Philosophical Philosophical ProblemsProblems

Most philosophical problems are Most philosophical problems are conceptual in natureconceptual in nature

One way for this to happen is for One way for this to happen is for two beliefs to conflict conceptually two beliefs to conflict conceptually

with one anotherwith one another

ExampleExample1.1. ““There is evil in the world”There is evil in the world”

2.2. ““God exists”God exists”

A problem because the A problem because the concept concept of of God might include “being all God might include “being all good” and “creator of good” and “creator of everything.” everything.”

Thus, it seems Thus, it seems prima facie prima facie impossible for God and Evil to impossible for God and Evil to exist concurrently.exist concurrently.

ResponseResponse1.1. ““There is no God!” (allows for evil)There is no God!” (allows for evil)

2.2. ““There is no evil!” (allows for God)There is no evil!” (allows for God)

3.3. A redefining of God or Evil that A redefining of God or Evil that makes the two makes the two concepts concepts compatiblecompatible

One medieval solution: define evil as a One medieval solution: define evil as a lack lack and then declare that God and then declare that God creates everything that creates everything that positively positively exists, whereas “lacks” do not exists, whereas “lacks” do not positively exist. positively exist.

What Did it Do? What Did it Do? Note that this is a Note that this is a conceptual conceptual issue. issue.

Redefining “evil” to make it Redefining “evil” to make it compatible with God is to figure compatible with God is to figure out a way for the two concepts out a way for the two concepts to work together, or to be able to work together, or to be able to apply in the same conditions. to apply in the same conditions.

What is “Redefining”?What is “Redefining”?

Start with Start with definitions. definitions. A definition of A definition of X gives X gives necessary and sufficient necessary and sufficient conditions for a given concept to conditions for a given concept to apply in the world (for it to be apply in the world (for it to be “instantiated.”“instantiated.”

Necessary ConditionsNecessary Conditions

X is a X is a necessary condition necessary condition for Y for Y if and if and only if only if

If you have Y, then you must have X. If you have Y, then you must have X.

If you don’t have X, then you don’t have If you don’t have X, then you don’t have Y. Y.

Necessary ConditionsNecessary Conditions

““Being three sided” is a Being three sided” is a necessary condition necessary condition for being a for being a triangle. triangle. So, So,

If you have YIf you have Y (a triangle) (a triangle), then you must have X (being , then you must have X (being three-sided). three-sided).

If you don’t have X (three sidedness), then you don’t If you don’t have X (three sidedness), then you don’t have Y (being a triangle). have Y (being a triangle).

In other words, “being three sided” is an essential part of In other words, “being three sided” is an essential part of what triangle objects are. The what triangle objects are. The concept concept of of triangularity cannot be instantiated without “three-triangularity cannot be instantiated without “three-sidedness” also being instantiated.sidedness” also being instantiated.

Sufficient ConditionsSufficient Conditions

X is a X is a sufficient condition sufficient condition for Y for Y if if and only if and only if

If you have X, then you must have If you have X, then you must have Y. Y.

Sufficient ConditionsSufficient Conditions

““Being scalene” is a Being scalene” is a sufficient condition sufficient condition for being a triangle. for being a triangle. So, So,

If you have XIf you have X (being scalene) (being scalene), then you , then you must have Y (being a triangle). must have Y (being a triangle).

In other words, if the property of “being In other words, if the property of “being scalene” is instantiated, that is scalene” is instantiated, that is sufficient sufficient for us to know that for us to know that “triangularity” is also instantiated. “triangularity” is also instantiated.

Once AgainOnce Again

To define a concept requires that we give To define a concept requires that we give both both necessary and sufficient conditions. So we necessary and sufficient conditions. So we must list must list

(1)(1) what properties what properties must must be instantiated if be instantiated if that concept is instantiated that concept is instantiated

AND AND

(1)(1) The properties which, if instantiated, would The properties which, if instantiated, would be be enoughenough for us to for us to know know that the concept that the concept is also instantiated. is also instantiated.

Criticize These Criticize These DefinitionsDefinitions

Politician: a person who deceives Politician: a person who deceives others for personal gain.others for personal gain.

Is this a necessary condition? (can Is this a necessary condition? (can the concept be instantiated without the concept be instantiated without the condition being instantiated?)the condition being instantiated?)

In other words: are there politicians In other words: are there politicians who do who do not not deceive others for gain?deceive others for gain?

Criticize These Criticize These DefinitionsDefinitions

Politician: a person who deceives Politician: a person who deceives others for personal gain.others for personal gain.

Is this a sufficient condition? (can Is this a sufficient condition? (can the condition be instantiated the condition be instantiated without the concept being without the concept being instantiated?)instantiated?)

In other words: can one deceive In other words: can one deceive others for gain but still not be a others for gain but still not be a politician? politician?

PhilosophyPhilosophyUnderstand the concepts people use by Understand the concepts people use by

attempting to ascertain the exact attempting to ascertain the exact conditions under which they would conditions under which they would apply (or not apply). So: define apply (or not apply). So: define concepts. concepts.

Socrates asked big questions, like Socrates asked big questions, like “what is beauty?” or “what is the “what is beauty?” or “what is the good?” good?”

He wants to know “what is the He wants to know “what is the essential nature of these things? essential nature of these things?

The (Dreaded) Euthyphro ProblemThe (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem What is “the holy”? (what are its What is “the holy”? (what are its

necessary and sufficient necessary and sufficient conditions?)conditions?)

Pass #1: Prosecuting someone for Pass #1: Prosecuting someone for murder. murder.

What’s wrong with it? What’s wrong with it?

The (Dreaded) Euthyphro ProblemThe (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem What is “the holy”? (what are its What is “the holy”? (what are its

necessary and sufficient necessary and sufficient conditions?)conditions?)

Pass #2: What is pleasing to the Gods. Pass #2: What is pleasing to the Gods.

What’s wrong with it? (assuming the What’s wrong with it? (assuming the Greek mythology Socrates and Greek mythology Socrates and Euthyphro share). Euthyphro share).

The (Dreaded) Euthyphro ProblemThe (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem Pass #3: What is pleasing to the Gods. Pass #3: What is pleasing to the Gods.

What is holy is what is pleasing to the Gods. What is holy is what is pleasing to the Gods. The Gods disagree.The Gods disagree. So, it is possible for some X, some Gods will be So, it is possible for some X, some Gods will be

pleased by it, some will hate it.pleased by it, some will hate it. So, it is possible that some X has and lacks the So, it is possible that some X has and lacks the

property “holy.” property “holy.”

Since it is not possible for #4 to be true, some Since it is not possible for #4 to be true, some premise in #1 - #3 must be false. premise in #1 - #3 must be false.

Conceptual AnalysisConceptual Analysis 1.1. Identify a problem. (What is “holiness”?)Identify a problem. (What is “holiness”?)

2.2. Propose a hypothesis (“holiness is what is Propose a hypothesis (“holiness is what is pleasing to the Gods.”)pleasing to the Gods.”)

3.3. Derive a test implication. So, if true, we Derive a test implication. So, if true, we are committed to the fact that some are committed to the fact that some things will be holy and not holy at the things will be holy and not holy at the same time. same time.

4.4. Perform the test. The concept cannot Perform the test. The concept cannot exist in a world governed by the exist in a world governed by the hypothesis given.hypothesis given.

5.5. Accept or reject the hypothesis. REJECT, Accept or reject the hypothesis. REJECT, since contradictions cannot exist. since contradictions cannot exist.