CONTENTS

PART - I

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Unit – 1 Philosophy of Education 3 - 26

Unit – 2 Fields of Philosophical Inquiry and Education 27 - 74

Unit – 3 Indian Schools of Philosophy 75 - 113

Unit – 4 Indian Philosophers of Education 114 - 141

Unit – 5 Western Schools of Philosophy 142 - 171

Unit – 6 Western Philosophers of Education 172 - 216

PART - II

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Unit – 7 Sociology of Education 219 - 235

Unit – 8 Social Structure and Education 236 - 265

Unit – 9 Social Change and Education 266 - 294

Unit – 10 Process of Socialization 295 - 342

Unit – 11 Equality and Education 343 - 363

Unit – 12 Education and Economy 364 - 386

Unit – 13 Human Rights and Co-Existence 387 - 406

Unit – 14 Western Educational Thought 407 - 445

Unit – 15 Modern American and European Thought on Education 446 - 459

Unit – 16 Indian Educational Thought 460 - 472

Unit – 17 Recommendations of Different Committees 473 - 487

Unit – 18 Residential Type of Education in India 488 - 495

Index 496 – 498

UNIT – 16 OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you will be able to: Explain the Aims and Objectives of Buddhist education system. Discuss method of teaching according to Vedic education. Explain the structure of education in Medieval Europe.

BUDDHIST EDUCATION SYSTEM Introduction

Religious circumstances lead to the arouse of Buddhist religious as follows: Religious agony in the minds of people made them to think in new ways about the

Moksha (after death). People were fed up with the religious performance of Vedic religion and they are in the need of simple religion which would help them in overcoming all the difficult performances, nearly 66 schools of doctrine came into existence to preach the ideal of new religions, Buddhism and Jainism. In this circumstances Buddhism came into existence for giving new religious ideas under the leadership of Buddha. Buddha belongs to Kshatriya group so they too have accepted and realized the end of life is achievement of moksha but the ways of attainment are changed.

The three important principles are as follows: 1. Ahimsa – killing animals in the name of yagna is inhibited Ahimsa is

followed by giving out all the luxurious life. 2. Believing in Truth – people admired the simplicity of the religion. 3. Dharma – Buddhism was accepted by the people as a religion. Buddhism is a Novel traditional practice.

Buddhist Education System as a by-product of Buddhism:

Since education is a by-product of religion it is as good as studying religion. 1. Education was given in Monasteries, Cenres of religion and education. The

teachers are addressed as ‘Acharyas’ and ‘Monks’. 2. Nature of Buddhist education is resendential as Vedic education. Students lived

in Monasteries. 3. A boy who attains the age of 8 has to undergo a ritual ceremony called

‘Pabbaj’ where child has to chant 3 sentences. “Buddham Sharanam Gacchami” “Sangham Sharanam Gacchami” “Dharmam Sharanam Gacchami” The meaning is I surrender myself and live my life according to this.

4. The duration of education is for 12 years. (Mass education).

Indian Educational Thought

5. Buddhist education influences the people to dedicate their life to the religion. Upasampada – convocation function for those who complete 1st phase of education. He has to declare himself before elder monks that he will dedicate his full life for the

propagation of Buddhism and he has to again get education for 20 more years and after that he work as monk.

First 12 years – elementary educations. After 20 years – period of higher education. Preparation of teacher’s profession for

the first time the education is institutionalized. Duties and responsibilities of teachers and students were defined.

6. In order to make the mind to feel the situation of kindness – Begging is one of the field experiences for students begging.

7. The students have to clean the places where they live, wash the clothes and help the teachers.

8. In Buddhist education ‘Acharyas’ too accompanied students when they go for begging. They used to get informal way of teaching the students in this way. They used to observe the behaviour of students when they go in front of the house while begging. Teachers correct the behaviour then only.

9. There was a demarcation living in hut of guru in Vedic education. But in Buddhist education the ‘Acharyas’ live in darmentaries with students. If any students fall ill the teachers save him as if the father is serving his son by giving good food, equal treatment for both rich and poor people.

