonological place of articulation, manner of articulation as well as the state of
glottis. The study provided the Chagga consonant table that clearly illustrates the
manner of articulation of Chagga consonant, the place of articulation and thereafter for
easily predicts the state of glottis. The study clearly recognizes the great linguistic
resemblance of the phonemes used in Chagga language and those used in English
language. The following table two (2) provide a well phonological vivid on the
preferable consonant sounds used in forming lexemes by the major five varieties of
chagga.
Table 2. Chagga Consonants
Bilabial Labial-
dental
Alveolar Post-
alveolar
palatal Velar Glottal
Stops p b t d k
Affricate ʧ
Nasal m n ɳ
ŋ
Liquids l r
Fricative f v s ʃ h
Glide w y
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
45
45
Source: Researcher‘s Illustration (2017)
English consonants in comparison with Chagga consonant are elaborate below
with examples as analyzed phonemes are bolded. The first provided examples illustrate
the English lexemes and the bolded phoneme as comparison element. The researcher
considered the place of articulation of both language phonemes, manner of articulation
and state of glottis for the comparison;
/ p/ as in English lexemes; /priest/, /pick/, /top/, /public/, /paper/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Kapa ‗bit‘
Para ‗broke‘
/b/ as in English lexemes; /buy/, /best/, /baby/, /boy/, /ball/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Baka ‗cat‘
Subu ‗soup‘
/m/ as in English lexemes; /my/, /mother/, /make/, /more/, /money/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Malela ‗milk‘
Muna ‗child‘
Mndenyi ‗village dweller‘
/ t / as in English lexemes; /tune/, /time/, /tell/, /tender/, /task/,
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Terewa ‗request‘
Terii ‗soil‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
46
46
Tambua ‗innovate‘
/d / as in English lexemes; /dear/, /dog/, /die/, /duty/, /day/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Dooka ‗break‘
Uda ‗satisfied‘
/s/ as in English lexemes; /send/, /some/, /smooth/, /simple/, /songs/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Samba ‗wash‘
Somoka ‗left‘
/l/ as in English lexemes; /let/, /love/, /live/, /alone/, /late/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Lya ‗to eat‘
Lau ‗when‗
/n/ as in English lexemes; /student/, /never/, /need/, /funny/, /network/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Ndee ‗father‘
Ndoari ‗curse‘
/f/ as in English lexemes; /five/, /fast/, /female/, /found/, /fighter/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Fuma ‗gone‘
Fiadu ‗shoes‘
/v/ as in English lexemes; /give/, /vivid/, /voice/, /even/, /heaven/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
47
47
Vuruga ‗disturb‘
Vinsha ‗potatoes‘
/tS/ as in English lexemes; /church/, /chose/, /chaplain/, /chair/, /cherish/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Nchaa ‗hunger‘
Ninchaa ‗well‘
/ ʃ/ as in English lexemes; /shoes/, /shine/, /fashion/, /sharing/, /show/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Oshoo ‗come‘
Msheku ‗grandmother‘
/k/ as in English lexemes; /kind/, /king/, /kill/, /kilogram/, /look/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Kitima ‗chair‘
Kwacha ‗far ‗
Nguku ‗cock‘
/ ŋ / as in English lexemes; /sing/, /going/, /song/, /sitting/, /fishing/,
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Ng‘ama ‗tomorrow‘
/ɳ / as in Nnywa ‗drink‘
/y/ as in English lexemes; /yet/, /yatch/, /yard/, /yield/, /year/
Chagga Lexeme Gloss
Yakwa ‗mine‘
Yaifo ‗absence‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
48
48
In Chagga language as in English the presented phonemes have same manner
and place of articulation characteristics. The study observes the absence of sound
phoneme /ɳ / in English language meanwhile in most of Bantu languages Chagga and
Standard Swahili inclusively said to observe the use of this sound. The notable
phenomenon is due is that, some phonemes in Chagga language are totally not found.
For instance phoneme /z/, / g /, /ð /, /ɵ/, / ʒ/ and /ʤ/. Hence native speakers tend to have
difficulties in pronouncing nativized words from Swahili with mentioned phonemes and
the solution is they use sound with similar place of articulation. The study observes that
English phonemes have same denotation as those in Chagga language due to the similar
place and manner of articulation also the state of glottis (voicing).
4.2 Chagga Syllable Structure
A syllable is a phonological unit of utterance that constitutes an onset, nucleus
and coda. The most important part of the syllable is the nucleus. Every syllable must
have a nucleus which can be occupied by either a vowel or a syllabic consonant. The
onset and the coda are optional and they are occupied by consonant(s). A syllable does
not have any grammatical or semantic function, but it breaks a word into units of
utterance of time.
The study data, observed that Chagga has three (3) syllable structures as VCV, CV
and CCV. This study advocates the similarities found in both English and Chagga
languages since English has the same syllable structure mentioned above as found in
Chagga. For instance in English lexemes we can have same syllable structure derived in
Chagga language; CV[bye], VCV[ego], CCV[tree]. In that Chagga language has
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
49
49
the general fixed syllable structure of CCV constituting a nasal consonant, an oral
consonant and a vowel, for instance:
7) a. Mburu (CCVCV) ‗goat‘
b. Mremi (CCVCV) ‗farmer‘
c. Mka (CCV) ‗wife‘
d. Mdima (CCVCV) ‗soul‘
Given that vein, another syllable structure that is found in Chagga language is a cluster
of two consonants with a vowel. This type is usually restricted to syllables with either a
nasal as the first consonant or the approximants /y/ or /w/ as the second consonant. The
study observes the similarity in English as in Chagga syllable structure of this pattern.
Meanwhile the difference appears only in example (b). Here are examples of words:
8) a. Mwaasha (CCVCV) ‗tall‘
b. Mwininge (CCVCVCCV) ‗give‘
c. Mwewu (CCVCV) ‗a black person‘
Another CCV syllable constitutes an oral consonant, a glide and a vowel, for
example;
9) a. Kwacha (CCVCV) ‗far‘
b. Kwi (CCV) ‗where‘
c. Yakwa (CVCCV) ‗mine‘
At present study takes these two sequences of syllables as CCV. Since the theory
applied in this study, that is, Generative CV-Phonology recognizes only the consonant
and vowel elements. According to this theory, the nasals and glides are observed as
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
50
50
consonants except when they function as nuclear in a syllable. Another syllable is the
CV which constitutes one consonant. Let us consider the following data.
10) a. Kinu (CVCV) ‗pestle‘
b. Madende (CVCVCCV) ‗legs‘
c. Nguwe (CVCV) ‗pig‘
d. Tereva (CVCVCV) ‗request‘
Also, Chagga has syllable structure of VC in that vowel is at the word initial position.
Consider the following data;
11) a. Ikanda (VCVCCV) ‗leaf‘
b. Ichondi (VCVCV) ‗sheep‘
c. Ikumbi (VCVCCV) ‗hoe‘
d. Itumfu (VCVCCV) ‗mountain‘
Although Chagga does not frequently have consonant clusters, when they occur
they are to be found at the beginning and end of words or syllables.
4.2.1 Consonant Cluster at lexeme Initial Position
In here the study observes little lexemes with consonant cluster at initial position of
the Chagga lexeme. The great similarity has been clearly observed in between English
and Chagga. For instance lexeme in English like [tree, free, cream, scream] are said to
be of prominent examples.
12) a. Kwacha /kwa:cha/ ‗far‘
b. Kwii /kwi:/ ‗where‘
c. Mmka /mka/ ‗wife‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
51
51
d. Mdima /mdima/ ‗soul‘
4.2.2 Consonant Cluster at the Word Middle Position
The at hand study came up with a single example from Chagga language as the
number of daily usage lexeme with such category are said to be of few. The same
recognition in English language whereas the syllable structure with consonant cluster at
the middle word position is rare. The two languages share the same phonemes that
found in middle position as the combination of nasal bilabial sound /m/ and a stop
bilabial phoneme /b/ to make a middle cluster of [mb]. Example fourteen provides a
vivid of Chagga lexeme with middle consonant cluster. i.e. English lexeme [limber,
limbo].
13) Sambuka /sambuka/ ‗walk‘
4.2.3 Consonant cluster at word final position
This study also tries to analyze a bit on the syllable structure on Chagga lexemes
with the consonant cluster at the final word position. These lexemes mostly are
accompanied with nasal sounds. In English language the same process takes place
whereas two nasals sound preceding one another ending to final consonant cluster. i.e.
English lexemes [tomb, country, comb, limb]. This provided the study with great
similarities between English and Chagga consonant cluster at the final lexeme position.
14) a. Emba /emba/ ‗sing‘
b. Marende /marende/ ‗legs‘
c. Sambia /sambia/ ‗wash‘
d. Yakwa /yakwa/ ‗mine‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
52
52
Generally, the study observes that Chagga has the open syllables VC, CV and
CCV. In a nut shell, whenever CCV appears in Chagga, they are realized in three
position; word initial, middle and word finally.
4.3 Phonological Processes of Nativized Lexeme in Kibosho and Marangu dialects
of Chagga
The phonological processes taking place on Chagga loanwords nativization are
caused by different factors similarly to those in English language. Such factors are
phonological processes that occur due to phonemic reason. Second, group of
phonological processes is triggered by non-assimilation and assimilation rules. The third
are the phonological changes that are motivated by Chagga PSSRs [Phonological
Syllable Structure Rules]. To answer research questions number one, two and three the
following discussions provide their answers by identifying the phonological processes,
then discovering their rules governed and lastly describing the similarities and
differences found in between English and Chagga language.
4.3.1 Phonological Processes Motivated by Syllable Structure Rules
The study discovered that: Phonological processes motivated by syllable
structure conditions as in English, also occur on Kibosho and Marangu varieties of
Chagga loanwords in that the loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological
level is governed by syllable well-formedness in the RL. The phonological processes
involved are aimed at realizing well-formed or permissible syllables in a given
language. For example in Kibosho and Marangu varieties, the phonological processes
include segment deletion, insertion and substitution. These processes as in English
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
53
53
language occur on both vowels and consonants so as to realize the preferred syllable
structures in Chagga loanwords nativazation.
4.3.1.1 Insertion
To address research problem one the study observed that there is phonological
process referred to insertion. Insertion is also named as epenthesis whereby is a
phonological process in which a segment is added into a word. In English language,
epenthesis (insertion) is one of the PSSRs aimed at breaking up consonant clusters. This
is a dominant process in any language in that segment clusters are disallowed in
pronunciation as they make segmental sequence obscured. This process consists of four
categories namely; vowel insertion, anaptyxis, prothesis and consonant insertion at the
word middle position which are all found in English language lexemes.
Besides, Epenthesis refers to the process of inserting a phoneme in both English
and Chagga, either vowel or consonant in a word to break the consonant cluster system.
It is usually motivated by the need to meet the phonotactics constraints of a beneficiary
language. This process as mentioned above is categorized into major four categories.
The study observes all of them with their variation in English and application in
Chagga.
Firstly is the vowel insertion. Insertion in Chagga involves anaptyxis and
prothesis by inserting a vowel so that to have practically easy articulation. The
infringement of practicality in the epenthetic segment in Chagga has no equivalent in
the input. Vowel epenthesis in Chagga loanwords borrowed from Swahili may be
explained in view of the variations in the syllable systems of both languages. There are
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
54
54
different forms of vowel insertion occurring in the Chagga loanwords nativization:
prosthesis and anaptyxis. Prothesis is motivated by morphological factors; while
Anaptyxis is motivated by PSSRs in Chagga loanwords. Thirty words are absolutely a
result of vowel insertion.
The study found that, in English epenthesis is often motivated by the need to
make consonant contrasts more distinct. For instance in some English varieties such as
Ireland, South Africa and Scotland vowels are inserted for breaking the cluster. For
instance the English lexeme as, i.e. film. The study also observes that this category of
insertion can be brought about by different means in which the major cause is said to be
a non-standard pronunciation. For example: Lexemes, athlete, film. Thereafter this
study declares that the same process done in Chagga language appeared to be done in
English with the same rule. Observe the below English example:
i) Film / filəm/ [ epenthesis due to dialect distinction]
ii) /athalete/ athlete [epenthesis due to non-standard pronunciation]
iii) /filum/ film [epenthesis due to non-standard pronunciation]
The second category in insertion is what in English referred to as anaptyxis.
Anaptyxis is a phonological process where an extra vowel is inserted between two
consonants. From field data it is seen that this process commonly takes place in Chagga
nativized loanwords. Let us consider the following four derived data from the corpus
whereby their phonological environment are as similar to those of English:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
31) a. Shtua sutua ‗astound‘
b. Trekta itirekita ‗tractor‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
55
55
c. Shtuka isutuka ‗be astound‘
d. Boksi ibookisi ‗box‘
In fact number 31(a) and (b) vowel is inserted between the consonants for the
purpose of breaking the consonant sequences as well as to make easy for articulation.
This process is therefore motivated by PSSRs which results in obtaining the preferred
syllable structure in Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga particularly, that is, CV.
To adhere the research problem two this process can be recapitulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived in the study:
An unceremonious rule:
ø v c c
Formally, this process is represented by the following rule
ø + syll -syll -syll
- cons +cons +cons
Explicitly a syllable gets inserted in between consonants in order for Chagga speakers
particularly Kibosho and Marangu origin to have preferred syllable structure. To
address problem three of the study the phonological rule derived in this process denotes
that English anaptyxis is also adapted in Chagga nativized lexemes.
The third category that this study observes in insertion is prosthesis. Prosthesis is
among English phonological process involving vowel insertion at word initial position.
In English language, prothesis which is linguistically derived from post-classical Latin
based on Ancient Greek [πρόθεζις] to mean placing before.`` Thus the study concludes
that, it is the linguistics process that focuses on adding a sound or syllable in the word
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
56
56
initial word position without changing the lexeme`s semantic category or it`s
etymological structure.
It is observed that, in English language prothesis is highly utilized since Middle
English and Old one by scholars like William Shakespeare and Edgar Alan Poe in
poetic writing purposely on rhythmical manner and to raise emphasis. For instance Poe
in English language literary text; the stanza states:
i) …``Thus much let me avow, you are not wrong who deem``…
The vowel `a` is inserted in the initial lexeme vow purposely to make literary piece
more rhythmic by Poe. Shakespeare in his poetic writing he provided an example of
English prothesis such in the following stanza saying;
ii) …``Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain, storming her world with
sorrows wind and rain``…
The poet wanted to put more emphasis on his reading by inserting vowel `a` at lexeme
`twain` purposely by the vowel insertion in the initial word position. Furthermore
another Poe literary work is observed in the English stanza;
iii) …``What though that light thro` storm and might so trouble from
afar``...
The poet uses prothesis as vowel `a` for giving pace of rhythm. Thereafter English
language uses mostly inserted vowel sound /a/ for as its prothesis marker. Meanwhile
this study claims that, in Chagga a high front vowel /i/ gets inserted at the word initial
position. For instance the below twelve stipulated Chagga lexemes nativized from
Standard Swahili:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
57
57
Swahili Chagga Gloss
32) a. Tawanya itawanya ‗stretch‘
b, Ua iwa ‗flower‘
c. Dirisha itirisha ‗window‘
d. Gari ikari ‗car‘
e. Godoro igodoro ‗mattress‘
f. Shati ishati ‗shirt‘
g. Boksi ibokisi ‗box‘
h. Shone ishona ‗stitch‘
i. Basi ibasi ‗bus‘
j. Trekta iterikita ‗tractor‘
k. Shimo ishimo ‗outlet‘
l. Yai iyai ‗egg‘
This process can be summarized as shown hereby:
An unceremonious rule:
ø v #
Formal rule
ø #slly +
-cons
At present study observed that in data number 32(a) a front high vowel /i/ is
inserted at the word initial position as triggered by environment of different
consonants/b/ ,/d/, /k/, /ʃ/ and /y/. The process is thus motivated by PSSRs which results
in obtaining the preferred syllable structure in particularly the two varieties researched.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
58
58
Moreover, a front high vowel is inserted at the environment that is the result of
succession of the two vowels taken from Swahili language. Let us consider data 32 (b):
i.e. Ua iwa ‗flower‘
From the above data a high back vowel /u/ glides to /w/ so that to allow insertion of a
high front vowel /i/. This is because in Chagga a succession of three vowels sound is not
allowed.
*ua iwa
Therefore this is presented by the following rules;
u w #
Formal rule for gliding
+high glide #
+back
Therefore, a high back vowel /u/ changes to glide.
elmr l mulF
ø +high glide
-back
Thus a front high vowel /i/ is inserted at the word initial position as triggered by
environment of glide.
The last and the fourth category of insertion discussed in this study is consonant
insertion at the word middle position. As sound segments in English structure,
consonant insertion in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga involves the insertion
of a consonant between vowels to break a sequence of two vowels. This study observes
that, not only vowels can be inserted but in English sometimes consonant can be
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
59
59
attached at the middle of the syllable for the phonotactics reasons. Provided a prominent
example in English language on the use of definite and indefinite articles [a, an]. In
English language we can consider article `an` with consonant [n] to be useful in
phonology of breaking the cluster of two vowels. Consider the following; [a apple
an apple]. The study observes three Chagga lexemes of this consonant insertion at the
middle position.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
33) a. Jua ruva ‗sun‘
b. Suruali suruvali ‗trouser‘
To address research problem two this process can be recapitulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived in the study:
Unceremonious rule:
cons ø v-v
Formal rule
+cons +high -high
-syll ø +back -back
+lab
Hence a voiced dental fricative /v/ is inserted in between a high back /u/ and low
front /a/ vowels. In addition to that a glide /w/ is inserted in between a front high /i/ and
front low /a/ vowels.
c. Ua iwa ‗flower‘
The above data is therefore presented by the following rules;
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
60
60
Unceremonious rule
i #
ø w intervocalic
Formal rule
ø +high #
-back intervocalic
+cons
+syll
+glide
4.3.2 Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Affects Syllable
To answer research question one of the present study, it is observed that, there
are various phonological processes that involve syllable geared towards the realization
of Chagga language and particularly Marangu and Kibosho dialects, preferred syllables.