10. Admission – opened for all except some categories. Women were not allowed, people from criminal families were not allowed, servants in the places who disobey the rules of kings, children from those servant’s families were not allowed.

Aims and Objectives of Buddhist Education Rules and Principles: -

1. Exploitation of animals on any reason is forbidden. The students should show concern to all animals.

2. Whether teachers or students should not accept any gift. They should not accept any gift from people while begging.

3. They should commit for pure life. 4. Nobody was allowed to say lie. The student should submit before his teacher if he has

committed the mistake. 5. The students are avoided to take food in untime. 6. One should not talk (ridicule, tease) about others.(teasing leads to inferiority

complex). 7. Buddhist education prohibited people involving in music, dancing and other

entertaining activities. 8. The students are prohibited by consuming of alcohols, toxicants, etc.

The students are prohibited of using or wearing of gold and other ornaments should commit to simple life. Development of Curriculum

Importance was given to environment through curriculum. Religion was major subject in Buddhist education. Many scholars from neighbouring countries travelled in India and stayed for years in Monasteries.

Importance was given to writing and arts, logic. Logic above serves as (solution) formula for many problems. Logic as a branch of knowledge was given importance all over Buddhist period.

(Hu-En-Tsang Pahiyn) stayed and studied day-to-day affairs in the Monasteries.

Harshavardhan was very loyal to Buddhism – The Lectures of these monks was listened for hours together by all the people. Limitations:-

1. Liberal education was given to all except some people who have peculiar occupational choices.

2. Women education is not given importance in Buddhist education. 3. Military education is not encouraged throughout the Buddisht period, which leads to

the invasion of foreigners in Medieval time. 4. Responsible for demonstration of military people.

VEDIC RELIGION CIRCUMSTANCES

The religion of the Rig Vedic people was simple. They worshipped a large number of gods in the form of the phenomena of nata. The big three of the vedic pantheon are Agni, Indra (God of rain and war) and Varuna (the God sky). Despite the reference to a large number of gods in the Rig Veda, the unity of God was not ignored.

There is also a reference to abstract deities such as ‘Shraddha’ or faith and among other wrath there are minor deities like Gandharvas or ariel spirits, Ribhur or ariel elves and Apsaras or water nymphs. The chief opponents of Gods are the asuras and rakshasas (demons). Some of the Rig Vedic gods are referred to as animals. For example Indra is referred to as a bull and the sun is referred to as a swift horse. However, it is painted out the RigVedic people believed that God and Goddesses behaved like human beings. They ate and drank and had feelings and emotions like ordinary mortals, for example, Indra, drank soma and fought the demon Uritra the demon of drought usual was the draught of the sky and was supposed to ride a shining car drawn by ruddy steeds. Rig Veda religion placed emphasis on optimism, the Aryans were men of vigour and activity and viewed life with hope and ambition.

1. Worship of Nature: They did not build temples or idols to worship their Gods but worshipped them by chanting hymns in the open air in praise of them. The Gods of the Vedic Aryans may be classified as celestial heavenly Gods, admospheric Gods and terrestrial Gods.

2. Monotheism: Though the RigVedic Aryans worshipped many Gods they also believed in the existence of one supreme power as the creator of the entire universe.

3. Sacrifices: The Gods were worshipped by means of sacrifice and prayers. The whole

family took part in yajnas and other religious ceremonies.\

4. Belief in life after death: The Aryans believed in life after death and the theory of karma had begun to take shape. Yama controlled the world of the dead and life in the next world was viewed as a replace of life in this. The concept of transmigration of soul had not got presented itself to the seers of this age.

System of Education

‘Svadhegaya’ has been already indicated education was not yet regarded as an end in itself but only as a means to an end. The performance of sacrifice, of specific ritual acts is abomination as means to this end of spiritual development for more stress is laid upon the study of the sacred texts. Indeed, the importance of such study is repeatedly insisted upon for which the technical name sadthiyaya is applied. The efficacy of spiritual development two more stress is laid upon the study of the sacred texts. Indeed, the importance of such study is repeatedly insisted upon for which the technical name svadhyaya is applied. The efficacy of svadhyaya is pointed out by the satapatha Brahmana which regards it as a form of sacrifice to the Brudman by which as imperishable world is gained. It is also pointed out that by the study and teaching of the veda, one becomes calm (Yerktanranah), independent of other, the best physician by himself, with his restraint of the senses uniformity of mental attitude, growth of intelligence, fame power of perfecting the people. The taittiriya Aranyaka also regards svadhyaya as brahma yajna or sacrifice of devotion and lays down certain direction as to the exact place and time of study. One should go outside the village, north or north-east, until the roofs case to be seen and after surprise and then repeat to himself the subjects connected therewith such as purana, kalpa, and Gethas and Narasarinsis) Need of the Teacher

The necessity of self-study did not preclude that of the student finding a teacher for himself. The futility of mere self-study is anyway recognized. The teacher is represented as indispensable to knowledge in Katha-Upanishad. Apart from the teacher, there is no access here.”

A teacher is regarded as necessary to disperse the mist of empirically acquired knowledge from our ages, as explained so beautifully in the following passage from the Chandogya Upanishad (VI, 14 I-2) “Precisely my dear sir, as a man who has been brought

blindfold from the country of Gandhari and then set at liberty in the desert goes astray to the east or north or south, because he has been brought thither blindfold and blindfold set at liberty; but after that someone has taken off the bandage and has told him, in this direction Gandara lies, go in this direction; instructed and prudent asking the road from village to village he finds his way to Gandhara; even so the man, who in this world has met with a teacher, becomes conscious.” Father as Teacher

It is also evident from the evidence that it was possible, in those days for a man to receive instruction from his father or at the hands of other teachers.

The Satapatha Brahmana (1,6,2,4) shown that a Brahmin was expected to instruct his own son in study and furnishes an illustration of this in Varuna, the Teacher of his son Bhrigu. Features of Vedic Education Admission to Studentship

Studentship is normally inaugurated by the ceremony of upanayana, the significance of which is most beautifully set forth in the Atharvaveda. The spiritual significance of the details of the Upanayana Ceremony is also indicated in the Satapatha (xi, 5, 4). The teacher lays his hand on the head of the pupil whereby he becomes pregnant with him (tena garbhi bhavathi) and then in the third night the embryo issues out of the teacher and being taught the Savutri, obtains true Brahminhood.” The request to be received by the precy was to be duty made according to the Brihada rangaka (VI,2,7). Upanaini Aham Bhavantam

In the Satapatha (xi, 5,4,1) the student has to say formally: “May I enter upon brahmacharya”, and “let me be a Brahmacarin.” The student has also to take the fuel in his hand as a token that he is willing to serve the teacher and especially to maintain the sacred fire. In the Satapatha Brahmana similarly, the teacher merely asks the name of the intending pupil and then accepts him. Period of Studentship

The period of studentship was normally fixed at twelve years. Svetaker returned home after spending twelve years with his preceptor. Upakosala Kamatayana dwells as Bhahmacharin in the home of Satyakarma, Jibete and tended his fires for twelve years.

There also seen have been no longer series of year with his preceptor during which four hundred cows had become a thousand. Studentship for 32 years also mentioned. The age at which such studentship commenced is indicated in the case of Svetaketu who begun his apprenticeship with a teacher when he was twelve years of age.

External Duties of Studentship

The first condition of course was that the student had to live in the house of his teacher. Even the Atharvaveda refers to this condition in the phrase. We have dwelt in studentship.

It also referred to in the Satapatha and Taittiry brahmanas. Begging alms was part of the daily routine. Upanishads describe the routine for the students living in Ashramas. Three kinds of education – practical, mental and moral were included in their daily routine.