The study provided also English examples on such lexemes affected by reduction or
deletion of some sounds or syllables. In these processes, syllables are deleted or reduced
in Chagga nativized words.
4.3.2.1 Deletion
In English linguistics, a sound, such as a stress less syllable or a weak
consonant, is not pronounced; for example, most American English speakers do not
pronounce the phoneme [d] in lexeme "handbag", phoneme [n] in lexeme "condemn",
and phoneme [k] in lexeme "know". Hence, it can be denoted as a process by which a
sound present in the phonemic form is removed from the phonetic form in certain
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
61
61
environments forease of production. Thus there are three types of deletion in English
and some Germanic languages: aphaeresis which is initial deletion as in English phrase
[I am I'm, I have I’ve] or the initial loss of /k/ before /n/ as in know, knight,
syncope is formative internal deletion: the term is most frequently used with vowel loss,
but some authors broaden it to consonants as well. This can be seen in American and
British forms of certain lexemes:
i) /sɛkrɪtɛri/ vs. /sɛkrɪtrɪ/ 'secretary'
ii) ‗Sign ' assign.
Meanwhile apocope is the loss of a final element as phoneme /t/ before a word
beginning with another consonant in English language, ' last time', also low stress
words may lose their finals as in lexeme ['and', 'of'].
This study observed three categories of consonant deletion in Chagga namely;
Apocope, syncope and aphaeresis as is stated in English language above. In chagga
thereafter apocope is the deletion of a sound, usually a vowel at the word final position.
In Chagga loanwords, Apocope affects syllables. Two syllables at the word final
position are deleted as shown in the following example of Chagga loanwords.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
34) Chakula chao ‗ food‘
Thus, two syllables get deleted at the word final position .This process can be sum up
as:
Syll ø #
The first category to be discussed in here is syncope. As stated above on English
likewise in Chagga language this process occurs when there is loss of a segment in the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
62
62
medial position of a word. This affects syllable in Chagga loanwords nativization
especially in Kibosho and Marangu varieties which are the more standardized one.
Hence Chagga language loss of a vowel appears at the central of the word, not from
initial position, nor from word final position in rapid speech. Consider the following
four extracted data from Chagga language found in this study:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
35) a.Kisu ‗kyandu‘ knife
b.Kikapu ‗kkabu‘ basket
c.Kijiko ‗kliko‘ spoon
To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the study:
Unceremonious rule
i ø k
Formal rule
+high ø +cons
-back -syll
+velar
-voice
Thus, a high back vowel is silent when preceded by a voiceless plosive velar sound. For
the study to adhere research problem three it discovered equal comparison between
English and Chagga languages. The minor different is easily observed only on the
deleted phonemes though the rule applied to both languages in their nativized lexemes.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
63
63
Secondly, is the deletion in the initial position namely aphaeresis. In English;
Aphaeresis is a phonological process in which a segment is deleted at word or syllable
initial position as explained previously. This change occurs in six lexemes of Chagga
language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties whilst loanwords from Standard
Swahili are nativized. The following data as collected from field and written document
show how sound segments are word initial position deleted.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
36) a. Baba aba ‗father‘
b. Kufa fo ‗to die‘
c. Kula lya ‗to eat‘
d. Kunywa nna ‗to drink‘
e. Nyumba mba ‗house‘
To continue addressing problem two of the study, this process can be informally noted
as follows;
Unceremonious rule for data b - e
Syll → ø #
Thereafter, the formal rule supporting such phonological process is,
+cons
ø #
-syll
Generally, in extract above (36 a- e), the bilabial plosive / b/, velar plosive /k/,
and nasal /ɳ/ in Chagga (Kibosho) is deleted in the process of nativization. From data b
– e, the whole syllable get deleted in the environment of word initial position. To
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
64
64
answer research question three thus, the study claims that the deletion of sounds at
initial lexeme is both recognized in English and in Chagga nativized lexemes.
Unceremonious rule for data a and f is;
Cons ø #
Then the formal rule is likely to be;
+cons
ø #
-syll
Thereafter to represent research question three, the study discovered that, a consonant
sound gets deleted at the word initial position during nativization of words from Swahili
in Chagga as sometimes occur in English nativized words from other languages.
4.3.2.2 Rhotacization
This is among the phonological process that affects the Chagga syllable.
Rhotacization is the phonological process in which phoneme /s/ or /z/ becomes r;
usually this takes place between vowels or glides. English Language especially
American standard variety rhotacization occurs into two types. The first type is a
situation in which a strident fricative changes to a trill often z changing to /r/. Secondly;
rhotacization also refers to a process in English language and other world`s languages in
which vowels are pronounced with a /r/ sort of coloring. In Chagga language especially
Kibosho variety during the process of nativization, /s/ (or z) becomes /r/; usually this
takes place between vowels as in the following nine extracted lexemes from the list:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
37) a. Mbuzi mburu ‗goat‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
65
65
b. Mzimu mrumu ‗spirit of the dead person‘
c. Wazimu warimu ‗craziness‘
d. Uzito uritro ‗weight‘
e. Maziwa maruwa ‗milk‘
f. Mzinga mringa ‗beehive‘
g. Mwezi mwiiri ‗moon‘
h. Mwezi mwiri ‗month‘
i. Meza mira ‗swallow‘
To represent the research problem two this process can be stipulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the study:
Unceremonious rule
z (s) r v- v
Formal rule
+cons +cons +syll +syll
-syll -syll -cons -cons
+strident +trill
+fricative
Thereafter, in Chagga language an alveolar fricative /z/ changes to trill in between
vowel sounds. This address the study problem three with the phonological process of
rhotacization exist in Chagga particularly Kibosho lexemes as also observed in English.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
66
66
4.3.3 Assimilation
Assimilation is a process whereby one sound causes an adjacent sound to be
more similar to it. Sounds become more like neighboring sounds [n] ➝ [m]/__
[+bilabial] Assimilation can be conditioned by preceding or following sounds. Thus
assimilation means that one sound becomes more similar to another in that a change in
a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually adjacent sound. Also one
can define assimilation to as all adaptive modifications of a segment in a chain of
segments by a neighboring segment. For example, in English lexemes with phoneme
/m/ is rendered [ɱ] (labiodental nasal) instead of bilabial [m]. Similarly, infant phoneme
/n/ is often rendered as [ɱ]. Also, phoneme /l/ is devoiced after placed in between
phoneme /f/ and /k/ in flight and clean and lips are rounded in the articulation of /p/, /k/,
and /l/ respectively due to the occurrence of rounded vowel /u:/ immediately after these
consonant segments. The assimilated English lexemes examples due to the mentioned
phonemes are stipulated below:
i) /p/ [pool]
ii) /k/ [cool]
iii) /l/ [loom]
iv) /m/[triumph , nymph]
Most English assimilations are partial assimilations in which the assimilated
sound becomes only more similar, but not identical, to the influencing sound. Partial
assimilation in English language can also refer to another assimilation which is called
contact assimilation in which the two sounds involved are directly adjacent. For
instance, the phrase 'ten pikes' is pronounced as /tembaiks/ in English instead of /ten
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
67
67
baiks/ in colloquial speech. Here, the alveolar phoneme /n/ changes to nasal /m/ which
is a bilabial sound under the influence of phoneme /b/ which is also a bilabial sound.
What is meant by complete assimilation in English language is that a sound is
totally affected by a neighboring sound in which both sounds become one, or become
identical. For instance, the following English phrase;
i) / ðæt pleɪs/ / ðæp pleɪs/.
It is clear that the phoneme /t/ sound is totally, or completely, assimilated to the /p/
sound and becomes identical to the one in the next word. Meanwhile in Chagga
assimilatory are classified in terms of distant and partial. The study scrutinizes the two
categories in both Marangu variety and Kibosho variety with examples taken from the
corpus chosen by the researcher. The stipulated examples in chagga passed through
phonological accepted rules which are similarly to those of English nativized lexemes.
4.3.3.1 Partial Assimilation
In Chagga language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties different from
English, partial assimilation occurs when the assimilating sound acquires some traits of
another but does not become fully identical to it. Partial assimilation in Chagga appears
at word initial position. Partial assimilation is realized in different sounds as stipulated
below the study observes in Chagga language to which it is clearly seen that there is no
such assimilation in English language.
Partial assimilation of Sound /d/ / s/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
38) Damu samu ‗blood‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
68
68
Due that, to address the research question two this process can be stipulated with
both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
d s #
Formal rule
+ cons +cons
-syll -syll #
+stop +fric
Given that a voiceless alveolar /s/ acquires some traits of voiced alveolar /d/. Although
the two sounds are articulated at the same point (alveolar) variation in between is only
in the manner of articulation in the sense that during the production of fricative the
sound is blocked as plosive but it released with gradual. Find the following eighteen
(18) assimilated Chagga lexemes due to different phonemes (assimilated phonemes), as
taken from the chosen corpus for this study:
Partial Assimilation of Sound /ʧ / /ʃ/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
39) a. Chai shai ‗tea‘
b. Chafua shafuo ‗make dirty‘
c. Chama shama ‗party‘
d. Chako shako ‗yours‘
e. Changa shanga ‗collect‘
f. Chemsha shemsha ‗boil‘
g. Choroko shoroko ‗green gram‘
h. Chuma shuma ‗pick‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
69
69
i. Chumvi shumbii ‗salt‘
j. Chupa shuba ‗bottle‘
Therefore, also to adhere to research problem two, the above data can be presented
through the use of the following formal and unceremonious rules;
Unceremonious rule is ʧ ʃ #
Formal rule
+cons +cons
-syll - syll #
+affric +fric
Thus, in Chagga a voiceless palatal alveolar affricate /ʧ/ acquires some traits of a
voiceless palatal alveolar fricative /ʃ/ at the word initial position. Partial assimilation of
the two sounds is triggered by the point of articulation (palatal alveolar). Thus to
represent research question three the study observed no such process in English
language regarding such phonemes.
Partial Assimilation of Sound /b/ /v/, /g/ /v/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
40) a. Debe ideve ‗tin‘
b. Mwoga mwoova ‗coward‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
70
70
Unceremonious rule g b v v - v
Formal rule +cons +cons
-cor -syll Intervocalic
+lab +lab
+voice
+cons
-syll
-cor
+voice
Using the above rule in generative phonology is costly as it misses the important
generalization about the behavior of consonant with regard to its point of articulation.
Therefore the above rules can be captured by one rule.
α +cons
-syll Intervocalic
+lab
Therefore a voiced bilabial plosive or a voiced velar plosive is assimilated to
labial dental fricative intervocalic ally. This is because /v/ sound subsumes many
features of / b/ and /g/. In relation to question three this study observed no such process
in English language.
Partial Assimilation of Sound /t/ /d/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
41) a. Moto modo ‗fire‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
71
71
b. Ota oda ‗sprout‘
c. Pita ida ‗pass‘
d. Tua dua ‗put down‘
e. Tuma duma ‗send‘
f. Vita vida ‗war‘
The above finding which represent research problem two is governed by the following
unceremonious and formal rules:
Unceremonious rule for data a, b,c and f and e
t d v-v
Formal rule for data (a, b, c and f)
+cons +cons +syll +syll
-syll -syll
-voice +voice -cons -cons
Thereafter a voiceless alveolar plosive is assimilated to a voiced
consonant alveolar plosive in between vowel sounds environment of Chagga. This study
also in relation to problem three it observed no such process in English language
phonemes.
Unceremonious rule for data e and d
t d #
Formal rule for data ( d and e)
+cons +cons +syll +syll
-syll -syll
-voice +voice -cons -cons
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
72
72
One can therefore claims that, a voiceless alveolar plosive is assimilated to
a voiced alveolar plosive in environment of word initial position. In finding 41 (a, b, c,
d, e and f) the voiceless consonant triggers the two rules that account for the similar
changes. Hence the a voiceless plosive is affected in its point of articulation as it is
articulated in the same point with the preceding and following sounds or in between
vowel sounds. Given that the two rules have something in common.
Using the three rules in generative phonology using the three rules above is
costly as they miss the important generalization about the behavior trill with regard to
its point of articulation. That is to say, a voiceless plosive will be articulated at the same
point of articulation with the preceding and following sounds which now become the
conditioning factor.
4.3.3.2 Distant Assimilation
In Chagga language which varies with English language, assimilation at distant
is triggered by consonant in that a consonant is assimilated to the next consonant. In
which Chagga distant assimilation occurs in different position as triggered by place of
articulation. On the other hand distant assimilation is triggered by manner of
articulation. The data collected from the field indicate cases of distant assimilation in
Chagga. The recent study observes that in Chagga different from English there are
major three kinds of distant assimilation as from phonemes; /k/ /f/, /ʧ/ /s/, /ʃ/
/s/ respectively. The below phonemes with example of lexemes in chagga are providing
the phonological vivid:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
73
73
Distant Assimilation of Sound /k/ /f/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
42) a. Chako chafo ‗yours‘
To address the research problem two this process can be stipulated with
both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:
Unceremonious rule is;
k f #
Formal rule
+cons +cons
-syll - syll #
+ plosive +fric
Hence a voiceless velar plosive becomes more similar to voiceless dental fricative in
that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually
adjacent sound.
Distant Assimilation of Sound /ʧ/ /s/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
43) Cheka seka ‗ lough‘
This can be presented by the following rules;
Unceremonious rule is ʧ s #
Formal rule
+cons +cons
-syll - syll #
+affric +fric
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
74
74
Thus a voiceless palatal alveolar fricative becomes more similar to voiceless
alveolar fricative in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of
neighboring usually adjacent sound. This study to answer research question three it
observed no such process in English language phonemes.
Distant Assimilation of Sound /ʃ/ /s/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
44) Shingo singo ‗neck‘
Unceremonious rule is
ʃ s #
Formal rule
+cons +cons
-syll - syll #
+affric +fric
Therefore a voiceless palatal alveolar fricative becomes more similar to
voiceless alveolar fricative in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence
of neighboring usually adjacent sound. This study also observed no such process in
English language phonemes.
4.3.3.3 Dissimilation
In English language; Dissimilation is the process whereby a sound becomes less
similar to one another. When a sound changes one of its features to become less similar
to an adjacent sound is what is referred to dissimilation, and usually to make the two
sounds more distinguishable. This type of rule is often seen among people speaking a
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
75
75
language that is not their native language where the sound contrasts may be difficult so
the rule is applied for ease of production and perception. In other words, one can
denotes as a phonological process that changes feature values of segments to make them
less similar. For instance consider the following English lexemes;
i) Annual annular
ii) Sexual secular
iii) Cultural cellular [to mean cell]
iv) Penal perpendicular
Dissimilation is not common processes in Chagga language particularly to the two
varieties chosen as most standard ones. Dissimilation in Chagga language often happens
at a distant especially when the less similar sound is in between vowels. Consider the
following extracted example:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
44) Bakuli bakuri ‗bowl‘
To adhere research question two this process can be stipulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulted from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
l r v v
Formal rule
+cons +cons +syll +syll
-syll -syll +high +high
-Sibilant + sibilant +back -back
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
76
76
Thereafter a non-sibilant sound is assimilated to a sibilant sound especially
between vowel sounds in Chagga language. Hence to address the present study problem
three, both English and Chagga languages have dissimilation as a phonological process
for nativized lexemes with the same rule.
4.3.3.4 Voicing
Voicing (or sonorization) is a sound change where
a voiceless consonant becomes voiced due to the influence of its phonological
environment. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound assimilation with an
adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with
a specific vowel. In English language, the morpheme that expresses plural is realized as
the voiced fricative [z] after a vowel, a sonorant consonant, or a voiced obstruent. After
a voiceless obstruent, it is voiceless. This process is known as ―progressive voicing
assimilation‖. Consider the following English lexemes:
i) Bee + /z/ ‡ bee[z],
ii) Lion+ /z/ ‡ lion[z],
iii) Dog + /z/ ‡ dog[z],
iv) Cat + /z/ ‡ cat[s].
A morpheme that ends in a voiced obstruent in isolation is realized with a voiceless
obstruent before a suffix that consists of - or begins with - a voiceless obstruent and this
process is called ―regressive voicing assimilation‖ in English linguistics. Likewise in
Chagga language, the prefix /p/ is pronounced /b/ when it follows a vowel sound.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
45) a. Paka baka ‗cat‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
77
77
b. Pesa besa ‗money‘
c. Pima bima ‗ measure‘
d. Pambana bambana ‗struggle‘
e. Pakua bakuo ‗serve‘
f. Pakia bakia ‗load‘
g. Pete bête ‗ring‘
The seven linguistic data above from the corpus selected, shows that some Swahili loan
words changed their features so that they can acquire the Chagga native features .Sound
/p/ has features of voiceless, bilabial plosive sound. This sound changed to /b/ with
features of voiced, bilabial plosive sound. In this explanation, sound /p/ has acquired
voicing.
Thus to address the research question two this process can be stipulated
with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
p b #
Formal rule
+ cons + cons
-syll -syll #
-voice +voice
Therefore, voiceless consonant sound has changed to be a voiced consonant
before front vowel sound at the word initial position. Apart from what is presented in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
78
78
data (46 (a-f), the following data change from voiceless to voiced when placed
intervocalic ally.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
h. Supu subu ‗soup‘
i. Pera ibera ‗guava‘
j. Papai ibabai ‗papaw‘
k. Panga ibanga ‗machete‘
The rules governed the above data for addressing research question two are presented
below both formal and unceremonious rules:
Unceremonious rule
p b v v
Formal rule
+ cons + cons +syll + syll
-syll -syll -cons -cons
-voice +voice
Thus, voiceless bilabial plosive consonant has changed to be a voiced bilabial consonant
in between vowel sounds in the process of Chagga nativization. For answering research
problem three, the study indicated that, voicing as a phonological processes exist both in
English and Chagga with little variations particularly in some phonemes.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
79
79
4.3.4 Phonological Processes Motivated by Phonemic Reasons
Moreover to address research question two regarding phonological processes the
study discovered that, the phonemic inventories of Swahili and Chagga differ
significantly. There are some sound segments that are found in Swahili language but not
in the Chagga phonemic inventory. If a loanword has such a phoneme, then it is
changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. In the nativization process
in Chagga, the study observed that sound change may involve consonant substitution. In
some cases devoicing also involve sound change in cases where the sound is in Chagga
language particularly Kibosho variety but it is rarely used by speakers. For example / v/
is there but rarely used in some words hence make speakers to change /v / to /f/ during
nativazation process.