Practical education had four main parts. 1. Bhikshatan 2. Keeping yagnini enlightened 3. Cultivation was also necessary Generally, Bhikshatan (going out for alms) cultivated the modesty in the discipline,

keeping sacrified fire enlightened the spiritual light of his mind, service of the land and animals kept his health and character sound and pairs. According to Upanishad Satyakam Jabal had served the cows in the ashrams of his Guru.

In Atharvaveda bhrahmacharya have been described as going out for Bhikshu. In ancient India’s land and cow were the causes of economic prosperity. They were worshipped, practiced education enabled the shishya to be modest, spiritually enlightened and physically and morally healthy.

Mental Education Mental education also had three stages:

1. Shravan 2. Manan 3. Nidhidhyasan It is said that mental education was based on feeling and experiences. It has also been said

in Aitreya Aranyak (teaching), neither programming the Mahavrata (teaching), neither the Guru nor Shishya should keep standing or walking or lying or sitting comfortably on cushions. Self-study had been called Brahman Yagya. The student should never be careless in this Brahman Yagya or self-study. The main aim of mental education is self-study. Moral Education This education was related to the practice of good behaviour and pondering over useful instructions. The disciple had not only to lead the life of a brahmacharya but also observe certain special practical excercises to keep the purity, of character. He had to take very simple and pious food. Anger, amusement or recreation, jealously, pride, etc., had to kept away by him. He had to keep his mind calm and peaceful and concentrate on his studies. Had to put on simple clothes and decoration of the body was not for him. According to Chhandogya and Mundaka Upanishads the students had to maintain shirobrat i.e, either he had to keep all the hairs or get them all shaved. In Manav Dharmashastra it has been said the student should avoid intoxicating drinks, meat, use of scented things, rich foods, killing of animals, using

oils or other curious things, intercourse with women, desire for good things, greediness and telling a lie, etc. It is notable that the guru also tried to improve the character of the students. Curriculum The following are the subjects under Vedic period –

1. Anusasana, which according to sayana is the name given to the six vedangas viz., (a) Phonetics (b) Ritualistic knowledge (c) Grammar (d) Exegetics (e) Rectries (f) Astronom.

2. Vidya which according to sayana means the philosophical system of Nyaya, Mimamsa.

3. Vakovakyan: Numerous Brahmodaya disputation on spiritual matters. It is essential part of, the dialogue or dramatic elements as distinguished from the narrative portion.

4. Itihasa purasana, both first mentioned in the Athurvaveda, is the constogenical myth of accounts, such as in the beginning this crusine was nothing but water (purana).

5. Nothing but water (purana) Itihasa system of old heroes and heroines like the strong of puraravasa.

6. Anvakhyana laterally after story and have supplementary narrative. 7. Anuvyakhyana – is a species of writing “Explanation of the Mantras.” 8. Vyakhaya – used in the sense of commentary in same passage means only a narrative. 9. Gatha a RigVedic term encoding song or verse in one place. 10. Narasamsn – A gatha celebrating. 11. Brahmas – religious explanation. 12. Kshatridya: The science of ruling class is mentioned in the Chandogya. Upanishad,

shanlara is mentioned in the science of bow. 13. Rasi is explained.

Methods of Teaching:

The following are three main methods of teaching prevalent in that age – (i) Shravan (learning) (ii) Manan (meditation) (iii) Nidiyasan (realization and experience) As mentioned in the Vrihada Aranyaka Upanishad they have been termed as three stages

of education. The teaching system in ancient India is known through the RigVeda pratisakhyes. It is

obvious in what way the teaching of the Vedic texts was conducted at these centrres of learning the teacher sits towards east, north or northeast. When the number of students is very small i.e, one or two, they sit at his right hand. When the number is large, they may sit

anywhere. First touching the feet of the Guru, they then request him to teach. The teacher speaks, uttering the word “OM” and puts a question in three verses. He penances loudly so that each syllable and accent must be clearly noticed. Sometimes he repeats the words and at the end invariably adds the word “iti” the practical difficulty regarding the pronunciation of the veda was loused on the changes of the final and initial letters.