4.3.4.1 Consonant Substitution
There are some sound segments that are found in Swahili but are not in the
Chagga language phonemic inventory. If a loanword has such a phoneme, then it has to
be changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. At present study
scrutinizes the substituted phonemes as, /d/ /s/, /w/ /v/, /g/ /v/, /z/ /s/, and /g/
/k/. This study found that such processes on substitution of the listed phonemes do
not exist in English language. The phonemes in Chagga with examples are stipulated
below along with their formulated rules both formal and unceremonious one.
Substitution of Sound /ð/ /s/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
47) a. Adhabu asabu ‗sin‘
b. Dharau sarau ‗scorn‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
80
80
c. Dhamana samana ‗guarantee‘
d. Dhahabu sahabu ‗gold‘
To address the research problem two this process can be elaborated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
ð s v- v for data (a)
Formal Rule
+cons +cons
-syll -syll +syll +syll
+stop +strident -cons -cons
+voice
Hence dental stop /ð/ is replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga
loanwords nativization. The above data confirm what is stated in first part of this
Chapter, that /ð/ is not a phonological phoneme in Chagga. Given that, the dental stop
has been substitute through the processes of nativization.
Substitution of Sound /w/ / v/
Substitution of w to v in Chagga occur especially at the word initial position in
that the w sound is there but is rarely used by the speakers of the language hence they
find themselves prefer v to w. Observe the following data;
Swahili Chagga Gloss
48) a. Wakulima vakulima ‗peasants‘
b. Wazimu varimu ‗crazness‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
81
81
c. Watu vandu ‗people‘
d. Wote voose ‗all‘
e. Wengi veengi ‗many‘
Unceremonious rule
w v #
Forma rule
-cons +cons
-syll -syll #
+glide +lab
This implies that, a glide is replaced by the labio dental stop / v/, in all the Chagga
loanwords nativization. The above data confirm what is stated in first part of this
Chapter, that / w/ is not a phonological phoneme in Chagga. Hence, the dental stop has
been substitute through the processes of nativization as how also observed in English
from French. A great point to note is that, what is stated above, substitution of w to v
also appears between vowel sounds as in data;
Swahili Chagga Gloss
48) f. Dawa dava ‗medicine‘
g .Kahawa kahava ‗coffee‘
Consequently, the above data 48 (f and g) is clearly advocated through the use of the
following rules;
Unceremonious rule
w v v-v
Formal rule
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
82
82
-syll +cons -high -high
-cons -syll
+lab +lab -back -back
-cor
+high
+back
Thus voiceless bilabial /w/ is substituted to a voiced alveolar fricative /v/ in between
vowel sounds.
Substitution of Sound /g/ /v/
Swahili Chagga Gloss
49) Mwoga mwoova ‗coward‘
Unceremonious rule for substitution
g v
Formal rule
+cons +cons +syll +syll
-syll -syll -con -cons
+velar +lab
Substitution of Sound /z/ /s/
In Chagga language particularly Kibosho dialect, the alveolar fricative / z/ is
replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga loanwords nativization such as;
Swahili Chagga Gloss
50) a. Ambukiza ambukisa transmitting
b. Angaza angasa ‗light ‗
c. Apizo apiso ‗curse‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
83
83
d. Ngozi ngosi ‗skin‘
e. Meza mesa ‗table‘
f. Mbuzi mbusi ‗goat‘
The at hand study observes that, what is stated in Chapter One, as / z/ is not a
phonological phoneme in Chagga do have vivid through its nativized phonemes. Thus,
the alveolar fricative has been substitute through the processes of nativization. The
substitution in (24 a-c) is informally represented as follows:
Unceremonious rule
z s v — v
The alveolar fricative / z/ is replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga
loanwords nativization as shown above.
Formal Rule
+cons +cons
-syll -syll cons +syll +syll
+strident +strident -cons -cons
+voice -voice
This marks that, a voiced alveolar fricative has been substituted to a voiceless alveolar
fricative when appeared between vowel sounds.
Substitution of Sound /g/ /k/
Furthermore, substitution in Chagga language in specific Marangu variety
is when velar plosive/g/ is replaced by another velar plosive /k/. In that a voice velar
plosive /g/ is replaced by voiceless velar plosive /k/ since it is not the phoneme of
Chagga.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
84
84
Swahili Chagga Gloss
51)a. Ufagio ufakio ‗broom‘
b. Garama karama ‗expense‘
The findings can be presented in these rules;
Unceremonious rule
g k [Chagga]
Formal Rule
+cons +cons
-syll -syll [Chagga]
+Voice -voice
Thereafter, a voiced velar plosive changes to be a voiceless velar plosive in
Chagga during nativization process.
4.3.4.2 Devoicing
In English as well as in Chagga, Devoicing (desonorization) is a sound
change where a voiced consonant becomes voiceless due to the influence of its
phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound
assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing. Devoicing phonological
process in English language has two different groups, which behave differently from
one another. Group one (1): Obstruent consonants /b d ɡ v ð z ʒ dʒ/. Group two (2):
approximant consonants /w r l j/‗‗. For the group one (1) consonants to retain full
voicing they must be surrounded by voiced sounds. If one of the group one consonants
is preceded by a voiceless sound or silence, or followed by a voiceless sound or silence,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
85
85
then some or all of its vocal fold vibration will be lost. Here are some English sentences
that provide the vivid:
i) This boy /ðɪs bɔɪ/ [ð ɪs b ɔɪ],
ii) My dog /maɪ dɒɡ/ [maɪ dɒɡ ],
iii) Misbehave /mɪsbɪheɪv/ [mɪsb ɪheɪv ],
iv) She‘s so good /ʃiːz səʊ ɡʊd/ [ʃiːz səʊ ɡʊd ]
This study claims that in English language devoicing takes place at the initial
position, at the middle or the final position of lexemes. Hence group one of this finding
in English appeared to be the frequent occurrences of devoicing in Standard English.
Also this process is observed at final lexeme position particularly in German language,
Polish, Russian language and Dutch. In Chagga language, devoicing can occur when
preceded by nasal consonant, word-finally or in contact with a specific vowel. For
example, Chagga phoneme /v/ is pronounced as phoneme /f/.
Swahili Chagga Gloss
52) a. Mvua mfua ‗rain‘
b. Vua fua ‗take off‘
c. Viatu fiatu ‗shoes‘
d. Vitu findo ‗things‘
e. Mbivu mbifu ‗ripe‘
f. Vumbi fumbi ‗dust‘
To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with
both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
v f [ # ]
[v – v
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
86
86
Formal rule
+cons +cons #
-syll -syll +syll +syll
-lab +lab +cons -cons -cons
+dent +dent +nas
+voice -voice
Therefore a voiced sound becomes voiceless sound that is affected either by one
environment or the other. To adhere to research question three Chagga language
particularly Marangu variety, sound v become f when the sound is either at the word
initial position, preceded by nasal consonant or when it is between vowel sounds which
is different from English language.
4.3.4.3 Cluster Tolerance
Chagga language as well as how English does, it admits consonant clusters as a
phonological co-occurrence. Any English syllable can begin with a vowel, with one,
two or three consonants. The study with scholars, observes that no lexeme in English
begins with more than three consonants this means the maximum number of segments
in the word initial consonant cluster is three. At the beginning of English
words/syllables, there are 55 two-consonant clusters. In many cases the first element is
phoneme /s/ and the second consonant is approximant /l, r, w, j/. In English language
there are two major categories of consonant cluster namely, initial and final consonant
cluster. For instance the initial English consonant cluster starting with oral plosive: [pr,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
87
87
pl, pj, pw, pf, ps, pʃ, br, bl, bj, tr, tw, tj, dr, dj, dw, kr, kl, kw, kj, km, kn, kv, gr, gl, gw]
making a total of 26 phonemes; those starting with nasal plosive: [nj, mj, mw] with a
number of 3; and also the ones starting with fricative: [fl, fr, fj, vj, vw, θr, θw, θj, st, sp,
sk, sl, sw, sn, sm, sf, sj, sr, sv, zl, ʃr, ʃm, ʃn, ʃp, ʃw, hj] in total a number of 26.
Also, there are 55 final two-consonant clusters in English. They usually end with
/s, z, t, d, θ/ which represent separate morphemes /s, z/ are the sound forms of ending -
(e)s, and /t, d/ stand for ending -(e)d. There are those starting with oral plosive: [pθ, pt,
ps, bd, bz, tθ, ts, dz, kθ, kt, ks, gd, gz] in total comprises of 13 phonemes; also those
starting with nasal plosive: [mp, mf, mt, md, mz, nθ, nt, nd, ns, nz, nʃ, nʃ, ŋθ, ŋt, ŋd, ŋz,
ŋk, ŋg] on a range of 18; moreover are the ones starting with fricative: [fθ, ft, fs, vd, vz,
θs, δd, δz, sp, st, sk, zd, ʃt, ʃd] of 14; there are others starting with approximant: [lp, lf,
lθ, lt, ld, ls, lz, lk] which are only 8 and lastly the ones starting with affricate: ʃt, ʃd 2.
On the other hand, the study observes that, some of the loanwords from Standard
Swahili were found to have retained consonant clusters in the borrowed Swahili words.
Consider the following findings from Swahili to Chagga language with its gloss in
English as taken from the corpus:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
53) a. Anza ansa ‗start‘
b. Chumvi shumbi ‗salt‘
c. Dhambi sambi ‗sin‘
d. Chumba shumba ‗room‘
e. Chemsha shemsha ‗boil‘
f. Zungumza sungumsa ‗chat‘
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
88
88
g. Vimba imba ‗swell‘
The present study clearly observes that, the beneficiary language has tolerated
the consonant cluster [mb], [mʃ], [mz] and [nz, ns] that are permissible in Chagga
language. Cluster tolerance in Chagga language is generated by prestige as it overrules
well-formedness. Although the beneficiary language has a means of adapting innovative
words, sometimes not all syllables are changed; there is a high level of
broadmindedness. Nonetheless, from the study it is observed that Chagga and Swahili
languages are Bantu languages so it is likely to share some phonological features as
words were found to have retained the phonotactics of the lending language.
4.3.4.4 Vowel Lengthening
In English linguistics vowel lengthening is the perceived duration of
a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may
have arisen from one etymologically, such as in Australian English. While not
distinctive in most other dialects of English, vowel length is an
important phonemic factor in many other languages, for instance
in Arabic, Finnish, Fijian, Kannada, Japanese, Old English, Scottish
Gaelic and Vietnamese. Moreover vowel lengthening happens in lexeme syllable soon
before the voiced consonant. It plays a phonetic role in the majority of dialects of
British English and is said to be phonemic in a few other dialects, such as Australian
English, South African English and New Zealand English. It also plays a lesser phonetic
role in Cantonese, unlike other varieties of Chinese. Mostly vowel lengthening in
English is used for emphatic language purpose.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
89
89
For instance; when one wants to explain about something with huge size or has
been made of much expense will longer the vowel to show emphasis.
i) The medal is made from the veeeery cost expenditure
ii) She was sooooo calm at a time
iii) His wife is veeery veeeery ignorant
Thereafter at present study recognizes the use of this phonological process varying from
its purpose in Chagga and that of English. Chagga language in a specific manner
Kibosho and Marangu varieties, vowel lengthening do happen as, some of the vowels
said to be lengthened when nativizing Swahili words into Chagga language. Observe the
below seven vowel lengthening findings;
Swahili Chagga Gloss
54) a. Daktari dakitaari ‗doctor‘
b. Binamu binaamu ‗cousin ‗
c. Boksi ibookisi ‗box‘
d. Mwoga mwooka ‗coward‘
e. Shule ishuule ‗school‘
In lexemes ‘binaamu’ and ‘dakitaari‘ in the findings 54 a-b the front open vowel sound
/a/ has been lengthened in order to create the preferred sounds of Chagga language.
To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
a aa c c
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
90
90
Formal rule
+low +long +con +cons
-back -syll -syll
The front half closed vowel sound /e/ in the word ‘basikeeli’ in data (54c) has been
lengthened also in order for a word to acquire the native language (Chagga) features.
Also to answer problem two the following rules is derived by the study:
Unceremonious rule
e ee c c
Formal rule
+mid +long +cons +cons
-back -syll -syll
The lexeme ‘biiblya’ (data 54 d) has vowel that has been lengthened for a word
to acquire the preferred pronunciation in borrowing language and the lengthened vowel
sound is /i/, the front closed vowel. This can be derived with the following rules so as to
adhere to research question two:
Unceremonious rule
i ii i c
Formal rule
+high +long +high +cons
-back -back -syll
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
91
91
In the lexeme ‘ibookisi’ data (54 e), the back, half closed vowel sound /o/ has
been lengthened so that a word to acquires native features.
Unceremonious rule:
o oo c c
Formal rule
+mid +long +cons +cons
+back -syll -syll
In Chagga language some cases lengthening of vowels is caused by the gliding
and oral consonant environment. The lexeme ‘mwoova’ data (54 f), the back, half
closed vowel phoneme /o/ has been lengthened so that a word to acquires native
features. This is shown by the rules derived as the result of problem two of the research
presented below:
Unceremonious rule
o oo
Forma rule
+mid long +cons +cons
+back -syll -syll
+glide +lab
In lexeme such as ‘shuule’, the back closed vowel sound /u/ has been
lengthened so as to create the preferred sound in Chagga language as the process of
nativizing loan words. Thus the below rules answer question two of the research:
Unceremonious rule
u uu c c
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
92
92
Formal rule
+high +long +cons +cons
+back -syll -syll
4.3.4.5 Diaffricativization
In English language it is the phonological process, whereby an affricate becomes
a fricative. It can also refer to the deletion of a stop component from an affricate leaving
only the continuant aspect. For instance: English lexeme [cheese] is processed with a
fricative voiceless sound /ʃ/ and the voiced affricate [jar] is processed and to be
pronounced as phoneme /ʒ/ The process is motivated by native speakers‘ pronunciation
during speech production.
i) Cheese /iz/ sheese /ʃiːz/
ii) Jar / dʒaer/ zhar /ʒaer/.
This phonological process is also clearly observed in the study particularly Kibosho
variety of Chagga. This study observes and clarifies the below three lexemes findings
from Chagga language with its phonological rule that govern its occurrence:
Swahili Chagga Gloss
55) a. Uchawi Usawi ‗magical‘
b. Macho miso ‗eyes‘
c. Mchawi msawi ‗witch‘
To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both
unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:
Unceremonious rule
ʧ s
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
93
93
Forma rule
+cons +cons intervocalic ally
-syll +sibilant
+affr +cons
+alve +nas
-voice
Thereafter, a voiceless fricative becomes a voiceless fricative either intervocalic ally or
proceeded by nasal consonant.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
92
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
At the hand study, scrutiny on the phonological processes of nativized words in
Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga language, from Standard Swahili has clearly
observed. The scrutiny on phonological processes of nativized words in the two
varieties has been clarified by the greater influence of Generative CV Phonology
Theory. This very session provides the summary, conclusion, recommendations and
suggestions for further studies in either Bantu or Asian (Indonesian) languages to which
have not much studied.
5.1 Conclusion
The study has observed in general view that Chagga language particularly
Kibosho and Marangu varieties has five vowel systems. The five vowels are categorized
also into four long vowels and short vowels. The five Chagga vowels are [a, ɛ, i ɔ and
u]. Meanwhile English language has got twenty vowels. Chagga has nineteen
consonants phonemes different from those twenty four consonants phonemes in English
language. The nineteen consonant phonemes of Chagga includes; the five stops
phonemes which are produced with complete closure and then sudden released with a
burst sound; / p /, / b/, /t/, / d/ and / k/. Chagga has five fricatives phonemes which
includes; / f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/. Also the language has only one affricate / ʧ/. Never
the less it has lateral phoneme / l / and the trill sound / r/ as well as glides/semi-vowel
phonemes / w/ and / y/. Hence the language has a sum of twenty four phonemes
comprising five vowels and nineteen consonants in all Chagga varieties.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
93
93
In addressing problem questions one, two and three simultaneous the study
observed the syllable structure of Chagga first hence pronouncements that, Chagga
language has the syllables structure of VCV, CV and CCV. Thereafter, Chagga has the
syllable general syllable structure of `CCV` constituting a nasal phoneme, an oral
phoneme and a vowel. Chagga has two common syllable structures which are CV and
CVCV. As well, the study shows the processes that Swahili language lexemes undergo
as they are being adapted by Chagga language as how English adapt direct from French;
i.e. Madamemadam, Chaisechair, Longuelong, Cartecard, Fatalefatal,
Objetobject, Raisonreason. The italicized lexemes are the origin borrowed lexemes
from French to English after nativazation.
Furthermore the present study instituted that since the phonotactics of the
benefactor language (Swahili) in here and the beneficiary language (Chagga)
particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties are different; then beneficiary language uses
some approach to adapt the phonologically different words. The main approaches used
were insertion, deletion, assimilation, and voicing, devoicing, vowel lengthening and
feature change/substitution. Two types of insertion/epenthesis which are anaptyxis and
prosthesis have been found to operate on Chagga language loanwords which are also
found on phonological processes in English.
For the third question precisely the scrutiny has shown that vowel
epenthesis/prothesis is more common than vowel epenthesis/anaptyxis which made the
study recognizes the little variation with that of English. Also there is no consonants are
inserted in word initial or final position during the nativization processes.
Supplementary the study instituted that for insertion processes in the two varieties only
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
94
94
one vowel sound; /i/ is inserted in the word initial position during prosthesis process as
well as anaptyxis in Chagga language in specific Kibosho variety. Meanwhile for
English language, vowel insertion is used mostly inserted vowel sound /a/ for as its
prothesis marker. Also the study observed that, in English language prothesis different
from Chagga purpose, is highly utilized since Middle English and Old one by scholars
like William Shakespeare and Edgar Alan Poe in poetic writing purposely on rhythmical
manner and to raise emphasis.