The students were instructed in these euphonic rules independently through the study of the siksha, but whenever a difficult case of sundhi occurred the Guru used to examine the knowledge of the students and explain the difficulties.

When the Guru pronounced certain compound words, the first student repeats the first word and when anything remains to be explained the teacher stops him and says, Nirvayatam i.e., explain it. The student could continue only when he explained correctly and after the permission of the teacher with the words “Well sir” then another student used to come out with the word “Sir.” When there is no difficulty the rule seems to be that the Guru says two words at a time. Which are then repeated by the pupil. The pupils were not dismissed till the day’s lesson was finished. At the end of every lesson, the pupil was to embrace the feet of his tutor and then allowed to withdraw. Practically the students were given verbal lessons and guidance by the Guru and they studied and meditated over it. Besides this method there also prevailed the question-answer method in those days. Relation between Teacher and Taught

The disciple took the vow before the sacred fire to serve the teacher. He served his Guru faithfully and unflinchingly. He discharged his duties in the ashram for twelve years and during that period got many opportunities to enrich his knowledge and put it into practical use. The teacher treated his disciples like his own sons and arranged for all facilities needed by the taught; fooding, lodging, clothing, treatment during sickness, etc. In fact the taught lived like the family member of his teacher some of the students became so closely connected with their teacher that they remained with then for their whole life and forgot their homes even. Such students were called “Antevasin.” The Guru also save the true knowledge to his disciple so that he may achieve – Absolute and consequently ‘salvation or ‘moksha.’ The teacher would not conceal any knowledge from his disciple. It is written in Taittariya Upanishad.

It means that the Guru must give the knowledge of absolute to disciple very thoroughly.

The Guru used to examine his Shisya very thoroughly and would never give the knowledge of true absolute to a student who failed in the examination.

Mr. N.N. Mazumdar says, ‘In ancient times the greatest care used to discover the aptitude and fitness of an individual to receive any particular kind of education. Maitrayan Brahman Upanishad clearly declares that the knowledge of Absolute should be given only to those students who have full faith in Guru and possess special talent to understand the subject.

In Upanishad period some people gained the knowledge of Absolute from their fathers. ‘Shwetketu’ got from his father, “Aruni and ‘Bhrigu’ received it from his father ‘Varuna.’

Merits of Vedic Education Vedic is considered as Apayrasheya (not made by man) and Nitya (Eternal).

1. Vedic Education was fully successful in all around development of human life. This education enabled highest achievement of life, salvation (Moksha) easily, through self-realization and the educationists of the age accepted the knowledge of spirit; as divine knowledge. They gave the greatest importance in inward as well as outward development. They had realized the principle for the last stage of life.

2. The inmates of the Gurukul lived in surround of beautiful nature and achieved their physical and psychological development.

3. The educants acquired the knowledge of various useful sciences and observed the rules of internal discipline.

4. The spiritual education helps in building and led to the development of their character and personality.

5. The Vedic education system led to the person verce of old culture and literature of India. Demerits of Vedic Education System

Although this system of education had many qualities to sustain life, yet it was not free from the defects. It had the following failings:-

a) It was fully dominated by religion. b) Since most of the teachers were purohits, they laid stress on religion and Karmakan,

History, Philosophy, Natural Sciences were neglected. c) Since the education laid a good deal of stress on the abstract principles of philosophy,

it failed to carry the general public with it and worldly prosperity, received a set face. d) People at large thought that only what is written in Shastras is correct; this led to

blunting of the reasoning faculty. e) Those who did mental labour were considered superior to those who did manual

labour, handicrafts, drawing, dance, etc., because of the pursuits of the ladies and sudras. Later the ‘sudras’ were degenerated into untouchables.

f) Education of women, education of general public and the neglect of the language of general people are also the defects, pointed out in regard to Vedic system of education.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD IN EUROPE—BACKGROUND AND CONDITIONS

The structure of education in Medieval Europe is divided into two parts. They are, (i) Early Middle Ages, (A.D. 500 to A.D 1100) and (ii) Later Middle Ages, (A.D. 1100 to A.D. 1300).

(i) Early Middle Ages, (A.D. 500 to A.D. 1100) – The Early Middle Ages is often called as ‘Dark Ages’ by historians. It is because of the confused cultural and political situation at this time and also because there was a decline in learning and general culture following the invasion of the Teutonic tribes. This was a period in which there was very low interest in any kind of new learning. However, traditional learning was preserved in the monasteries and, in some cases, was taught practically unchanged in the schools of this period.

In this period of unsettled political life, the institution of Feudalism arose by means of which the life of the people was somewhat ordered and a form of law and organization could prevail. A great and powerful figure during this period was Charle Magne. By the end of his reign the feudalist institutions of the Middle Age had taken form. Through his assumption of the title of emperor, even though the empire dissolved after his death, the feudal institutions were so thoroughly established that they were preserved. A set of rigid class distinction emerged in Europe as a result of these feudal arrangements. It was hard for anyone to change from the class into which he was born. The nobility and the officials of the Church made up the aristocratic upper class, later to be called the first and the second estates, respectively, and the lower classes were comprised of the rest of the people, most of them being serfs.

In spite of the fact that Feudalism appears from the modern point of view to be a very restricted and undesirable way to live, there were some positive sides to feudal tenure. In the first place, the system was based upon a political contract and the reciprocity of obligations. Although the king could command obedience, he also had certain terms of the contract to fulfil, and quite often there would be struggles between the nobles and the king over whether or not he was fulfilling his contract. On the negative side feudalism permitted the development of an entrenched and artisticratic class which was completely privileged over the common people in mode of living and educational opportunities, an entirely different kind of life.

(ii) Later Middle Ages (A.D. 1100 to A.D. 1300) – From the eleventh to the end of

the thirteenth centuries, political life in France and England centred around the process of the transfer of political authority into the hands of the kings. Little of this centralization process look place in either Germany or Italy because, in addition to difficulty between the local rulers, there was also a very complicated struggle between the emperor and the Popes. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Papacy gained in power in its contest with the emperor. In the thirteenth century, in particular, this was sharpened in the contest between Pope Innocent III and Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250). Considerable social and cultural change was brought about in the latter Middle Ages by economic forces as shown in the growth of commerce, in the growth of towns, and in the more widespread organization of guilds. One might then summarise the cultural history of this period by indicating that it was centred around two poles – the power of the Church and the power of the government. This bipolar system became weak by the development of trade and commerce and formation of guilds, etc. It may be noticed that formal education affected only a few persons. Although there was a continuation of town schools, and in a few places there were private schools with emphasis on secular learning. By and large, it was the churches that were important to education. They set up cathedral schools, the monastic schools that dominated the later part of this period. In

addition to education in the formal schools, there was the chivalric education (training in fighting) of the feudalistic system, and the guild education of the craftsman. As in the other periods, the great masses of people had no education other than that which they picked up in their everyday life, this being very minimal in many respects. Perhaps more important in the latter part of this period was the development of the universities, and the revival of learning which they brought about, together with the improved status of the university teachers and professors. Exercises

1. Explain the Principles of Buddhist Education system. 2. Explain the curriculum during vedic period. 3. Differentiate between early and later middle ages during medieval period in Europe.

References

Mathue S.S. – “A Sociological Approach to Indian Education.” Marker M.S. – Educational Sociology – Prakash Brothers, Ludhiana – 1980. McMillan Company – The Philosophy of Education– New York. Vidhya Bhushan and Sachdeva D.R. – An Introduction to Sociology – Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad, 1987. William James – History of Ancient Education – New Delhi.