Moreover another similarities observed so as to answer question three include,
insertions of vowel sounds where the two are more consonants occur in one syllable and
it also apply at word final position. All these are done purposely to make sure that the
preferred sound of borrowing language is achieved. Apart from that, insertion of vowel
occurs in order to have the needed syllable structure or the common structure of a
borrowing language and for the purpose of native speakers to have pronunciation
ability. Standard Swahili has some words that have the CC cluster and when these
words borrowed into Chagga, they must be simplified by inserting vowel in between the
two consonants. This makes native speakers to have easy articulation of Kibosho
lexemes nativized from Swahili.
The recent study also in relative to problem one observed that as English does
likely in Chagga language there are three types of deletion: Apocope, aphaeresis and
syncope have been found to operate on Chagga loanwords with their derived rules
respectively. Deletion of consonants takes place in the nativization of loanwords in
Chagga especially in aphaeresis whereas the deletion of syllable takes place in syncope
and apocope. The study verifies that as applied in English language, Chagga language
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
95
95
do admit consonant clusters. However, from the findings collected, (04) loanwords were
found to have retained consonant clusters in the borrowed Swahili language lexemes.
There are some cases where borrowing language does not modify or change features of
lending language. Nothing which is modified in that the recipient language has endured
the consonant cluster of: [mb], [mʃ] and [nz] that are allowed in Chagga language.
Adhering to question three, devoicing also occur in Chagga language as in
English language when a voiced consonant becomes voiceless due to the influence of its
phonological environment. Devoicing is mostly commonly, result of sound
assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing. The study observes that
Chagga language, devoicing can occur when preceded by nasal consonant, word-finally
or in contact with a specific vowel. In addition, voicing (or sonorization) is due to the
influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is a result
of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound. In Chagga language voicing occurs in a
word final or in contact with a specific vowel.
Furthermore in addressing question three, feature changes exhibited by
Consonant substitution in Chagga as well as in English. This occurs especially to
replace segments which are not part of Chagga phonemic inventory. Many of them are
replaced by Chagga segments that are in proximity to them in terms of place and
manner of articulation. There is also rules change when nativizing Swahili borrowed
lexemes. Thus, for some words to acquire native languages, the rules change must
occur. For instance; in chapter four, sound /p/ has changed to sound /b/ in the
environment of upper back vowel sound /u/ and in the environment of front, half closed
vowel sound /e/. Vowel sound lengthening has also occurred when nativizing Swahili
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
96
96
language loanwords in Chagga language. At present study recognizes the use of vowel
sound lengthening phonological process varying from its purpose in Chagga and that of
English. English uses it purposely for emphatic reason. Chagga language in a specific
manner Kibosho and Marangu varieties, vowel lengthening do happen as, some of the
vowels said to be lengthened when nativizing Swahili words into Chagga language.
The study findings have also shown that the loanword phenomenon can be
described using Generative CV Phonology. The scrutiny of the phonological processes
of loanwords is conducted using the framework of Generative CV-Phonology theory.
The stated syllable-based theory is applied to conduct an empirical analysis of the
Phonological Processes of loanwords borrowed from Standard Swahili in two selected
varieties of Chagga Language (Kibosho and Marangu).
The study shown that, in relation to research problem three, Swahili has made
the recipient language tolerate consonant clusters which is very common in English
language. Changes in the phonotactics of Chagga occasioned by the phonological
processes operating on Chagga loanwords have thus been identified. The scrutiny shows
that, compared to other vowels, /i/ is the most common epenthesised vowel. In the same
vein, voiceless obstruents are favored compared to voiced obstruents and this marks
among the differences in between Chagga and that of English. This generates the
devoicing analyzed in the study findings.
5.2 Suggestions for Further Research
At present study provides answers to the three questions asked in chapter one.
The findings as given out by research respondents provide vivid that the phonological
processes of nativized loanwords in Chagga from Standard Swahili do subsist. Due to
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
97
97
this, the researcher has now confirmed that the intended processes are there as same
found in English language with very minor variations. Nativization of loan lexemes
which triggers phonological processes is an avoidable process in the sense that, if any
language has contacts with another language (Indonesian and Malayu language, English
and Germanic languages, English and Indian languages, English and French) as a result
of economic, social, cultural and even historical way, borrowing is said to be
inescapable/mandatory.
Chagga language has contacts with many languages some of them being
English, but mostly Swahili language as the major Bantu language. All borrowed words
must acquire the features of borrowing language which are relying in the phonological
and morphological levels of linguistic. They must have features that resemble that of
native language. In most cases, the addressee system is usually at the substratum in
comparison to the patron language which is at the super stratum as also stated by Mwita,
2009. Those adjustments in the phonology of Chagga revealed in this study discussion
are triggered by already mentioned data.
This study has utilized Generative CV- Phonology Theory to study phonological
processes of nativized lexemes in Chagga with English language as the comparison. The
study has provided a light for the study of other language phenomena in Chagga using
Generative CV- Phonology. It therefore, suggests that further research be carried out in
other areas of Chagga morph-phonology /phonology such as tone and syllable structure.
The researcher has only concentrated on the nativization of Kibosho and Marangu
varieties of Chagga loanwords from Standard Swahili. Chagga has also borrowed
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
98
98
lexical items from other African languages. Further research on how Chagga adopts
lexemes from other languages should be carried out for linguistics purposes.
The study proves that there is nativization process in that triggers the
phonological processes in Chagga, here are the recommendations as suggested by the
researcher: Since the researcher was dealing only with scrutiny of phonological
processes of nativized lexemes in two varieties of Chagga language from Standard
Swahili, other aspects of Morphological Linguistics should be investigated as well for
linguistics broadening in local languages all over the world.
The researcher recommends that some linguistics researches should be carried in
local Asian languages such as Javanese, Indonesian and Papuan Malayu languages.
Also there should be highly observation of other Bantu languages closely related to
Chagga so as to study if the phonological processes are different or resemble those of
English. The researcher further recommends on supplementary study to see the extent to
which Chagga language has influenced Swahili language as a result of linguistic
contacts.
Summing up the study clearly only considered borrowed nouns and verbs. A
study on other word classes would give more light on Chagga loanword phenomenon.
Notably, Chagga and Swahili are basically agglutinating. A study on the behavior of
different morphemes in borrowed words would be very interesting. Since semantics
studies said to be abandoned by linguists the researcher found out a need for
nativazation impact on meaning relation on loan words in different languages of the
world (Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese, and Indo European languages) for adding
more linguistics data.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
98
REFERENCES
Ali, A.Z. (2012). A Phonological Study of English and Arabic Assimilation: A
Contrastive study. Journal of College of language (25), 148-172
Berry, Anita, K. (2002). Linguistics Perspectives on Language and Education. New
York: Greenwood.
Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper &
Row Publishers
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague. Mouton
Clements, G. & S. J. Keyser (1983). CV Phonology: A Generative Theory of the
Syllable.
Dirvan, R. (2004). Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. London:
University of Duisburg.
Duanmu, S. (2009). Syllable Structure. The Limits of Variation. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Elly Van Gelderen (2006). A History of the English language. London: John
Benjamins Publishers.
Fisher, T. (2012). Chagga Elites and the Politics of Ethnicity in Kilimanjaro,
Edinburgh. The University of Edinburgh.
Gardner, W.(2012). Toward Transcultural Training in Phonological Processes for
Bantu Language: Mother Tongue Translator.
Guthrie, M. (1948). The classification of Bantu languages. London: Oxford University
Press.
Guthrie, M. (1967-1971). Comparative Bantu: An introduction to Comparative
Linguistic and Prehistory of Bantu languages. Farnborough: Gregg Press.
Heine, D & Philippson, G. (2003). The Bantu Languages. New York: Routledge
Publishers.
Hoffer, B. (2005). Language Borrowing and the Indices of Adaptability and Receptivity,
Trinity University Press.
Hyman, L. (1975). Phonology: Theory & Analysis. London: Holt- Rinnehert and
Winston.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
99
99
Kenstowicz, M. (1994). Phonology in Generative Grammar, Blackwell Textbooks in
Linguistics. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. Languages: An introduction.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ladefoged, P. (2006). A Course in Phonetics. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.
Lema, A. A. (1973). The Impact of the Leipzig Lutheran Mission on the People of
Kilimanjaro: Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam.
Mahlangu, K. (2007). Adoption of loanwords in Ndebele. University of Pretoria.
Massamba, D. (2010). Phonological Theory: History and Development, Dar-es-salaam:
Institute of Swahili.
Massamba, D.P.B. (1991). Phonological theory: History and development. Dar es
Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Mushi. M. (2005). Endangered African Proverbs Collections: A continuation of the
African Proverb Project. Arusha, Tanzania, CNET global inc.
Mutua, N (2007). A constraint-based analysis of Kikamba nativized loanwords,
Nairobi: University of Nairobi
Mwaliwa, H (2014). An Analysis of the Syllable Structure of Standard Kiswahili
Loanwords from Modern Standard Arabic, Nairobi: The University of Nairobi.
Mwihaki, A.N. (1998). Loanword nativization: A generative view of the phonological
adaptation of Gĩkũyũ loanwords. Nairobi: Kenyatta University.
Mwita, L.C. (2009). The adaptation of Swahili loanwords from Arabic: A constraint
based Analysis. The journal of Pan African studies, vol.2, no.8, 46-60. Retrieved
http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol2no8/2._Adaptationofswahililoanwords.
Nathan, G. (2008). Phonology; A Cognitive Grammar Introduction. USA. Routledge.
Newman, P. (2000). Comparative Linguistics. In D. Nurse and B. Heine (eds.) African
Nurse, D. and Philippson, G. (1977). Tone in Old Moshi (Chagga).Dar es Salaam. The
University of Dar es Salaam
Oden, D (2005) Introducing Phonology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Peter T & Chilling, N. (2001). Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Bazil Blackwell.
Roach, P. (2002). English Phonetics & Phonology; A practical Course. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
100
100
Schane, A. (1973). Natural Rules in Phonology. In R.P Stockwell & Ronald K. S
Macaulay Linguistic Change and Generative Theory. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Tsvetkov, Y, Ammar, W &Dyer, C (2005). Constraint-Based Models of Lexical
Borrowing. Carnegie Mellon University. USA. Pittsburgh.
Trask, R. L. (1996). A Dictionary of Phonetics & Phonology. London: Routledge.
Pp.296.
Ziegler, J & Goswami, U. (2005). The effects of spelling consistency on phonological
awareness: A comparison of English and German.
Zivenge, W (2009). Phonological and Morphological Nativization of English Loans in
Tonga. University of South Africa.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
101
APPENDICES
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
102
102
Appendix 1: The Interview Guide Questions
a) Kindly point out some loanword you are aware of.
b) Assuming that you borrow a lexeme from a new language, do you encounter any
language modification?
c) Kindly adhere to the following lexemes and inform me if they are etymologically
from your variety.
d) Kindly with your own mother tongue pronounce the following lexemes.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
103
103
Appendix 2: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga- Noun
Category
s/n
Swahili Chagga Word
category
Gloss
1 Apizo apiso N curse
2 Adhabu asabu N punishment
3 Bakuli bakuri N bowl
4 Basi ibaasi N car
5 Baba papa N father
6 Binamu binaamu N cousin
7 Blanketi iblangeti N blanket
8 Boksi ibookisi N box
9 Chai shai N tea
10 Chafua shafuo N make dirty
11 Chakula chao N food
12 Chama chaama N club
13 Chako shako N yours
14 Cheka seka N laugh
15 Chenza ishenza N tangerine
16 Chokaa shokaa N lime
17 Choroko shoroko N green gram
18 Chubua shubua N bruise
19 Chuma shuma N iron
20 Chumba shumba N room
21 Chumvi shumbi N salt
22 Chupa shuba N bottle
23 Chupi shubi N underpants
24 Dagaa dakaa N very small fish
25 Damu samu N blood
26 Dawa dava N medicine
27 Debe ideve N tin
28 Debe ideve N tin
29 Dhahabu sahabu N gold
30 Dhamana samana N guarantee
31 Dhambi sambi N sin
32 Dharau sarau N scorn
33 Dirisha dirisha N window
34 Embe imweembe N mango
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
104
104
35 Garama karama N expenses
36 Gari ikari N car
37 Godoro ikodoro N mattress
38 Gunia ikunia N sack
39 Iva ira N ripen
40 Jembe iyembe N hoe
41 Jicho riso N eye (singular)
42 Jiko riko N kitchen
43 Jina rina N name
44 Jiwe iwe N stone
45 Jua ruva N sun
46 Kiatu chaatu N shoe (singular)
47 Kijiko kiliko N spoon
48 Kikapu kikabu N basket
49 Kiporo kiboro N food left – over
50 Kisu kishu N knife
51 Kitanda kitara N bed
52 Kufa fo N to die
53 Kula lya N to eat
54 Kunywa nna N to drink
55 Macho meso N eyes (plural)
56 Mate mata N saliva
57 Maziwa maruva N milk
58 Mburu mburu/mbusi N goat
59 Mchawi msai N witch
60 Mdogo mdoko N younger
61 Meza mesa N table
62 Mkopo mkobo N credit/debit
63 Mlango mwaango N door
64 Moto modo N fire
65 Msitu msutu N forest
66 Mvi mfi N grey hair
67 Mvua mfua N rain
68 Mwezi mweeri N moon
69 Mwoga mwoova N coward
70 Mzimu mrimu N spirit of dead
person
71 Mzinga mringa N beehive
72 Mzungu msuungu N white man
73 Nazi nasi N coconut fruit
74 Nchi nji N territory/country
75 Ndugu nduku N brother
76 Ng‘ombe umbe N cow
77 Ngazi ngasi N stair
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
105
105
78 Ngozi ngosi N skin
79 Nguruwe nguve N pig
80 Nguvu ngufu N strength
81 Njaa nshaa N hunger
82 Njaa nshaa N hunger
83 Njia nshia N path
84 Nyanya nyaanya N tomato
85 Nyoka njoka N snake
86 Nyonya onga N suck
87 Nyuki njuki N bee
88 Nyumba mba N house
89 Nyundo nundu N hammer
90 Nzi insii N fly
91 Paka baka N cat
92 Pakua bakuo N serve
93 Pambana bambana N struggle
94 Panga ibanga N bush knife
95 Panga ibanga N arrange
96 Papai ibabai N pawpaw
97 Pera ibera N guava
98 Pesa besa N money
99 Pete bête N ring
100 Picha pisha N picture
101 Pilipili bilibili N pepper
102 Pipa ibiba N barrel
103 Povu pofu N foam
104 Pua mbua N nose
105 Shangazi shangasi N aunt
106 Shati ishati N shirt
107 Shimo ishimo N hole
108 Shingo singo N neck
109 Shule sishuule N school
110 Shtua sutua N astound
111 Suruali suruvali N trouser
112 Tawanya itawanya N strech
113 Tone itone N drop
114 Trekta itirekita N tractor
115 Ua iwa N flower
116 Uchawi usawi N magical
117 Uchungu ushungu N bitterness
118 Ufagio ufakio N broom
119 Ugali ukari N gar
120 Ugonjwa ugonshwa N illness
121 Upya uiya N newness
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
106
106
122 Utelezi utelesi N slipperiness
123 Utu undu N virtue
124 Uwanja uwansha N play ground
125 Uwezo uweso N ability
126 Uzito urito N weight
127 Viatu fiatu N shoes (plural)
128 Vita fita N war
129 Vitu findo N objects
130 Watu vandu N people
131 Wazimu warimu N craziness
132 Yai iyai N eggs
133 Zaka saka N ten percent
134 Zamu samu N shift
135 Mji mri N homestead
136 Miaka maka N year
137 Mwezi meri N month
138 Mbegu mbeu N seed
139 Ulimi olumi N tongue
140 Pembe ombe N horn
141 Jino ihiho N tooth
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
107
107
Appendix 3: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga - Verb
Category
s/n Swahili Chagga Word
category
Gloss
1 Adhabu asabu V punishment
2 Ambukiza ambukisa V transmit
2 Meza mera V swallow
3 Angaza angasa V light
4 Anza ansa V start
5 Chafua shafua V make dirty
6 Chambua shambua V clean
7 Cheka seka V laugh
8 Chelewa shelewa V delay
9 Chemsha shemsha V heat
10 Chenga sheenga V avoid by trickery
11 Chinja shinja V butcher
12 Choka shoka V tired
13 Chora shora V draw
14 Chuki shuki V hate
15 Chukiza shukiza V displease
16 Fua ifua V wash clothes
17 Fyeka ifeka V slash
18 Koroga koroka V stir
19 Kufa fa V die
20 Kula lya V eat
21 Kunywa nywa V drink
22 Meza mera V swallow
25 Nyima ima V deny
26 Nyonya onga V suck
27 Ogopa ohova V fear
28 Pakua bakua V dish up
29 Panga ibanga V arrange
30 Pima bima V measure
31 Pita ida V pass
32 Saga saha V grind
33 Shona ishona V sew
34 Shutuka ishutuka V startle
35 Tawala tavala V govern
36 Tawanya itavanya V spread
37 Tega teka V set a trip
38 Tetemeka itetema V tremble
39 Tua itua V put down
40 Tuma duma V send
41 Ua waa V kill
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
108
108
42 Vimba imba V swell
43 Vua dua V take off
44 Washa ata V light
45 Zomea somea V mock
46 Zunguka sunguka V revolve
47 Zungumza sungumsa V chat
48 Chafuka shafuka V become dirt
49 Ota odia V dream
50 Weka vika V put
51 Ona wona V see
52 Vaa raa V wear
53 Lima suma V dig
54 Toa duo V take away
55 Ruka runduka V fly
56 Kua kuo V get big
57 Lala laa V sleep
58 Funga shinga V close
59 Twende honde V let go
60 Njoo nshio V come
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI