PHILIPPINE PLANNINGoL()ClO('I')

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SCHOOL OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

JOURNAL• Vol. XXIX, No.1, October 1997 •

PROFILE OF A RICE TERRACE ECOSYSTEM

GRASSLAND

RIDGE

TOURISM

FO~TION

MULTIPLE CROPPING AREA COmmunity"HIGH VALUE" RICEAS HEALTH RXlD

SOUVENIR ITEMS

LIVELIHOOD CUM SETTLEMENT

SETTLEMENT

FOOTSLOPES

ECOSYSTEM­BASEDPLANNING

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNALVol. XXIX, No.1, October 1997

Issue EditorMarqueza C.L. Reyes

Managing EditorDelia R. Alcalde

Layout ArtistMa. Lourdes B. Alarnpay

Production and Circulation ManagerFernando J. Espero, Jr.

The Philippine Planning Journal is published in October and April by the School of Urbanand Regional Planning, University of the Philippines. Views and opinions expressed in articles arethose of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the School of Urban and RegionalPlanning. All communications should be addressed to the Managing Editor and orders forSUbscription should be sent to the Circulation Manager, Philippine Planning Journal, School ofUrban and Regional Planning, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, 1101,Philippines.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Space Utilization and Spatial Interventionin the Ifugao HighlandsThe Ecology of the Rice Terraces

• Geronimo V. Manahan

The Watershed as a Planning UnitA Challenge to Regional Planning

Rex Victor O. Cruz

Open Space Planning for Quezon CityA Conceptual Environment

Rabinder Dickton S Rye

Glossary of Terms

About the Contributors

1

19

25

52

54

SPACE UTILIZATION AND SPATIAL INTERVENTIONIN THE IFUGAO HIGHLANDS

THE ECOLOGY OF THE RICE TERRACES+

Geronimo V. Manahan

THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

The Ifugao terrain has been altered byhuman hands for several centuries in a mannerthat the lands may suffer if the people do notstay to till the land. Recognizing that the area'seconomy is closely linked with nature and cul­ture, its sustainability for development must beanalyzed holistically, synergistically rationalized,planned optimally, and implemented with thepeople's participation so that they benefit fromthe bounty of the place.

It is a daily occurrence that low clouds driftamid the mossy pine forests as temperatureshifts are induced by cold winds. It is a regularphenomenon to experience drizzles in theforests, grasslands, and micro watershedscalled muyong, chilling the tropical peaks withearly morning mist. The droplets of watercontinue to irrigate the age-old rice terraces,and cascade down towards the MagatReservoir to further feed life-giVing liquids tothe lowland fields of Nueva Viscaya andIsabela.

Table 1: Vital Statistics of Ifugao Municipalities

INCOME CLASS 1990BARANGAYS AREA (Ha)2

MUNICIPALITIES (OoF E.O. 249, POPULATION AREA (Ha)11991) (NSO, 1990) (NSO, 1990) (PPOO List)

1 .......~9.~.i.r:!!"I~<:J. ....._............ ................J..~,~.~.q... 15 ............,!~!.!21 1?!..!.!Z ......._._..... ..................._..~. ........ .. ..•....•._. ...............~. .•...••..-........2. Alfonso Lista ......... J4.!.~.1.~. 19 ......;3.!!§~._.. 41 ,020..........._...._._ ................._........ ........... ......._..- ....._- ........... ···· ..·.··.·......···1-7····.··· ----

2: ..~~~l,J~- .. ........••.•,..-......... .._....._... _1.~!~4.~ ..... ......._.. .........?~!~=3..?_ ......_ .........~..~?!.~49........4:...._...!:ii.r:!.9.y<:J.r:! ......._........ .....................~,:3.!.:3._. 11 9,608 ................!?...4.1.4 ............._... ·..........·..-..·..··..·....·..8·····....·.. .___·___.·......···_K·__·_·_·__·····h··.·__._

...?,......._.!:l~.f.l.99..l:!~............._ 6 7,254 ......1.~!~??..._ ..?§,g~Q--_._..._..._....., ..................... ............ .._..- ................_. • ••••••••••h_••• .....- ._...... ......... -

..§,........J5ian..9.'!.I!.._ ............... . ...__.1.!U.!W.................. ....__ h.·...._14' _.....J~§~~ ....__ ................?~!?~?.. ....................__.__........_...-...........

.z.:.. .~gaw~ ..___ .. .... g~7 ... ....... ..................._. 17 .......J.~.!1: '3 ............ ~c?JQ ..._............................._........ ......

8. Lamut .....J4J9~_ .. 18 .............._1~,Q?~ ...............1..9,~9.........,......._..._._--_._...._-_..- .............---- ......_- ...._.. ..........................._...........__....... ............ ...............

~: ...........~!"y<:J.y~!?....... ....... ....." .........- ?:3..!.~4.? 25 _.........?~.!~?~ ........... .......~~,~?.! ..................... .......................... , .... ' __ ........h ••• _ ..._ ........ _

10. Tinoc ... ...~.!??t5 12 ............ ?J,.1,!?................. ........... .....!?c~§.9__......._...................._.................... .................._ •••h ....... .......... -............. ....,...... ......._........,........ ............11 Asloulo 6 9,1 39' 9' 15,565 22,108

147,281 165 251,778 281,542.ASIPULO POPULATION BASED ON BARANGAYS SEPARATED FROM KIANGAN'The Soils and Water Management Bureau data were adopted for quantifying area.2From the Provincial Planning and Development Office.

+This article was obtained from the proceedings of the National Symposium on Filipino Architecture and Design held

on 7-9December 1995 at the Science Teacher Training Center Auditorium, UP Diliman, ac. This article is publishedhere with the permission of the UP College of Architecture and the author.

1

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX No.1 October 1997

This is lfugao Province, located on thesouthwestern bUlge of the Cordillera Adminis­trative Region. The 251,778-hectare tropicalhighland overlooks the provinces of NuevaViscaya and Isabela to the east and is strad­dled by the highland provinces of MountainProvince to the north and Benguet to thesouthwest. The capital of the province isLagawe. All of its towns, except for Lamut andAlfonso Lista, have awe-inspiring rice terraces.Ifugao Province is home to over 150,000people residing amidst 2000-year old riceterraces, now administered by 11 local govern­ments (Figure 1).

Ifugao is a clear exampleof a dynamiccul­tural heritage. It is a province of culturally ma­naged steep terrain, scenic volcanic peaks upto 2,900 meters above sea level, and chains ofrice terraces threatened by the vagaries ofchangingtimes.

Originally covered with woodlands, perpe­tually visited by tremors of the ground, thelandscapehas been carefully altered by humanhands. Stone-by-stone, the rice terraces werebuilt. Over the centuries the rice terraces inIfugao have completely altered and stabilizedsteep sloped rice lands through localizedpractices which now awe the world with theiruniqueness.

Because of the difficulty in striking a ba­lance between nature and the growing reluc­tance to perpetuate rice planting in a difficultenvironment, the challenge is to find the mostappropriate approach that allows for changesto the living cultural landscape.

An in-depth analysis of the functionalelements of human development in Ifugao willbring out one of the finest examples oftraditional culture before Western civilizationdiminished what is considered consistent withrice culture. It is through a systematic andcomprehensive intervention of the functionalelements of the biophysical aspects, the socio­cultural parameters, and development, thatnetworks will in the long-run preserve thelocality's wealth of biodiversity and communitysynergy.

2

SPACE FUNCTIONS ANDTHE RICE TERRACES

To the Ifugaos, bcuncanes are ambi­guous. The self is perceived as part of, andnot separate from, the surroundings. Tronqued(1985) says the lfugao incorporates the "body­self' in such a way that boundaries expand toaccommodate "what the Ifugao sees as con­vergence of space.' This is well-expressed inthe pyramid roofs of their houses and the riceterracing that converge skyward. She furtherexplains that the Ifugao experiencesthe worldin a more holistic manner. Because of this,they feel a very close affinity to the land andto each other. In terms of structure, the housegoes beyond the four walls. The self expandsto incorporate the environment. The environ­ment is an extension of the house.

'Space to the Ifugao: she concludeswhen hewn in culture and symbol, becomes

essentially holistic. The virtual souvenirs inte­grated into the physical forms of the buildings,the lack of rigidity in structure, as well as, themulti-use of space, all characterize the worldthey have defined symbolically as integratedinto their own person and incorporated intoawareness of and consequent learning fromthe immediate surround.'

This is how the Ifugao values spaceand the environment. This is also how therice terraces are valued. They are nottreated in isolation, but are linked with thewatershed, the forests, the kaingin farmingsystems, and the Ifugao's settlementpattern. For the outsider, these are thesigns of skills and masterful understandingof the ecosystem. The uniqueness of theIfugao culture,its artifacts and cultural sym­bols are attractions to the outsider, whobarely realizes that each functional elementis intertwined with nature and culture. Re­move one functioning element and the sys­tem can collapse. Alter the functioningelement that sustains the rice terraces, andthe structure collapses. Remove the ricefrom the terraces, and the system ofterracing will have to be changed. Alter Iife-

t1UEVA VIZCAYA

Figure 1

Map of the Cordillera Administrative Region

3

Ecology ofthe Rice Teff8ces

CAGArA"

ISADELA

MOIlII

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

style and livelihood without integrating the riceterracing, and the lfugao as a community candeteriorate fast. This is the essence of thelfugao rice terraces. This is the rationale of riceterrace restoration. The sudden exposure tomodernizing development and the rapid chan­ges in lfugao demographics can exacerbatethe plight the rice terraces ecosystem is innow.

Banaue is a good case in point. It is in thisarea where very unique terracing is located. Itis also here where growing pressures oftourism and rapid development can be viewedas manifestations of opportunities and threatsto the sustenance of the lfugao.

BASIC ELEMENTSOF A RICE TERRACE

Every terrace construction in Ifugao con­tains three basic elements: the terrace base,the embankments, and the soil body. The riceterraces are more accurately called ponds. Awell-maintained pond field terrace consists offour visible parts:

• A flat inundated closure• A low retaining dike on the outer edge• Artificial or natural slopes surrounding the

downhill side• Slopes arising from the inner flooded

area on the uphill side

The terrace base has three- importantcharacteristics: the slope gradient, the hard­ness of the underlying rock, and the roughnessof the surface. The slope gradient is as smallas possible to obtain a SUfficiently deep soilbody. The hardness of the rock determines towhat extent it is technically possible to flattenthe original slope.

The embankments are classified accord­ing to the material used to construct the walls,which can either be rock, earth or mud, and ina few cases, wood and mud.

Rock embankments are made either ofvolcanic boulders, jagged stones with sand andclay, or a combination of the two. There aretwo types of rock embankments depending onthe construction method. Inclined walls are oneor two stone layers thick. The biggest stonesare used to construct the base of the wall. On

4

top of these are similar stones with the gapsinserted with small wedge-shaped stones andthe smallest holes filled up with clay. On top ofthe stone-clay wall, a small clay bund isnormally constructed which is connected withthe soil body of the terrace. The inclination ofthe walls is toward and leans against the soilbody of the terrace.

The vertical walls lean against the soil ofthe terrace. They contain more stone layers,and the inside and outside slope gradientsincline in opposite directions. In Ifugao, inclinedwalls are more frequently found than verticalwalls (Figure 2).

The earth embankments are constructedby saving a portion of the weathered rock massas a terrace wall during the excavation. Theearth walls are always thicker than the inclinedrock walls. The base usually exceeds to morethan a meter and its characteristics are similarto those of the vertical rock wall.

The mud embankments are of two types:the non-rock and the non-earth embankments.The non-rock is constructed from real mud,which may consist of varying parts of clay,sand, and stones. The non-earth is constructedfrom igneous blocks or posts and mud. Theseembankments are normally less than 1.5meters in height and base width of 2.0 meters.These serve as temporary repairs of damagedearth or rock walls.

The soil body of a terrace varies in thick­ness. The deeper layers of the soil bodyusually consist of a mixture of clay, sand, andstones. The deeper the soil layer, the coarserthe material. The surface/upper layer containssandy or loamy clay, and is fairly impermeable.The soil body consists principally of materialswhich have been conveyed from elsewhere bymeans of a mud stream in a ditch with rapidlyrunning water.

TERRACING SYSTEM

Weathered rock and the abundance ofgroundwater in the Ifugao area favor terracingwork. Excavations can be carried out fairlyeasily. The availability of irrigation water is anessential requirement in developing and main­taining terraces.

Ecology of the Rice Terraces

-:

~~_..-, ---~--------''----'--

J. lv'

I I,I" \, ((

...----"'l!1-' I f I'! / /"-..I I .' " I !.~""'~.J",-.---

I I I , I

l\rl"'l~I I!IJ'I l t' u f If. .

I I \ I I f\ . ~ I, I r ; I r

DIKEJBUNDI~OND-FELD ~ '- I I / IRIM,BANONG) .::..~ I I I I IINLET/OUTLET(GUHENG) 1

~~_~:o) 1 ._-c<-~-J...i-···i·_II~~

ROUGH GRAVEl:. FILL (ADOG)___SUBMERGED WATER SOURCE

(AHBUBUL)

I-£AVY B~RLL (GANGAL)

E£DROCK/EARTH FLOOR (DOPIAH)

DRAINAGE COODUIT(ANUL)STONE RETAINING (TOPENG)

SECOOD COURSE WALLING STONE (ALDOH)

FOUNDATION/MAKING STONES (GOPNAD)

Figure 2

Typical Cross Section of a Rice Terrace, Concave Slope Type

(after H.C. Conklin)

5

PHILIPPINE PLANNiNG JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 OCtober 1997

Different types of topographic settingshave given rise to the development of specificterracing systems. These are the V- or U­shaped valleys of the larger rivers, the V­shaped tributary valleys, and the slip-off slopesformed by in-grown meanders.

In the valleys of the bigger river, slopesare rather gentle permitting the construction ofterraces. If the slope gradient is small enough,it is not necessary to construct walls alongcontours, resulting in straight, angular wallshapes and very wide pond fields. On steeperslopes at higher elevations, the terraces runparallel with the contours. The slope gradient inthe V-shaped valleys range from 7 to 38degrees.

In the tributary valleys, many of the small­er valleys have been dammed by terraces withrock embankments perpendicular to the direc­tion of the fcrmer stream. In this direction, theslope is often not very steep (7 to 18 degrees),so that walls are built straight, and hectarageper terrace is quite substantial. In the slope ofa tributary valley, gradients range from 31 to 45degrees. The earth and rock embankments runparallel with the contours and the terraces arevery narrow.

The slip-off slopes are characterized bysteep slopes near the river, while the gradientdecreases going up. Slope gradients rangefrom 38 degrees on the lower parts to 3degrees on the higher part. Above the river, theslopes are too steep to permit terracing.However, on the level parts, terraces are verylarge. Earth ancJIor rock embankments runalong the usually strong curved contours. Thecrest of a ridge can be flattened for terraceconstruction as long as water can be con­ducted to this terrace from higher elevations.

The following types of terraces are foundin the Ifugao region:

Type I - Earth wall terraces, excavated froma moderately earth to steep slope;

Type 11- Terraces with rock walls to replacedestroyed earth walls;

Type 111- Terraces with original rock wallsand, compared with Type II, lessexcavation is involved. It has ashallow soil body; and,

6

Type IV - Rock wall terraces with embank­ments on both sides and the gentlysloping rock surface forms the ter­race base.

The different types of terraces are dis­tinguished primarily by the nature of the earthremoval required, terrace shape and size, andtopography in relation to available ground­water. For instance, Types I, II, and III all in­volve significant initial excavation, while TypeIV involves no excavation.

The type of terrace to be constructed isdetermined by the following factors:

• Slope gradient of the original soilsurface

• Material available for wall con-struction

• Hardness of the rock• Available tools• Technical or agricultural evaluation of

terrace type by the Ifugao

Steep slopes necessitate the constructionof Type I or Type III terraces. If the rocksurface is very hard and if construction ma­terials for the wall are available nearby, Type IIIis preferred. otherwise, if the underlying rocksare strongly weathered, permitting easy exca­vation, Type I is preferred. Type IV terraces areexclusively limited to gently sloping areas andvalley bottoms.

TERRACE CONSTRUCTION

A particular irrigation and drainage systemand the corresponding terraces make up a unit.The technical implements used in the construc­tion work are primitive crowbars, hammers,and spades. Sometimes, very big boulders aresplit by heating part of them with fire.

Rock Wall Terraces

The construction of rock wall terracesstarts with the digging of a small ditch in a spotabove the construction site. Then a meander­shaped extension of the ditch is dug in the soil.The ditch is then connected with an irrigationcanal. The water running through the mean­dering ditch causes rapid erosion at the bends.At the site where the terrace wall is to beerected, the underlying rock is flattened

carefully. When an inclined rock wall is built,the area of the terrace behind the wall has tobe filled with a soil layer each time the wall hasbeen built up one or two stone layers higher. Avertical wall can be completed before convey­ing soil to the terrace area. The requiredvolume of soil dug out on the mountain slopeabove the terrace is conveyed into the sitethrough a ditch with running water. The coarsetextured materials are transferred first and afterthe terrace basin has been filled to a sufficientdepth, the clay part follows. The soil body ofthe terraces thus consists of a clay surfacelayer and sandy subsoil.

Earth Wall Terraces

In the construction of earth wall terraces,the base and wall are excavated in thedisintegrated rock by means of water, spades,and crowbars. The waste materials are re­moved through a slit .cut in the wall. After thework on the wall and the terrace has beencompleted, the slit is filled with stones and clay,and soil material is conveyed to the terracebasin to form the soil body in the same way aswith rock terraces.

Terrace Maintenance and Repair

Damage to terrace is generally caused bycaving in or landslides. A landslide may occur ifleakage is such that a slip plane develops.When the slip plane coincides with the terracebase, the whole terrace may come down. Slipsurface develops inside the soil body, thus onlypart of the terrace will slip down. The danger ofslides is always high immediately after heavyrainfall, especially in dry terraces. In sandysoils, leakage is considerable, hence slidesmay easily occur. The presence of earthwormsmay aggravate leakage and thereby increasethe danger of landslides.

A damaged earth embankment is repairedby using volcanic or sandstone bouldersbrought to the site, or by using fragments of theoriginal wall and/or unconsolidated soilmaterial.

A damaged rock wall is rebuilt with theoriginal stones. The restoration is carried out inthe same way as the construction of rock walls.When the damaged terrace and the adjacentlower terrace are the property of the same

7

Ecology of the Rice Terraces

person, the collapsed parts are joined with thelower terrace. This requires new stones andother construction materials. Many subsequentrestoration of this type results in the enlarge­ment of one terrace at the expense of higherterrace level. This process has the advantageof decreasing the total occupied area and in­creasing the size of the fields.

Another way of restoring damaged rockwalls is the construction of a small terrace toreplace the collapsed part of the damaged ter­race, thus dividing it into two smaller fields.This type of repair is often temporary becauseit results in a decrease in arable area.

Terrace Irrigation System

Irrigation water is often drawn from springs.A complete irrigation system in the rice ter­races is composed of the following elements:

Collecting Canal

This type of canal is constructed to catchthe water which runs off and drains from themountain slopes above the terraced area andconducts it to the corresponding irrigationcanal. Collecting canals always run alongcontours.

Irrigation and/orDrainage Canal

This type of canal directs the water to thetrenches or directly to the terraces, and drainsexcess water. In areas above the terraces,natural water courses (brooks or small rivers)can be used as irrigation canals. In thedownstream area, where the drop is small, theoriginal watercourses can be used for drainagepurposes. In terraced areas, provisions have tobe made for the water to come down in steps.

Trenches

These direct the water from an irrigationcanal to the highest point of a terraced areaand run along contours. Trenches are usedexclusively to direct irrigation water. They arenormally found on the slopes just above theterraced areas. In a few cases, a trench isfound to cross a series of terraces. Trenchesgenerally have smaller diameters than collect­ing canals, but length may be the same.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Various Structures

There are other types of structures thatare part of the irrigation system such as:

• waterfalls and cascades,

• water distributing constructions,

• tubes,• inlets and outlets, and

• internal drainage.

Water is kept in the rice fields during fallowperiods. The main reasons for keeping thefields submerged are:

1. To prevent the soil from drying. Heavyrainfall on dry terraces cause landslideswhich can seriously darnaqethe terraces.

2. To preserve the population of small fishand other edible animals in the pondfields.

3. To facilitate weed control.

4. To let rice grains, which fall onto the mudduring harvesting, germinate and developinto mature plants with the aim of har­vesting their panicles as a kind of "secondcrop".

5. To facilitate soil preparation by keeping itwet.

GENERAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

Farmers, have been leaving their fieldsbecause of modernization coupled with the lureof the urban economy. This is exacerbated bythe perceived limited economic prospects oftheir present state. This is beginning to cause adysfunction in the ecology of the forest, thekaingin, the muyong, the rice terraces, as wellas the settlement pattern which were for yearsdeveloped around land risks. These conditions,if not reversed, will in turn pose serious threatsto tropical forest ecology and biodiversity.

By making use of the socio-cultural oppor­tunities and by enhancing the local initiatives of

8

the inhabitants of the province as the traditionalecological caretakers, the protection of boththe natural and built environments can be sus­tained. If the true worth of the rice terraces isvalued with the local culture that perpetuatedthe dynamics of productivity, the physical set­ting will continue to exist, safeguarded by thedesire to marvel at the people's will to live withnature.

In order to bring about a minimum ofdisturbance to the way of life as well as thelandscape of the Ifugaos, a hierarchy of acces­sibility will have to be adopted. Tourists, sight­seers, and nature lovers must be made awareof the critical balance the Ifugaos have struckwith nature. As a retired teacher in Mayoyao ina meeting last 4 August 1994 said:

Tourists must stay on their trekkingpaths. We take pride in what we havebuilt. We are proud of what we have inMayoyao. But we need responsibletourism to maintain our usual life. Weneed economic well-being and extramoney to run our community and therice terraces properly. We do not wantto go back to our G-strings just toperform for others.

It is in recognizing these clashes of cultureand nature that a carefully crafted physical andland use planning approach is being used forthe study (Figure 3).

PHYSICAL AND LAND USE PLANNING

Physical and land use planning can bedefined by way of the following objectives:

1. Provision of accessibility.

2. Employment of resources as economicallyas possible.

3. Separation of incompatible land uses.

4. Carrying out of all development in as vi­sually pleasant a manner as is practicable.

5. Setting up of thresholds to optimize prac­tical usage of land.

DEVELOPMENTISSUES

POINTS OFINTERVENTION

Ecology ofthe Rice TeffBces

PROGRAMS/PROJECTS

ACTIVE FAULT ZONESINVESTIGATIONS

INCREASINGMIGRANTS AND

LOCAL POPULATION

RISK ASSESSMENTAND MAPPING

+RANOOMAND SETTLEMENT TOWN PLANNING &UNPLANNED DEVELOPMENT ZONING

SETTLEMENT

TTOURISM ANDAESTHETICS

COMPLEMENTATION

OBSTRUCTION BY

1SETTLEMENTS OF ~

SCENIC VIEWS

AGRARIAN CONFLICTRESOLUTION

Figure 3

Development Intervention Analysis Matrix(Settlement Development)

9

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX No.1 October 1997

From these valuations, an ecologicallyconscious land use classification can bederived. Some categories are:

The scope of physical and land useplanning will necessarily include the socialaspects which have the objective of makingpeople's lives happier. To encourage the com­pact development and the efficient assignmentof transport and communication systems, theeconomic aspects of planning must be consi­dered as well. In the analysis of these variousconditions one will have to consider theultimate beneficiaries of the plan, and how theythemselves will make plan implementation asuccess. The administrative aspects, whichhelp effectuate efficient management and up­keep of resources, will enter the processparticularly during the plan implementationstage.

4.

• Residentialvalues

• Institutionalvalues

• Historic values• Bedrock

foundation• Water logging• Water values

• Areassusceptible toerosion

• Recreationvalues

• Agriculturalvalues

• Forest values• Surface

drainage• Scenic values• Wildlife values

ECOLOGICAL PLANNING PROCESS

By applying the ecological planning ap­proach, composite maps of both physiographicand ecological expressions are developed.These in turn are used to generate a socialvalues map.

1. The first step in the ecological planningprocess is to establish dominance of thenatural areas ranked in the order of valueand neutrality to human use. Thesenatural features are:

CAPACITIES AND THRESHOLDS:STANDARD SETTING

• Steep slopes• Flood plains• Forest lands and

woodlands• Flatlands• Aquifer recharge

areas

• Surface water• Aquifers• Cogonal

areas• Wetlands

• Valley floors• Barangay

center location

• Forestedvalleys

• Unforestedvalley walls

• Livelihoodprocessingareas

• Sitio location

• Promontoriesfor landmarkbuildinglocations

• Water areas• Promontories for

natural vantage

• Unforestedplateau

• InstitutionalZOnes

• Poblacionlocation and itsgreenbelt

• Others

Finally a set of valuation overlays aresuper-imposed to establish a synthesis ofnatural and social processes:

Then, the ecological factors that are to beconsidered for social valuation of thenatural processes are mapped:

2.

3.

• Climate• Pedology• Geology• Vegetation

• Slopes• Soil foundation

• Physiography• Wildlife• Hydrology• Land use

• Soil drainage• Land values

10

Considering the need for a well-balanceddevelopment of the Ifugao region, an over­concentration or overuse of the assets of theprovince can cause a disaster which thecommunity and its culture will find difficult torecover from. A means of establishing thres­holds for development is thus called for. Byevolving a carrying capacity guideline for landoccupancy, the following steps will helpachieve the desired balance in using nature asa feature of design:

1. A land capacity analysis to delineatevarying environmental zones.

2. Depending on their sensitivity to develop,different levels of density ceilings andperformance standards are evolved toallocate growth.

3. Population thresholds are given for eachbarangay with the suggestion that theseare staged in five-year increments.

4. Decide on what is the lowest capacity ofpopulation, given the type of technologythat is affordable to the locality. Populationthresholds are derived from a number ofindicators such as assimilative capacity ofthe natural environment and capacity toallow for the safe evaluation of hazardoussites in the event of a disaster.

5. The Sanggunian will then enact perfor­mance standards out of recommendedguidelines by translating these into en­forceable regulations or ordinances.

6. A development permit process is put inplace and improved further by issuingupdated standards. A permit is granted toa site application only if the applicant hasdemonstrated that the development hascomplied with conditions to mitigate im­pacts on geologic features, hydrology, andground cover.

DEVELOPMENT MODALITIES

Through the principle of mutual accommo­dations, the spatial restructuring of the towns ofIfugao must give emphasis on these objec­tives:

• Pride of place

• Enhancement of local tourism to givepride to the Filipino

• Balancing of development bydesigning with nature

The ultimate objective is to jump-start theimplementation of plans for the rice terraces ofIfugao Province. Figures 4 and 5 succinctlyexpress the modalities for spatial structuring.These modalities also reflect the recommend­ed geographic intrusion of development uponthe agricultural and natural resources of lfugao.

11

Ecology ofthe Rice Terraces

Poblacion Renewal

The town center or poblacion is where avisitor gets an indelible impression on the stateof the municipality. The poblacions shall besubject to a renewal study coupled with aprivate sector-led redevelopment and beautifi­cation program. The aim is to make the pobla­cion the centerpiece of community activitiesthat have external links. The image of a revi­talized poblacion, is physically identifiable in itsrelation with the natural environment and for itsunified built environment ambiance. By evol­ving a unified landscaping scheme, like thepropagation of flowering species that areunique to the area, the town's image gets to beknown for such a landscape. Other towns candevelop their own image by emphasiZing theirgeologic features, waterways, crafts, and otherunique cultural or natural assets. Nevertheless,all must project the rice terraces as a pro­prietary asset including their special value tohumankind.

Of special interest in the poblacionrenewal scheme are the siting of the town hallas well as the accompanying need tolandscape its surroundings. A small generallibrary and information bank close to the townhall, and a prominent postal office will unify theaccessibility image of the town to the public.Better still, a specialized museum will be acounter-point to the bUilding ensemble'sdrawing power. The whole complex willnormally expand to include a public marketwhich in itself will become a people's center.With an adequate open space system andeating places on balconies or view platforms,visitors will be lured to stay longer.

A transport interchange will offer a con­venient congregation area for first-time visitorsto the place. Along with utility services support,good telecommunication and information facili­ties, as well as an efficient bank, make a com­plete link to the outside world. Places ofworship either act as accents to the poblacionor as key landmark structures to the town.

The type, intensity, and massing as theserelate to the site will greatly depend on thefunctional modality of the town: a protectedtown (full protection from encroachments),buffer town (modifiable), or as a town subjectto dynamic changes.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX No.1 October 1997

MODE 3MULTIPLE USE ZONE(DYNAMIC CHANGES)

MODE 2BUFFER ZONE(NORMATIVE CHANGES)

MODE 1PROTECTED ZONE(FULL PROTECTION FORSUSTAINABLE CHANGES)

®"

~

lHEl.IEa>POOlUNI1IES roo 1]ADDED VAlUE

S(.)

~~

~~

Figure 4Modalities for the Province of Ifugao

12

BUFFERZONE

Ecology of the Rice Terraces

TRAVELWAY

PROTECTED ~

ZONE

r--------------------- II ~ PROTECTED I

U ZONE DEVELOPME TIS

_ LIMITED _­"AccfSs

DEVELOPMENTSITES

PROlECTEDZONE

INTERFACESITES

Figure 5Sub-Modalities for the Municipalities of Ifugao Province

13

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Development Functions Barangay Center as People's Center

The array of development functions eachtown in Ifugao shall perform, given their res­pective modalities, are shown below:

Lagawe

Lamut

Banaue

Hingyon

Hungduan

Kiangan

Mayoyao

Aguinaldo

Asipulo,Tinloc andAlfonso Lista

• Urban growth center• Business and convention

facilities• Processing areas for nature

tours

• Agro-industrial service center• Agro-machinery and post­

harvest servicing center

• Jump-off point for eco-tourism• Crafts and cultural facilities

for mass tourism

• Spillover area for Lagawe andBanaue

• Buffer for urban overspill fromLagawe

• Crafts center

• Nature trekking;• Service center for eco-tourism

area• Geologic/Scientific tours

• Historic and cultural tours• Agricultural support for

hinterlands• Possible educational center

for southwest Ifugao• Post harvest facilities for

hinterlands

• Mainly eco-tourism site withemphasis on rice terraces

• Trade and agribusinesscenter of east Ifugao

• Emergent agro-industrialcenter with post harvestfacilities including ice-plantsfor fish industry

• Agri-based with poblacion tobe developed for urbanfunctions

• Farm to poblacion linkagesnecessary

• Post-harvest facility system tobe given emphasis

• Strengthen communicationand security of the place

14

With the growing influence of the barangayleaders, there is a need to provide the ba­rangay with a physical setting for the officials toperform political leadership functions. Beingagents of change, they can perform culturalfunctions which traditionally the mumbaki per­formed. With land as an important commodityin Ifugao, a territorial presence for the ba­rangay is a significant feature to consider.Each barangay must have a traditional villagecluster for visitors. A productivity center with avery specific enterprise may also include anarea for mixed uses (trade, visitors accommo­dation, information center, communication faci­lities, etc.). The concept of the sitio settlementcan very well be replicated in laying out themodern version of this socio-economic cluster.It is very much recommended that eachbarangay center specializes in a particularenterprise or activity such as crafts, foodprocessing or arts, so that visitors to the placewill be forced to move about and visit severalbarangays. One essential element in this deve­lopment strategy is correctness of location, thechoice of the enterprise, and timeliness ofinformation for the locals. On the side of thepaying visitors, aside from scenic views of theterraces and the mountains, they would like tolook for cultural/educational value, new expe­riences, authenticity, safety of abode andcommunication links, as well as cleanlinessand sanitation of surroundings.

STRIP DEVELOPMENT

Typical of the Philippines is the sproutingof development along major roads. The frontalaccess being offered to structures along thestrip is one advantage that is sought after. Butclearly, there are several disadvantages asso­ciated with a strip development directly along amajor road. In Ifugao, one clear disadvantagestrip development presents is the diminishedvisual impact of the terraces. The unregulatedconstruction of residences and micro-enter­prises along vantage points has obstructedviews. The situation is further worsened by thefact that the architectural designs of theseobstructions resemble shanties, in effect pollu­ting the visual environment (Table 2).

Ecology of the Rice Terraces

Table 2Issues and Concerns Regarding Strip Development and Recommended Measures

ISSUES/CONCERNS PASTIEXlSTING MEASURES RECOMMENDED/ ADDITIONALMEASURES

• Unregulated development of • Very liberal permission given to • Establishment ofcontrol areasresidences and micro-enterprises entrepreneurs and occupants,along vantage points has specially if landowners ofthe • Allow fortree planting sites todiminished the visual impact of property provide color and shadethe rice terraces

• Architectural design ofthese • Fonnulation ofarchitecturalstructures are not coordinated design standards thesenor suitable tothe landscape, structures must confonn withresulting innoiselvisual pollution

• Stilts used bythese structures • Cover stilts with clinging vinesare eyesores aswell

• Lack ofsolid waste disposal • Dumping • Establishment ofasolid wastesystem for these establishments disposal system with andegrades environmental operational schedule tobecondition ofsurrounding area announced .to allestablishments

within the controlled zone

CONTROLLED ZONE

In order to rid vantage points of theseobstructive eyesores and at the same time pro­vide for livelihood opportunities to local resi­dents geared towards tourism, controlledzones along road sections with high scenicvalue shall be established. These controlledzones shall encompass an area covering about75 meters wide, if terrain permits, on each sideof the road, and a length that would varyaccording to the location of the scenic spot.

Within the declared controlled zone, struc­tures would have to be designed to conform tothe architectural standards set for the area.This would include restrictions on dimensions,materials, provisions of view deck, etc.

15

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

A close scrutiny of the banks of waterwaysalong human settlement sites in lfugao willshow that solid wastes of all sorts are dumpedhere. This is an indication of the alarming needfor a waste management awareness programin order to spread the value of proper solidwaste disposal. Even a recycling program foreach town of Ifugao, down to the barangaylevel, has positive prospects. Initiating a zero­waste management scheme can be pilot-testedas a demonstration project in the more popu­lous barangays of each town. This will deter­mine whether the farmers' practices of com­posting rice stalks after the harvest can bebrought closer to their community in order tomitigate the dumping of raw refuse.

r'HILlPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

IMAGE BUILDING ANDTOURISM CONTROL

It is an oft-repeated message, though notexpressly stated, that local culture, its socialorganization, and its technology are "primitive:thus aggravating its problems without increas­ing its strengths.

Natives have been popularly depicted bythe dominant urban class as the destroyers ofthe world environment. They are seen to be,responsible for denUdation, slash and burnfarming or kaingin, and erosion that endangerthe natural ecosystem. They are continuallyblamed for the ecological disturbances causedby over-population in a fragile environment,causing cornpetltion for forested lands andeven hastening the depletion of resources ofthe local economy.

The natives are not viewed as the cul­tivators of fragile lands who mold their socialbehavior to the natural laws of the environ­ment. Very few see the achievements of thenatives. This traditional knowledge could holdthe key to sustainable development. Thissituation is very true in lfugao. The measuresand standards, coupled with their local normsand conduct by which the peoplesof Ifugao aregauged, are not those that can bring out thestrengths and rationale of their centuries-oldpractices.

The views of Maria Luisa Doronila, theUNESCO International Award winner forLiteracy Research, have relevance to thiscultural dichotomy:

In communal, largely oral, commu­nities, to be 'literate' was to know the loreof the tribe to meaningfully participate inthe rhythm of its life. Teaching them toread and write was largely irrelevant.Similarly in communities where develop­ment had began, people taught them­selves to be literate.

We must act in the middle where non­literacy is a source of shame, synony­mous with poverty, marginalization andinability to participate in community life.This is what we must combat so thateach may gain dignity.

16

It is but proper therefore when thenumber become so great at the expense of aproper appreciation of the cultural heritageor cause physical damage to the sites, atourism control plan must be considered inorder to elicit the most appropriate protectionprogram (Figure 6). A tourism control planmust be considered to maintain properappreciation of the cultural heritage andprevent physical damage to the sites.

Anticipated issues in tourism control coverthe following:

1. Peak loadings which can be reduced bysuitable scheduling of sites and visits.

2. Wear and tear of surfaces and sites.

3. Pollution by tourists (garbage, smoke,noise) and motor vehicle exhaust.

4. Vibrations made by cars as well astourists.

5. Vandalism and graffiti.

6. Illicit traffic of movable cultural pro­perties which can be mitigated by re­gulatio~s made known to visitors.

7. Illicit drugs, crimes to persons and pro­perty and even prostitution which can beproperly handled by surveillance.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The dynamics of a free market economymust be counter-balanced with environ­mental ethics, responsible tourism, poli­tical will to regUlate and execute, and thesocio-cultural dynamics of the people. Putback the village, the rural folks in themainstream of deciding what they shoulddo about their lives. Organize the mannerof their participative empowerment.

2. The burning duties that the communitymust perform so that visitors can respectand value the Ifugao's coping with life andthe environmentare:

• pride of place,

• pride of culture and its positiveteachings,

• pride of the past,

Ecology of the Rice Terraces

F MIGRATIOt>l "& AURBANIZATION

l !IFUGAOFARMERS ) (TERRACED LANDS) (UNTERRACED LAND

TIMEr ....( SPATIAL \PRESERVATIONILOSS ---------

OF INDIGENOUS - FORCES OF .- DISRUPTIONS OFKNOWLEDGE & LABOR CHANGE RICE TERRACES FOREST

4-LANDS

SOCIO-CULTURALHARMONY AND CONFLICTS IN

ECONOMIC ELEMENTSELEMENTS -----------------

TIME- ----------------- .... TERRACE UTILIZATION r-- ·ENCROACHMENT-----------CONTROLLED ·ASSIMILATlON ·DISPLACEMENTEVENTS ·ISOLATION CULTURALLY-APPROPRIATE ? ·CONVERSION

ECONOMICALLY SUITABLE ?

-(DEGRADATION )-

Blo-PHYSICALALTERATIONS

-------------·NATURAL

·PROTECTION MEASURES ·HUMAN-INDUCED·REHAB. MEASURES·DEVELOPMENT MEASURES

INTER- ·ALTERNATIVE LANDUSESVENTIONS

HYDRO-ECOLOGICAL·LANDUSEAND PRODUCTION

FOR OBJECTIVESPRESER- EQUILIBRIUM rVATIONS ~SL~12J\110l"l- RELIGIOUS

OF WATER FUNCTIONSTERRACE RICE TERRACES ~f RURAL 7

INTEGRITY 0, ----------------

-0UR8ANGROWTH

.-.... ·PROTECTIONCENTERS

·CONSERVATION UNIQUE!·NDIGI:NOUS RI~E HISTORICAL

ECOL. HARMONY OSCAPE---------------- PRODUCTION

~ASSLANDS>MICRO-WATERSHED SOCIO-ECONOMICANDSTREAMFLOW FUNCTIONS

EQUILIBRIUM

~

+ +AGRIICOMMUNITY

ECo-TOURISM TOURISM------------- TiVELiHOOi5---- -·SUSTAINABLE

ENVIRONMENT OPPORTUNITIES

- ·ALTERNATIVE USES I- MUNICIPALOPPOR- ..... LAND USE ZONES

TUNITIES - ...------------- I-

LOCAL GOV'T CODe

o WORLDRESOURCES r-oHERITAGE

Figure 6Development Framework

Restoration and Preservation of Ifugao Rice Terraces

17

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

• proper use of the water, and

• cleaning and greening of thesurroundings.

3. There is still the opportunity to put up aNative Design Center to further developthe handcrafted products of the Ifugaos.The commercial prospect of handicraftswill require better quality products, betterlabeling, and packaging without losingtheir authenticity. A categorized certifica­tion scheme by the town officials as to theamount of handcrafting will be necessaryto preserve value.

4. Still unexplored are the varieties of geneticresources available in the tropical cloudforests of Ifugao. By enlarging the unsul­lied nature areas, the natural gene bankscan be sustained.

5. Avoid the economy-first strategy. Do notput the area's development policy mainlyin the hands of fiscal regulations. Balancethis with a hierarchy of accessibility mea­sures on physical and cultural aspects.

6. Minimize the impact of artificial bordersparticularly if geographically indicated. Usenatural indicators in developing areas tobe protected together with the infrastruct­ure that ought to serve the locality.

7. Avoid the setting up of numerous trainingprograms, which will only whet local ini­tiative without follow-up through supports.Build upon the continuity of positive normsand standards that strengthen localpractices, initiatives and culture.

8. Do not alienate the lfugao from theirlocality. Develop concepts as frameworksthat can heighten their modernizing life-

18

style and yet provide lessons for outsidersto learn their inherent culture.

EPILOGUE

. "Hey! Terrace Trekker, there is no road.You must create your own map. You must lookfor signs in nature so that you do not lose yourway. Get the proper orientation. Usten to yourmodern mumbaki, for the signs are there foryou to find... "

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atienza, Rey and Edmundo Viacrusis. 1995.The Scott interview of 31 July 1975.Quezon City: UDA.

Conklin, Harold C. 1980. Ethnography Atlas ofIfugao. Connecticut: Yale University,.

Mananghaya, Maria Jocelyn B. 1994. Essen­tial features of /fugao settlements. SanJuan, Metro Manila: PROS.

Manahan, Geronimo and Ricardo G. Paloma.1994. Spatial restructuring and tourismdevelopment of the six-year master planfor the lfugao rice terraces. San Juan,Metro Manila: PROS.

Orient Integrated Development Consultants,Incorporated and Planning Resources andOperations Systems, Inc. 1994. The six­year master plan (1995 to 2001) for therestoration and preservation of the /fugaorice terraces. 2 Volumes. Quezon City:OIDCII PROS.

Tronqued, Cecil B. 1985. On the philosophicalperception of space by the /fUg80. SanJuan, Metro Manila: PROS.

THE WATERSHED AS A PLANNING UNITA CHALLENGE TO REGIONAL PLANNING1

Rex Victor O. Cruz

INTRODUCTION

This paper focuses on the use of thewatershed as a planning unit. It discusses thebasic concepts in watershed management andhighlights its relevance to regional planning.The justifications for the use of the watershedas a planning unit are also presented alongwith the essential requirements for an effectiveand efficient use of the watershed as a unit forplanning.

This paper hopes to further spur the inte­rest of planners in watershed management andits use as a planning unit. Conservation ofwatersheds will become the primary concern ofevery individual including the economic sector.

BASIC CONCEPTS

A watershed is defined as any topogra­phically delineated area that can collect waterand be drained by a river system (Brooks et ai.,1991). It includes all land areas extending fromthe ridge down to the stream from which wateris collected. Thus, a watershed contains, asidefrom land and water, many other important re­sources such as plants, animals, and minerals.A watershed is a self-contained system con­sisting of intricately interacting biotic andabiotic components of a number of linkedecosystems.

Watersheds are not necessarily found inupland areas or mountains. They can besituated in all types of terrain such that there isan upland watershed, a lowland watershed, anurban watershed, an agricultural watershed,and so on.

A watershed is a living, functional, andintegrated system capable of yielding variousproducts such as water, timber, and non-timberproducts. Hence, it is a production system,which may consist of various SUbsystems suchas water, timber management, grazing, out­door recreation, agroforestry, and settlementsubsystem.

THE WATERSHED APPROACH

Watershed management is defined as theprocess of guiding and organizing land andother resource uses in a watershed to providedesired goods and services without adverselyaffecting soil and water resources (Brooks etai., 1991). It is also defined as the applicationof business methods and technical principles tothe manipulation and control of watershed re­sources to achieve a desired set of objectivessuch as maximum supply of usable water,minimization of soil erosion and siltation prob­lems, and reduction of flood and drought occur­rences (Clawson, 1970; Satterlund, 1978).

The watershed approach can be definedas the application of watershed managementconcepts, tools, and practices to the integratedmanagement of natural resources (Fellizar,1989). It is an approach which is capable ofoperationalizing a holistic and systematic natu­ral resources management required for sus­tainable economic growth and development.

The watershed approach recognizes theintricacies of relationships among the variouscomponents of a watershed ecosystem. It isconscious of the positive and negative impactsthat alteration of one watershed componentcan have on other components. It has a full

1 This is a portion of the paper originally presented with the title, 'Watershed Approach to Sustainable ForestManagement" as the Second Guillermo Ponce Professional Lecture in Forestry delivered on 17 February 1995.

19

PHILIPPINE. PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

view of how people are impacted by the inter­actions of water, soil, climate, and otherresources, and how people's actions, beliefs,and attitudes affect the resources in return. Itdispels the misconception that watershedmanagement is based purely on physical inter­relationships and that water is the only impor­tant concern. The watershed approach there­fore strongly requires integrated and holisticstrategies to achieve a particular set ofmanagementobjectives.

Furthermore, it recognizes that the forcesof nature that affect land and water operatewithin the natural watershed boundaries andsocio-economic forces of development withinpolitical boundaries. More often than not, thesetwo boundaries do not coincide. For instance,the Casecnan watershed lies within four pro­vinces, namely, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Viscaya,Quirino, and Aurora.

Since a watershed has multiple, some­times conflicting uses, it may have differentvalues to environmentalists, conservationists,economists, sociologists, hydrologists, natura­lists, and the community. In terms of land use,it may be used as a site for residential,agriCUltural, commercial, industrial, education­al, experimental, environmental, and forestuses. In view of this, the watershed approachprovides a workable framework for the reso­lution of conflicts of interests on the use ofwatershed resources. Conflicting interests anduses can be harmonized and evaluated on thebasis of the quantity and quality of harvestablewater from the watershed. Since water is onewatershed resource that is highly sensitive tohuman interventions, it is often used as a pa­rameter to gauge the sustainability, accepta­bility, and suitability of managementstrategies.

As mentioned, a watershed is not an inde­pendent system, but is linked with other terres­trial and aquatic ecosystems. Hence, the beha­vior of a watershed is influenced by factors andprocesses within and outside its boundaries. Inturn, the watershed influences the factors andprocesses within and outside it. For example,the amount and quality of streamflows from awatershed will always have pronounced im­pacts downstream which heavily relies on thewatershed for water supply. In return, the eco­nomic activities in the lowlands will conti­nuously affect the rate and pattern at which

20

watershed products are exploited. Additionally,such activities will also influence the rate atwhich watershed lands are converted to otheruses that will significantly alter the volume andquality of water supply.

It will be easier to generate greaterparticipation from the various sectors of thesociety to cooperate in the management ofresources if they are aware of how the state oftheir sector and that of the watershed are inter­related. Hence, the watershed approach canfacilitate the operationalization of community­based resources management.

Lastly, the watershed approach recog­nizes the limited capacity of the watershed tosustain its productivityand usefulness. It there­fore subscribes to the use of land capabilityclassification2 and land use suitability assess­mene for setting the limits to the type andintensity of activities that can be carried out ina watershed area. Both procedures are usefulin the selection of suitable land uses andmanagementstrategies.

RATIONALE FORAWATERSHED APPROACH

There are several reasons why a water­shed approach is necessary in sustainableforest management

1. Limited land resources and a rapidly in­creasing population are tough realitieschallenging the growth and developmentof the national economy. As the populationgrows, the per capita arable land in thecountry will further shrink. Most arablelowlands will continuously be converted toindustrial, commercial, and residentialareas. Poor agriculture-dependent com­munities will be forced to move farthertoward upland areas in search of newlands to till. Unlike the lowlands, however,the uplands are more sensitive to humanintervention, less able to tolerate intensive

2Land capability classification refers to the subdivi­sion of land into homogenous units based on its in­herent physical and biological attributes such astopography,soil properties, vegetation, and climate.3Land use suitability assessment refers to theevaluation of the response of a given land manage­ment unit to a particular land use.

human activities, and prone to erosion.Through proper planning, an inherent fea­ture ofthe watershed approach, the limit towhich the uplands can be used by thepeople can be appropriately determinedand set.

2. About 90 percent of the total land area ofthe Philippines (about 28 million hectares)can be considered watersheds. Yet, thereare only about 121 watershed reserves inthe country with an aggregate area of onlymore than a million hectares. Of these,around 10 to 20 watersheds are eithermanaged through a watershed approachor at least have a watershed managementplan. It is conceivablethat almost all forestlands in the country are watersheds. Mostof these watersheds are in varying stagesof degradation with problems of defores­tation, excessive soil erosion, decliningland productivity, and disturbed hydrology.This is largely attributed to the excessiverainfall, rugged topography, and highlyerodible soil which make the country'swatersheds vulnerable to hostile land usepractices. Unless watersheds are treatedand managed as precious resources, theremaining healthy watersheds will sufferthe same fate.

3. Watersheds are exclusive and limitedsources of many goods and servicesneeded by people. The production ofthese goods and services are oftentimesin conflict with each other. This is exacer­bated by the scarcity of lands available foragriculture and the unabated growth ofhuman population. If left unresolved, theseconflicts of interests in the use of water­shed resources will eventually lead to theconflict between humans and the environ­ment. On this particular situation, the con­cepts of multiple use and sustained yieldbecome very important for harmonizingconflicting uses of watershed resourcesand assuring its sustained productivity.The watershed approach provides a suit­able venue for the operationalization ofmultiple use and sustained yield concepts.The watershed approach can be instru­mental in bringing about the optimum mixof many uses of watershed resources in

21

Watershed as a Planning Unit

an equitable and sustainable manner.Moreover, it can pave the way for thecooperative participation of the public andprivate sectors which hold differing stakesin the watershed. Consequently, resourcesfor the development of watersheds can beoptimally used through integration andcoordination of different developmentprograms.

4. In the pursuit of economic development,marketable products such as timber areregarded as highly valuable, while non­market commodities like water rarely topthe list of valuable goods. Nevertheless,water is a very important commodity thatevery sector of the society and the entirecontinuum of ecosystems need. The use­fulness of water transcends natural, physi­cal, biological, and political boundaries. Itis almost omnipresent in the watershed,affecting almost every other component inall the ecosystems and vice versa. Hence,water is a very ideal indicator or parameterin the monitoring and evaluation of im­pacts and effectiveness of various ma­nagement activities in the watershed.Through a watershed approach, changesin the quantity and quality of water areconveniently and more accurately moni­tored within the fixed boundaries of awatershed under a specific set of manage­ment objectives.

5. Upland and lowland areas are intricatelyrelated with one another. To sustain thedevelopment in these two areas, there is aneed to clearly understand the biophysicaland socio-econormc linkages between theuplands and the lowlands. In this regard,the watershed approach will be very usefulin many ways in that upland and lowlanddevelopment programs can be synchro­nized and harmonized, so that areas ofpotential conflicts, inconsistencies, andcommonalities are properly identified andaddressed. The integration of such pro­grams can promote a more efficient use ofavailable financial and other resources. Itcan also minimize, if not totally exclude,the adverse impacts of an area's deve­lopment program on the other.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX No.1 October 1997

OPERATIONAllZlNG THEWATERSHED APPROACH

In order to operationalize the watershedapproach, a number of conditions should exist.These are the following:

An Adequate, Up-to-Date Body ofKnowledge

Watershed management is an applied fieldof endeavor. It relies heavily on the availabilityof relevant and sufficient scientific information.which are useful in the management planningand decision-making process. Until today.watershed management in the countrydepended so much on the extrapo~ation .ofresearch findings of other countnes Withsignificantly different environmental settings.There is an extreme need to reinvigorate ourbasic watershed research to generate 'highlyneeded empirical data. Before watershedresearch was scrapped from the government'sresearch priority areas in the late eighties,research compilations such as the oneprepared by the ASEAN-USWatershed Project(1988) revealed the dearth of basic watershedresearch studies. What constitute the locallyavailable watershed scientific informationtodayare mostly limited data generated fromfragmented studies commonly using a plotapproach. There are very few research studiesconducted using a watershed approach. Thatis why up to now we still perceive water andtimber production and other such combinationsof uses as mutually exclusive because ofinsufficient research findings to concludeotherwise. This is the very reason why we aretentative in operationalizing a multi-resourcemanagement.

Soil erosion estimation and prediction isanother research area where the Philippines islagging behind her Asian neighbors. It hasbeen adequately shown how destructive soilerosion can be. Yet. there is not one validsingle soil erosion prediction method that canbe applied in the country. The Universal SoilLoss Equation (USLE) is an old and populartool. It has undergone so many studies andrevisions in many parts of the world except inthe Philippines where soil erosion problem isso prevalent and destructive.

22

To fully support a watershed approacn,watershed research in the Philippines shouldbe refocused to what is substantially useful. Afavorable balance between reactive and pro­active studies and between basic and appliedresearches should be struck. Research thrustsdriven only by existing problems will contributelittle in averting environmental disasters asso­ciated with time and development. In the samemanner, research imbalance in favor of appliedover basic research will gain little in developingtruly viable watershed management strategies.A watershed approach to basic and appliedresearch should also be vigorously pursued.To do this. there is a need to establish anetwork of experimental watersheds in thecountry. This will provide the much neededvenue to study and monitor the whole range ofimpacts of human interventions in the water­shed. Experimental watersheds will help infilling up information gaps in watersh~ re­search and will solve the problems essocistedwith upscaling plot-based research results intothe watershed level.

Development of Appropriate Technology

The success of the watershed approachdepends to a large extent on the availability oftechnology which is compatible with the gene­ral objective of sustainability. Critical to this isthe presence of mechanisms by which re­search findings are transformed into practicalmanagement tools and strategies. Technolo­gies for harvesting non-timber products thatare not damaging to soil and water resourcesmust be developed. There is also a need todevelop management division support systemssuch as resource valuation and accountingsystem. watershed resources information sys­tems. and watershed models for predictingfuture scenarios.

Development of Technical Capability

The watershed approach requires a poolof competent experts. In recent years, even thebasic watershed management course was notincluded in the Bachelor of Science Forestrycurriculum oi the University of the PhilippinesCollege of Forestry in Los Bailos, Laguna. Tofully support the application of the watershed

approach, the human resource base of forestryand natural resources management should atleast be equipped with the rudiments ofwatershed management This will have to becomplemented with a vigorous development ofwatershed expertise.

Information and Education Campaign

Programs to educate a wider sector of thesociety and increase the level of awareness onthe values of watersheds and the watershedapproach should be conducted. The table be­low presents a matrix of possible watershedinformation needs of various actors and users.This will make it easier to drum up public andinstitutional support for the use of a watershedapproach to forest resources management.General public support is needed to ease theexcessive pressure on the forest and other re-

Watershed as a Planning Unit

sources of the watershed. The public should bemade aware of the limitations to which awatershed can be used to supply their needs.In addition, active participation of an in­formed public in the formulation and imple­mentation of a watershed management plan isvital to the effectiveness of the watershedapproach. Politico-institutional support is re­quired especially in bringing about the redefi­nition of the administration boundaries of re­sources management A sfrong political will isnecessary to make the change from the politi­cally-set boundaries to the natural watershedboundaries. This will entail reexamination ofrelevant policies and the administrative capa­bility to respond to the demands of a water­shed approach such as integration of sectoralissues in and outside the watershed, resolutionof jurisdictional problems, and the monitoringand evaluation of various watershed projects(Fellizar, 1989).

Possible Watershed Information Needs of Various Actors and Users

~-~UNDERSTANDING OF

THEMES i .!! ~~~~

"t:I e(/)e m "t:I ell f-- e "t:I

~• -! e E ell 2 0 ee.!!(/) • f

~a:__ .c

~ ·0 crD.e11 :::J (/) ~-~

,;"5 1:= -cella."t:I "I '01: .a:li 0

ell = .c0 __

1; i-c ¥co e ol (/)e11 ~-8-2 • z e ell eIIE wI -2 m· I-oD. .!! .co ::Sell .- .c .~ "t:IACT~\ 'i ¥ "- crm fl ¥ lio 'ii-iii I-j -- .&I e ee :Ii u::OR USERS !B 1~

l-

I-Policy makers and GA GA GA GA GA GA GA GA GAsector planners

Regulatory staff SK • LS LS SK SK GA•

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Project-level plannersSK LS LS LS SK LS SK LS LSand managers

Field-level staff SK LS LS LS GA GA LS LA LS

Local leaders andSK LA LA LA GA GA LS LA LSNGOs

Farmers and otherLS LS LS LS GA LS LS LS LSland users

Trainers ofTrainers SK SK SK SK SK SK SK SK SK

Adapted from Brooks, 1994.Legend: GA - General appreciation; SK - Specific knowledge; IS - Local specific knowledge; LA - Local general appreciation

23

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY Palawan Integrated Area DevelopmentProject, NACIAD.

Baltazar, E.M. and S.R. Saplaco, eds. 1988.Abstracts of watershed managementresearch and related studies in theASEAN Region. 2 vols. Laguna, Phil:ASEAN-US Watershed Project.

Brooks, K.N., P.F. Flolliott, H.M. Gregersenand K.W. Easter. 1994. Policies forsustainable development: the role ofwatershed management. EPAT/MUCIAPolicy Brief, NO.6 August 1994.

Brooks, K.N., P.F. Ffolliot, H.M. Gregersen,and J.L. Thames. 1991. Hydrology and themanagement of watersheds. Ames, Iowa:Iowa State University Press.

Department of Environment and NaturalResources. 1992. Philippine forestry sta­tistics. Diliman, Quezon City.

Eren, 1. 1977. The integrated watershedapproach for development project formu­lation: guidelines for watershed manage­ment. FAG Conservation Guide.

Fellizar, F.P. Jr. 1989. Papers presented in theFDC PolicySeminar. Laguna, UPLB Collegeof Forestry.

NAClAD. 1983. Integrated environmental programfinal report. Vol. 1: the environmental plan.

24

NACIAD. 1990. Appraisal of the SecondPalawan integrated area developmentproject.

National Water Resource Council. 1983.Framework plan: Northern Mindanao(Agusan basins). Report No. 24-10A.

NWRC. 1983. Framework plan: Western Min­danao (Pulangi river basins). Report No.24-12A. NationalWater Resource Council.

PAWB-DENR. 1992. National integratedprotected areas systems act and itsimplementing rules and regulations.Quezon City, Philippines: Parks andWildlife Bureau, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources.

Saplaco, S.R. 1979. Problems, issues andstrategies on watershed management inthe Philippines. Ukas Yaman, Journal ofthe Natural Resources ManagementForum. 1(7): 1-40.

Watt, K.E. 1973. Principles of environmentalscience. New York: Mc-Graw Hill Book Co.

Woolhiser, D.A. 1975. The watershed approachto understanding our environment.Environmental Quality.

OPEN SPACE PLANNING FOR QUEZON CITYA CONCEPTUAL ENVlRONMENT1

Rabinder Dickton S. Rye

INTRODUCTION

This paper discusses concepts andprinciples of open space planning. It also com­pares and contrasts divergent approaches thathave evolved in the planning of open space.These changing concepts,' in the context ofurban development, are examined amidst theexperiences of Great Britain and the UnitedStates, and a focus on their development inPhilippine planning is also discussed. Finally,this paper outlines some of the major issuespertaining to open space in contemporaryurban planning.

RATIONALE FOR OPEN SPACES

In a rapidly urbanizing world, open spaceis fast becoming a vital asset of a healthy andlivable city (Pitt at. ai, 1979). In fact, the moreopen spaces there are, the better. In theplanning of modern cities and towns, theprovision for adequate open space is con­sidered an essential requirementfor the properfunctioning of the urban system (Halprin,1972). As a functional land use in the urbanarea, open space servestwo primary purposes(NE III. MetroArea Plan. Com., 1962), namely:

1. "To give structure, shape and form tothe city-separating clusters, preser­ving wedges, dividing and givingidentity to urban communities andmaintaining a balance between urbanand rural land uses.

2. "To provide space needed for rec­reation, preserve scenic and historicsites, protect watersheds, aquifers,natural habitats of flora and fauna,and provide natural drainage."

Today, the most critical problems of openspace stem from its misuse, as brought aboutby a lack of understanding of its concept as afunctional land use, as a basic element inplanning, and as a classification of land use inland disposition and management (Davis andHouse, 1968). As a result, the wrong approachis often chosen for the preservation of openspace. Urbanization is another critical threat toopen space. Urban growth traditionally eatsinto open space. "It proceeds by increasing thedensity within and extending the periphery,always at the expense of open space"(McHarg, 1969). Moreover, in cities and highlyurbanized areas, a commonly held viewpointthat open spaces such as public parks do notproduce taxable income or become taxablereal property discourages long term publicinvestments in open space for community use(Gold, 1973). Furthermore, where land islimited and expensive, open space has tocompete with other urban essentials such asresidential and commercial uses which, bytradition, command the best locations and thehighest land values. Therefore, open space isthe first to be sacrificed in the name of growthand development.

By the 21st century, the world will face theprospect of a global po,rulation that is half­urban (Cities of the 21 Century, 1991). InThird World "mega-cities" such as MetroManila,where much of this growth is occurring,the demand for urban land will undoubtedly befelt to the greatest extent. Land in Metro Manilais already in short supply, and the tremendousstrain of urban growth is exerting greaterpressure on its limited open spaces (MMDA,1996). Unless efforts to conserve open spacesare given serious attention, the positive

1 This article is basedon the preliminary draft of the author's mastera! thesis entitled"Open Space Development inQuezon City."

25

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

aspects of development may eventually beovershadowed by the negative impacts broughtabout by rapid urbanization. In time, the loss ofopen space in urban areas coupled with othersocio-economic problems such as slums, pov­erty, crime, unemployment, traffic congestion,environmental pollution, high stress levels, andlow level of government services will inevitablylead to urban blight or decay.

In the sprawling area of Quezon City,urban decay is already being manifested in theuncontrolled proliferation of squatter commu­nities, congested roads and highways, pollutedriver systems, increased levels of total sus­pended particles in the air, and depletedgroundwater resources, among others (Officeof the Mayor, Quezon City, 1997). The deterio­ration of environmental quality thereforethreatens the long-term health and vitality ofthe city.

Open space is considered as one of theessential components of human settlement andurban planning, and yet, it seems to be themost neglected aspect of urban development.

IMPORTANCE OF OPEN SPACE INURBAN DEVELOPMENT:A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Within the fluid and occasionally unpredic­table process of urban development, the con­cept of open space in society has sinceevolved from its early function as a mere statussymbol. In Great Britain, during the pre- andearly industrial periods, open space for re­creation per se was an attribute of social class.The teeming masses had to carry out theirleisure activities on the streets, town squares,and markets. These alternative venues wereaugmented by areas of common land whichwere frequently used for fairs, meetings, andsporting events. According to Williams (1995),open space existed in the form of ornamentalprivate gardens at first and only in a fewprivileged homes. Over time, urban develop­ment regulations were enacted to protect andadvance the right of the people to a healthyenvironment, such as the 1875 Public HealthAct, which imposed certain basic standardsupon development It was around this time thatopen spaces in the form of parks wereprovided and made accessible for public use.

26

Their immense popularity.led to a dramatic risein the number of parks, from only 19 in 1849 to111 by the end of 1880.

By 1945, statutory land planning became amajor factor in the evolution of open space andbecame a tool in regulating urban develop­ment. It was during this period that openspace, through greenbelt planning, started tobe used as a means of controlling the sprawl ofsuburbia associated With continued physicalexpansion (Williams, 1995). The greenbeltconcept involved the use of undeveloped openspace at the periphery to limit the physical sizeor shape of a city or neighborhood, and waswidely accepted in many cities throughoutEurope (Miller, 1988).

In the United States, the provision of openspace in the planning of urban regions datesback to Benjamin Franklin's plan for Phila­delphia. However, during the industrial growthof the 19th century, a period dominated byprivate enterprise, open spaces in urbandevelopment plans were often disregarded. Asgrowth pressures mounted, efforts to preservepublic open space eventually became subor­dinate to economic growth. However, throughsustained public advocacy by conservationists,the campaign to preserve open spaces withincities proved successful when philanthropistsmade significant contributions of land for thedevelopment of public open spaces. Amongthe more notable public open spaces that werecreated out of these donations are CentralPark in New York City and the Cook CountyForest Preserve in Chicago (Recht and Har­mon, 1969). From the post-war recovery yearsuntil the early 1970s, a period characterized bytremendous growth in the U.S. economy, rapidpopulation growth, and increasing mobility,government policy toward open space beganto change from a 'stand by' for other uses to aconcept of primary urban land use (Zisman,1968).

In Great Britain and the United states,open space has become a key element inrestructuring the urban environment. Thisbecame apparent at the beginning of the zo"century when a surge of proposals to promotegarden cities and model communities featureda focal park and garden plaza around whichmajor buildings were grouped. The propheticGarden City model of Sir Ebenezer Howard, a

visionarywhose time may well have come, waspromoted in Great Britain in the early part ofthe zo" century as a response to thedegradation of the urban environm~nt bro~ght

about by the Industrial Revolution (Mllle.r,1988). The Garden City model was the baSISupon which plans of countless communitiesand cities were built. Urban developmentstrategiesto enhancethe environmentsuch asthe Garden City concept, the green beltlegislation of Great Britain in the early post­1945 period as well as contemporary effortstowards the greening of cities all underscorethe important use of open space as anaesthetic as well as 'structural' element. toprovide order and balance.

The process of urban renewal is linkedclosely to policies for urban enhancement. Thisbecame prominent during the post-war recov­ery period after 1945 and has become arecurrenttheme. War damage and the collapseof aged Victorian inner cities in Englandprompted drastic initiatives to revitalize thehearts of cities (Williams, 1995). Today, theseefforts are paying off through the transfor­mation of former dockland areas into econom­ically viable mixed-use developments (Wilfiams,1995). The U.S. urban renewal period from1954 to 1972 witnessed the transformation ofdeteriorating business districts and crumblingadjacent areas into sites that were madeavailable at below market rates for desiredtypes of projects (Goldsteen and Elliot, 1994).Under these circumstances, urban renewal ledto the restructuring of land based on cohesiveand comprehensive land use plans, whichprovided a means for varied open spaceimprovements. The opportunities provided byurban renewal created visually pleasingspaces, which eventually resulted in increasedland and building values within and around thesite (Goldsteenand Elliot, 1994).

OPENSPACEDEFINED

Putting it simply, open space is land orwater surface open to the sky (Zisman, 1968).As a resource, it possesses some of thesecharacteristics(Davis and House, 1968):

• Relatively free from development, thatis, having a low percentageof surfacecovered by building and otherimpermeablesurfaces.

27

Open Space Planning

• Low permanentpopulation.• Vegetated to provide a visual contrast

to man-madeenvironment.

Open space is provided, either primarilyorincidentally, through areas devoted to farms,forests, recreation, or institutional uses (Davisand House, 1968).

Land designated as open space has afunctional use, and serves a vital purpose inland classification and land use planning. Thisstatement implies that open space or vacantland is more than a residual category in a landuse survey. Therefore, as an equally importantland use, open space can be classified in somedetail and can be accorded special attention inland use planning. Under this concept, openspaces together with land designated as left­over, idle, undeveloped, unused, or "vacant,'all become part of an open space system.Within this context, open space can and doesbecome a determinant of development, provi­ding a basis for meaningful and effectiveplanning (Zisman, 1968).

The nature of open space in the urbanarea can be described as a continuum.Beginning at the urban fringe, open spacecomes as 'quasi-wilderness', marked byrelatively pristine natural conditions that pre­sent a variety of plant and animal species withhardly any presence of human activity. This isfollowed by a 'modified wilderness' that issubjected to some form of human interferencesuch as cutting, burning, or some continuinglow intensity land use. These first two cate­gories have extremely high natural values.Natural values of open spaces decrease asthese approach the city center. Finally, at theurban core, open space comes in the form of"high cost civic landscapes- within so-called'urban jungles', dominated by hard surfaces,simple vegetative cover, and controlled naturallandscaping(Manning, 1979).

OPENSPACE VALUES AND BENEFITS

The values and benefitsof open spacearesubstantial. Whether big or small, open spaceresources improve environmental quality ingeneral. Numerous studies have also shownthat open spaces enhanceair quality and lowerdust levels, provide breathing space for play

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

and recreation, preserve natural beauty andscenic values, serve as a habitat for naturalcommunities of plants and animals, reducewater run-off and erosion, and facilitate thepercolation of water into aquifers and under­ground streams (Davis and House, 1968).These values and benefits are elaboratedunder the following categories:

Social

Open spaces have profound socialbenefits. They serve as venues for people tointeract among themselves as well as withnature. With their variety, they bring peopletogether for enjoyment, recreation, spiritualrenewal, and education. In fact, areas with highopen space values help enhance such mun­dane day-to-day activities as walking, working,traveling, and shopping. In modern urbanmilieus, open spaces provide the setting tocelebrate the arts and cultural diversity, polit­ical discourse, and athletic competition. As aresource, open spaces are investments in thesocial fabric of the community and therebybecome critical elements in the economicdevelopment of the city (Goldsteen and Elliot,1994).

Aesthetic

Another set of reasonsfor preserving openspaces has to do with aesthetics. This includespreserving natural beauty, improving ugly,disjointed, or cluttered urban structures orelements, concealing or bUffering disturbing orunpleasant views, and providing a readilyavailable escape, if only for a short while, fromthe city and all its real or imagined discomforts.People in general favor open, uncluttered landto walk through, to admire while on a drive, orto photograph with (Davis and House, 1968).

Still others see open spaces as majormeans of providing visual relief from manmadecityscapes or as welcome breaks from theotherwise usually harsh lines and hardness ofmaterials in buildings and streets (Davis andHouse, 1968). Moreover, an open space sys­tem, which is the fitting together of open spaceelements in a continuous connected series,gives an area a distinct character and identitywithin the larger context of the city. A system ofopen spaces can also relate or integrate

28

various urban forms, activities, and land usesto produceedges, foci, nodes, and districtsthatvary in size,scale, and character (Zisman,1968).

Given proper planning, design, and main­tenance, open spaces contribute to theaesthetic enhancement of the total environ­ment of cities and metropolitan areas (Gold,1973).

Psychological/Health

Open spaces also play a role inmaintaining mental and emotionalwell-being. Anoted psychtatrist, Dr. Karl Menningerstated inDavis and House (1968) that one of theessential human needs is the need for air,preferably unpolluted, for exercise and forcontact with nature which can be achievedthrough "the somewhat artificial but pleasantprovisions in an accessible and properlymaintained park, complete with trees, flowers,shrubs, lawns, lakes, and streams.· He furtheradded that the presenceof green open spacessuch as agricultural areas or wilderness areessential to the people's mental health (Davisand House, 1968). Moreover, as GeorgeMacaUlay Tevelyan, an English historian, oncesaid (Davis and House, 1968), "All of us havedeep emotional drives which impel' uswhenever possible to seek the open sky, openspaces,openland."

Therefore, preserving natural beauty is aserious matter of preserving a primal source ofspiritual well-being. The wellness and sanity ofhuman beings are sustained by their contactwith nature that renews them (Davis andHouse, 1968).

Economic

In addition to aesthetic, social, and psy­chological and health reasons, there are alsofinancial motivations for promoting improvedopen spaces. Spatial improvements are alsolinked to a city's economic future throughdevelopment programs, neighborhoodimprovements, and city booster efforts, all ofwhich help create jobs, stabilize businesscycles and unstable economies, increasewages through the competition of newemployers, hold down increases in city and

county tax rates, increase retail sales and taxrevenues, increase tourism, create higherpropertyvalues, and increase loan business forlocal banks. As a whole, spatial improvementspromote the concept of "growth is good for thebusiness community" and thereby strengthenthe perception of overall city improvement(Goldsteenand Elliot, 1994).

Structuring Development

Open spaces are used to separatedensely-developed urban areas or buffer themagainst conflicting uses. They serve as a bufferbetween disparate and conflicting types ofd~velopment such as a strip park along ahIghway that reduces noise and dirt whichwould adversely affect the livability of nearbyresidel'ltial areas. Cropland or other openspace uses adjacent to an airport can insulateapproach and takeoff zones {Davis and House,100~ .

As a structural element, open spacesthrough separators and buffers give visibleform to neighborhoods, distinguish corridors ofdevelopment strung along transportationarteries, and define and separate towns, cities,and metropolitan areas. Aside from itsusefulnessto structure or control development,large open spaces adjacent to built-up areasprovide flexibility for future development(Davisand House, 1968).

Hence, people living in built-up areas havethe best of both worlds-living amidst urbanfacilities and services and living near openspaces.

In comprehensive planning, open spaceelements such as greenbelts, greenways, corri­dor separators, and strip and area buffers areused to limit the physical developmentelementin order to control spraWl (Zisman, 1968).Concentrating building development and con­trolling their outward expansion through green­belts could reduce the cost of providing streetsand utilities in areas of sprawling, scattereddevelopment (Davis and House, 1968). InEngland, greenbelts are commonly used tolimit the physical size or shape of a city orneighborhood (Halprin, 1972).

29

OpenSpace Planning

In summary, open space contributes to anorderly development of the community byintegrating or separating urban areas, neigh­borhoods, districts,or zones from each other orfrom the surrounding area (Gold, 1973).

Ecological Proc.esses

This next category of reasons forpreserving open space relates to humanexistence itself. Adequate amounts of carefullylocated open space are vital for the improvedmanagement and use of the most essentialnatural resources-air and water. largeamounts of open land near cities are needed toact as air recharges or mixing areas wherenoxious air coming from cities are diluted withfresher air. In fact, the preservation of largeagricultural areas as "ventilating green spaces"was one of the three anti-pollution measuresproposed in the Santa Clara County, CaliforniaGeneral Plan (Davis and House, 1968).Forests, parks, and other green spaces alsoserve this purpose.

The preservation of the natural cover oftrees and grass is equally important Thedestruction of these natural absorbers ofmoisture and dust and their replacement withconcrete pavements and roofs have tremen­dously accelerated run-off and have greatlycomplicated problems of flood control areas inthe U.S. (Davis and House, 1008).

Although less apparent, loss of openspaces results to a decrease in the percolationof water into underground streams andreservoirs, which are natural sources of freshwater supply. Consideration must be given tostreams and water tables, as they relate to thewater supply of the city.

Hence, open spaces in metropolitan areasare needed to contribute in maintaining thebalanceof nature (Davis and House, 1968).

OPEN SPACE TYPES ANDCLASSIFICATION

Based on its nature and function, twoclasses of open space are presented byStanley Tankel (Zisman, 1968). The first is the

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

kind of open space that most people are awareof (Davis and House, 1968):

[Open spaceJ used for the widerange of active and passive recreationactivities, for circulation; it is viewedfrom the home, the road or othervantage point; and it is felt - it givespn'vacy, insulation or sense ofspacious­ness and scale.

The second type is that which most people arenot aware of but which nevertheless servesthem beneficially (Zisman, 1968):

Open space which does urbanwork-protects water supply andprevents floods by soaking up runoff;acts as a safety zone in the path ofaircraft takeoff and landings; and openspace which helps shape the devel­opment pattern-such as spacebetween bUildings or communities, orspace which channels development, oras a land reserve for the future.

Clawson provides a specific classificationof open space, Which is based on the intensityof use and the input of resources (Zisman,1968):

• Open space surrounding publicbuildings.

• Open space for recreation.• Open space for ecological protection

or for preservation of certain desirablenatural characteristics.

• Open space for urban structural andaesthetic purposes.

• Open space provisions for futureurban growth.

In the planning of the San Francisco BayArea, open space advocatessettled for a morepragmatic open space classification systemthat was based on a commitmentto keep landfor open space uses (Kent Jr., 1970). Thecategoriesproposed included:1. permanent open space which consists of

public and private parks, open space landheld expressly for park or open spacepurposes, wildlife refuges, and theholdings of private conservation organiza­tions;

30

2. semi-permanent open space thatincludes public and privately-owned landfor which a strong commitment to con­tinued open space exists. These includewatershed lands, academic institutionallands, military reservations, and holdingsof the Bureau of Land Management.Private lands include golf courses,cemeteries, and quasi-public recreationareas; and

3. temporary open space which includesprivately-owned lands that provide for thecommitment of land to open space usesfor a minimum numberof years.

Based on its functional uses, Zisman(1968) classifies open space into three broadcategories: utility, green space, and corridorspaces. Each category is briefly described asfollows:

1. Utility Spaces

These are surface spaces, water or land,which act as storage of water, whethersurface impounded or underground, orprovide drainage or flood control byabsorbing and holding water or channelingits flow. These are also the surface spaceswhich contain the direct productive uses ofland in forests and farmlands or deposits,fishing, and wildlife. A possible inclusionwould also be land reserves for theconservation of resources as storagefunctions or the reserves of land fordevelopment as land banks. The nature ofutility open spaces is in their use as abasic land resource.

2. Green Spaces

These are land and water surfaces usedfor 'green' purposes such as parks andrecreation, greenbelts and greenways, orbodies of water which define, limit, orcontrol development, natural scenic pro­tection, and the spaces around andbetween buildings. This broad categoryincludes a variety of space forms, fromregional parks to neighborhood parks,playgrounds and other local parks, land­scaped areas, and areas designated forthe preservation of natural characteristics.The nature of green open spaces is in

their use as the designation of naturalsites in relation to other urban uses.

3. Corridor Spaces

These are the spaces, land and water,used for the rights-of-way of movementand transportation. The nature of corridoropen space is that of passageways orchannels of circulation and directly relatedlanding places.

In addition to these three broadcategories, open spaces may be subjected tomultiple uses. Referred to as multiple-use openspaces, its determination is based on theexisting and potential use of the land. Such isthe case of a water reservoir (utility openspace) that can also serve as a significantrecreation facility (green open space). Theprimary function may be that of utility, to storewater as a resource, but because of its nature,the resource also becomes useful andavailable for both water and shore-relatedrecreation.

Another example is a major highway,which may offer possibilities of green spaceuses through the provision of a tree-lined roadisland or greenbelts and greenway areas.Some examples of multi-use open spaces arecollege and university campuses, cemeteries,zoos, and airfields. In the planning of an openspace system, they can be classified either asprimary or secondary open space elements.

PARAMETERS IN DETERMINING OPENSPACE VALUES

The general parameters that are usuallyapplied in determining and classifying openspace include both measurable data and valuejudgments (Zisman, 1968). These parametersare:

Primary Functional Use

Open spaces may be classified primarilyaccording to their function as a distinct landuse and their relation to other uses.

Relation to Development Values

Whether open space values are greater

31

Open Space Planning

than potential development values and there­fore should be protected against any develop­ment would be value judgments in classi­fication.

Size of Land

Open spaces come in varied sizes orscales: site, city areas, urban metropolitanareas, and regions.

Urban-Rural Considerations

Open spaces vary in rural and urbanareas. A classification system should considerthe uniqueness of the area and suitedaccording to context: urban impacted areas,the urbanized region, or the 'remote' region.Classification should be site-specific.

Intensity of Use

Factors that may affect classification couldinclude intensity, frequency, or period of use,among others. These characteristics may beused in making detailed classifications withinthe general land uses.

Land Characteristics

Land characteristics such as vegetation,soil conditions, geological formation, andprevious use can be a basis to classify openspaces.

Other parameters may include acces­sibility, ownership, open space activity, historicand other cultural significance, and manage­ment problems.

OPEN SPACE CLASSIFICATIONSYSTEM

Below is an example of a classificationsystem developed by Zisman (1968) that illus­trates some of the criteria used in the inventoryof open space resources. The criteria used toassess open spaces include many open spacevalues, including natural resources:

I. Utility Open Spaces

A. Resource Areas

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Land and water for production orextraction such as forests, grazingareas, lakes, and rivers for watersupply.

B. Urban Utility Spaces

Areas allocated for direct urban usesuch as dam sites, reservoirs, land­fills, waste disposal areas, andsewagetreatment facilities.

C. Flood Controland Drainage

Land that requires special protectivemeasures to protect land from beingdestroyed such as flood plains, floodbanks, watersheds, protection areas,drainage ways such as ditches,creeks or paths of run-off water, anderosion control areas.

D. Reservesand Preserves

land or water reserved or protectedfor future resource use such asforests, wildlife refuges, breedingareas, sanctuaries, and lands forfuture urban expansion.

II. Green Open Spaces

A. Wilderness Areas

Land best left in its natural state forscenic, geological, and ecologicalvalues. Usually designated by govern­ment agencies.

B. ProtectedAreas

Areas of limited access and controlleddevelopment for the protection ofscenic and other natural values suchas wildlife refuges, scenic areas,coastlines, and shore areas.

C. Natural Park Areas

Areas accessible to the public,characterized by nature setting orshowcasing natural elements uniqueto the area such as national parks andforests, city parks, etc.

D. Urban Park Areas

Parks found in cities or metropolitanareas such as zoos, botanicalgardens, arboretum, urban forests,nature trails, riding areas, boating andother water facilities, and open-air

32

facilities such as fair grounds, amphi­theater, and outdoor recreationalfacilities.

E. Recreational Areas

Areas developed for organized acti­vities and outdoor recreation such asgolf courses, play fields, playgrounds,swimming pools, tennis courts, picnicareas, racecourses, and runningtracks.

F. Urban Development Open Spaces

Open spaces that structure or controldevelopment such as greenbelts,green wedges, greenways, buffers,separators, plazas, squares, com­mons, setbacks, and open spacesaround buildings.

III. CorridorOpen Spaces

A. Rights-of-way spaces such as high­ways, streets, alleys, drives, rivers,canals, creeks, railroad and other railtransit lines, and utility rights-of-wayeasements.

B. Landing spaces for terminal and inter­change uses such as parking areas,airfields, and interchange areas suchas cloverleafand transfer areas.

IV. Multi-UseOpen Space

other uses which meet the open spacedefinition. Usually a mix of developmentand open space such as campuses,private clubs with recreational facilities,garden areas, cemeteries, etc.

As pointed out, the classification of openspaces should include fundamental naturalprocesses as parameters in determining theirgrowth and distribution (Uttle, 1969). Openspaces must therefore respondto these naturalprocesses that need to be accounted for andconserved. According to McHarg (1969), thereare eight natural open spaces where certainland uses may be permitted or prohibited:

Surface Water

Only land uses that are compatible withwaterfront locations should occupy them, and

even these should be limited so as not todiminish the present or future capacity ofsurface water for supply, recreation, andamenity.

Marshes

Land uses should consider the flood andwater storage function of this type of openspaceso as not to diminish its capacity.

Flood plains

It is accepted that all developments shouldbe prohibited from a 50-year flooding, exceptcertain activities which are unharmed byflooding or are inseparable from flood plains.

Aquifer

This resource should be protected andmanaged by prescribing land uses that do notimperil the aquifer. Developments that includedisposal of toxic wastes, biological discharges,or sewageshould be prohibited.

Aquifer Recharge Areas

As points of interchange between surfacewater and aquifers, polluted rivers must becarefully separated from the aquifers, andclean streams that transect it must beimpounded for these areas to be managed andrecharged. Land uses on these permeablesurfaces must be regulated to allow normalpercolation.

Steep lands

To minimize floods and erosion, steeplands or slopes in excessof 12 degrees shouldbe classified as unsuitable for urban develop­ment or cultivation. Compatible land usesshould be limited primarily to forestry andrecreation.

Prime Agricultural land

The protection of the best soils in the cityor metropolitan area should be considered asdesirable because of their long-term value orirreplaceable nature.

Urban Forest and Woodland

Vegetative cover improves microclimateconditions thus contributing to the balancing

33

Open Space Planning

effect upon the water regimen-diminishingerosion, sedimentation, flood and droughtMoreover, this type of open space providesscenic values and serves as a habitat for floraand fauna. Their recreational value is amongthe highestof all categories.

OPEN SPACE PLANNINGAPPROACHES

The issue on how much open space isrequired poses practical difficulties in estima­ting true demand. Nevertheless, numerouscontrasting approaches have been tried andtested to determine open space requirements,especially for recreational purposes (Williams,1995):

Standards Approach

This approach is the most firmlyestablished method for setting levels ofprovision. The basis of all standards planningrequires that a fixed level of provision shouldbe associated with a given population base, forexample, six acres of open space per 1,000population. This approach, however, has beencriticized for its uniformity in approach and itslimited capacity to take into account localdemographic, economic, social, or physicalconditions.

The advantage of this approach lies in itssimplicity and perceived equity. For planningpurposes, this approach reduces the difficultiesof forecasting demand since it does notconsider uncertainties of identifying hiddendemand. To measure any shortfall in theprovision of open space, it simply assumesfixed population levels, which are knownor canbe projected with some accuracy.

Spatial Approach

Although the standards approach can de­fine a level of deficit in an urban area, itprovides less guidance as to where newfacilities should be located. In such cases, aspatial approach is more useful. Using a map,the extent of the catchment area of a certainfacility can be delineated. Such' factors asdistribution, degree of specialization, andcharacteristic patterns of use of the facilitydetermine the extentoHhe catchment area.

PHILIPPINE P/..ANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

An advantage of this approach is thatareas with service deficiencies can easily bepinpointed since they lie beyond the catchmentarea of existing open spaces. This justifies theprovision of open space in these geographicalgaps, provided that there is actual demand forthe facility under consideration by people livingin these areas.

Organic Approach

This approach is essentially an increm­ental approach wherein authorities take regularstock of their existing provision, assess itspatterns of use, and highlight any deficienciesthat their analysis suggest. Any deficiency isaddressed based on resource availability,development prioritization by concerned agen­cies, or a political decision from above. Thisapproach is based on a more realistic view thatlocal authorities do not have the resources toprovide for all types of recreation spaces in allparts of their jurisdiction. The availability ofneeded provision, therefore, grows in anincremental fashion or in an ad hoc manner.The organic approach is common in GreatBritain because planning the local conditionsrarely permits a large-scale strategic approachto recreational open spaceprovision.

Hierarchical Approach

This approach is based on the conven­tional Central Place Theory of Christaller.Occupying the upper echelons is a smallnumber of large and/or specialized facilitiesthat attract users from a large catchment. Atthe base is a larger number of small, non­specialist recreational open spaces that have amuch more localized appeal. This can there­fore provide a rationale for the plannedprovision of recreational facilities in areaswhere there are no existingprovision.

Community Development Approach

This approach evolved out of the democ­ratization of planningin Great Britainduring the1970s when public participation became afeature of the new planning process. Theapproach relies on publicconsultation as a wayof gatheringinformation to plan for recreationalneeds that are felt as necessary by the localpeople. An advantage of this approach is its

34

use of consultation through which publicauthorities can keep in touch with interestgroups and gather feedback or opinion on theneeds of the community.

Open Space System Approach

Open spaceelementsby themselves havedistinct functions to perform; but, it is byviewing open space as a system of continuityand related parts that the "structuralframework" for urban development can beestablished (lisman, 1968). This approachoffers a large-scale strategic view of openspaces in the city or metropolitan area. Asdefined, a system of open space fits togethervarious open space elements such as utility,green, and corridor open spaces into acontinuous connected series disposed in afunctional pattern. The main characteristic ofan open space system is that each elementhas a positive relation to other elements, andthat the whole system has a form in whicheach element has a meaningfUl and functionalplace (lisman, 1968).

Such an approach recognizes open spaceas a positiveand functional land use that mustbe designated and planned for, and coor­dinated with all other developments in the useand management of land resources. Underthisbroad context, the function of open spaceserves to provide a framework necessary forobtaining a balance between development,particularly urban development, and non­development. The primary function of openspace is to serve as the 'fixed' element inplanning to which other uses are related.However, it is through a system of openspaces that a 'structural framework" can beestablished to guide the over-all physicaldevelopment of an area (lisman, 1968).lisman (1968) describes the natureof an openspace systemin the following manner:

The open space at any scale must beseen in relation to the whole hierarchy ofscales: the site in relation to its neigh­borhood, the neighborhood in relation tothe city, the city in relation to the met­ropolitan area, the urban area to thelarger region of which it is a part. It is inthe open space that one size of arearelates directly to other in the hierarchy of

scale, and it is in this relationship that asystem of open space develops, from thesmaller detail to the larger broader ele­ments of a system, from the broad scaleto the local detail.

In summary, an open space system,provides the 'fixed' element in the planning ofan area and a basic control for the total patternof urban development. Therefore, by firstdesignating the system, a comprehensive plancan be organized to give full play to buildingdevelopment, to optimize opportunities forgood building design and urban development,and to provide for such practical requirementsas drainage, utilities, circulation, recreation,and aesthetic amenities. As a basis for com­prehensive planning and development, anopen space system provides a number ofdesign characteristics, which are useful toidentify, establish, and organizethe system. .

As a holistic approach in the urbandevelopment process, an open space systemcan serve three major functions (lisman,1968):

• To provide for a logical determination ofthe best uses of land beginning withnatural characteristics, its functionsto holdand drain water, and its use as a primaryresource.

• To provide the essential means forphysical order and continuity in planningby providing an over-all physical control inthe use of land.

• To establish the best and most advanta­geous siting for building development tocreate, maintain,and increasesite values.

PLANNING OF AN OPEN SPACESYSTEM: A CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

As mentioned, open space is charac­terized as a positive and functional land usethat should be designatedand plannedfor, andcoordinated with all other developments in theuse and management of land resources. Thisis based on the principlethat there is a need toplan all resources as part of an interdependentsystem.

To ensure that open space is properly

35

Open Space Planning

preserved and used, lisman (1968) devises astep-by-step approach in. the planning of anopen space system. To arrive at a meaningfuland broader understanding of this approach,the study presents a conceptual framework(Figure 1) to underscore the relative positionand importance of open space planningactivities in the context of comprehensiveplanning.

This conceptual framework is a five-phaseurban development policy-making processthrough which all recommendations, eitherplans or programs, must pass through. Basedon the open space system approach, plansand programs become relevant and realizableif they are tied up to a broader comprehensiveplan. The conceptual framework thereforeintegratesthe planning of open spaces into theprocess of defining public policy regarding thegrowth and development of an area. Theconceptual framework consists of the followingphases:

1. Identification of community goals andobjectives.

2. Inventoryof existing resource conditionswhich includes a forecast of communityneeds.

3. Designing a policy framework based onresource conditions and communityneeds.

4. Implementation of policy through plansand programs, or through controls orregulation.

5. Appraising policy effects through policyevaluation in terms of the significanceandl or mitigationof impact.

The key elements of the process are out­lined below. Highlighted within each phase arethe major steps that are primarily based onlisman's approach to open space planning.This study attempts to discuss in detail theactivities to be undertaken in fulfilling eachstep.

Phase 1: Identify Goals and Objectives

Step I - Delineate the area of study andplanning on a map-a city and its surroun­dings, a municipality, a province, or region.When necessary, sub-areas are determined forcloser study.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

IDENTIFYGOALS

& OBJECTIVES --.OPPORTUNITIES

INVENTORY &FORECASTRESOURCE ~

CONDITIONS

DESIGNPOLICY

IMPLEMENT POLICYRECOMMENDATIONS

EVALUATEPOLICY

ACTIONS

It '.______________________________ J L-. ---J

Scan & PrepareDefine Evaluate

Define Alternative ApproveEnviron· -----.. Committed .. Appropriate r--. Comprehensive -+ Recommen-

ment Land Policy Plans dations-Use Framework

• OwnershipPrepare• Control

Identify Issues Alternative Openand Concems

InventorySpace Plans

Physical • I.D. Existing andResources Potential Open

DetermineEvaluate Check and Spaces

Goals andExisting Open Compare r--. • ID. Facility

ObjectivesSpace with other Requirements

according to Plans and • LD. SpecificClassification Policies Programs and

Projects

• Local • ID otherGov't intervention

Identify • National measuresResource Land Use

~Constraints Code tand • Water ,,.

Opportunities Code

• Plan forLa DetermineFeasibility of OpenMesa Dam

Identifyor• MMDA

Space PlanImplement Monitor, Obtain

Forecast Plan SizeRecommen· Feedback andPotential Location r--.

Needs • Etc. Legal dations Revise~ • Recreation Type

• Etc CostsStaffing, etc

I

Figure 1

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA Process For Urban Development Policy-Making

36

The following activities are essential incontextualizing the area under study. Theseinclude:

• Defining the physical boundary of theareas.

• Determining development issues andconcerns pertaining to the area inorder to: (a) compare and contrastpast and present urban developmentpolicies such as land use plans todetermine developmenttrends and (b)examine past and present open spacepolicies and plans to determine if sucha resource is increasingor decreasingovertime.

Based on the first two activities, define thegoals and objectives for the area by high­lighting the relevance of open space in theurban developmentprocess.

Phase 2: Inventory Resources and ForecastPotential Needs

Step II - Define the land in terms of itspresent and known use, working progressivelyfrom the broader context to smaller units.Identify readily available information on thestudy area.

Step III - Make an initial evaluation ofcommitted lands in terms of use, ownership,and control. Land must be categorized aswithin the public domain, owned by the localgovernment,. privately owned, or under thejUrisdiction of other authorities. Establish the'fixed' elements such as national parks, citylmunicipal parks, urban forests, dams andreserves, etc. including the spaces used orcommittedfor highways.

Step IV - Evaluate open space accordingto the classification of open spaces as utility,green, and corridor spaces, and identify singleand multipleopen space uses. Preparea crudeopen space plan to identify gaps and missingdetails that may be added in the future.

The essential activities for fulfilling thesesteps include:

1. Collecting relevant data and information toestablisha profile of existingconditions.

37

Open Space Planning

2. Reviewing existing information to identifyopen space resources that are significantbecause of public or technical recognitionor which are likely to be affected by urbandevelopmentimpacts or policies.

3. Identifying land in terms of its present andknown use, ownership, and controls.

4. Determining land in the public domain interms of those owned by the city or otherpublic agencies, those privately-owned, aswell as lands under the control of otherauthorities.

5. Making an inventory of eXisting openspace resources.

6. Classifying existing and potential openspaces according to an appropriate clas­sification system that considers green,corridor, and utilityspaces.

7. Establishing the 'fixed' elements includingmajor parks, urban forests, city or muni­cipal parks, etc.

8. Identifyingresourceconstraintsand oppor­tunities imposed by existing plans andpolicies.

9. Identifying or forecasting potential deve­lopment needs based on existing andprojected demand, as well as existingplans and policies. Towards this end, thesub-activities include:

• Identifyingopen space deficienciesbyevaluating existing open space,assessing its patterns of use andhighlighting shortcomings in terms offacilities, amenities, or size, amongothers.

• For recreational open space needs,determining the area required basedon established standards.

• For both recreational and non-recrea­tional open space needs, identifyingareas based on established parame­ters such as primary functional use,relation to development values, sizeof land, urban-rural considerations,intensity of use, land characteristics,drainage and water surface charac­teristics, accessibility, ownership,activity, and historic and other culturalsignificance.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Phase 3: Design Policy

In designing a policy framework, it isimportant that development issues and con­cerns form the bases in defining goals andobjectives. The policy framework provides asufficient basis for proposed courses of actionwhich government, in cooperation with allstakeholders; should undertake to achieve itsgoals and objectives. It should include policystatements on land uses including open space.To ensure consistency or compatibility, thepolicy framework should be based or har­monizedwith existing plans and policies.

Phase 4: Implement PolicyRecommendations

Step V - Detail the elements of a broadly­sketched open space system for a closerexamination of uses of the open spaces them­selves. Delineate as best as possible theborders or edges of the open space system.Reviewthe classification of open space uses towork out a more definite designation of uses,whether single or multi-use. Identify where thesystem is interrupted and make a deter­mination of what changes should and could bebrought about to make the system complete.

Step VI - After defining a broad openspace system, check and compare with otherplans, including the comprehensiveplan, whichmay have been made by other agencies ororganizations. Where appropriate. give sug­gestions to harmonize the system with suchexisting plans, either by proposing changes inthe plan or making adjustmentsin the system.

Step VII - Make a more detailed study ofsub-areas or parts of the planning area withparticular reference to development use,whether actual or proposed. This will be thepoint at which some basic determination canbe made of the possible areas for industrial.residential, public, and other uses. The openspace system should be able to control ororder other developments.

Step VIII - First make a schematic plan ofan open space system for the area. Map outsignificant areas of use as anchor points of thesystem, and see what open space elementscan be used to tie these areas together in a

38

system ofcohtinuity. Open spaces such aswatercourses, highway rights-of-way. and spe­cial topographic features can be used asanchor points.

Step IX - Coordinate open space planningwith other stakeholders. Work out with themsuggestions and proposals for developmentpatterns and assist as much as possible ingetting regulations drawn up or revised in orderto produce desirable patterns and proceduresof developmentin relation to open space.

It is during this phase that the policyframework is concretized through the formu­lation of open space recommendations. Amongthe activitiesto be included are:

• Making a final evaluation of open spaceresources, existing and potential, basedon defined parameters and classificationsystem.

• Determining open space elements thatcan tie significant areas and anchor pointstogether in a system of continuity. Some ofthese elements could include watercourses, highway rights-of-way, andspecial topographic features.

• Preparing alternative schemes-identifyingareas with significant open space valuesand anchor points of the system as well assingle and multiple purpose open spaceuses. The preferred option thus becomesa first basic statement of an overall openspace plan.

• Detailing a broad open space system bydefining as best as possiblethe borders oredges of the open space areas in thesystem. Review the classification of openspace uses for a more definite designationof open space uses.

• Checking where the system is interruptedand determiningwhat changes should andcould be brought about to make thesystem complete.

• Tying up the schematic open spacesystem with a comprehensiveplan.

• Addressing gaps and details through theiteration of the comprehensiveplan.

• Checking or comparing of the overall landuse plan with relevant plans or policiesprepared by other entities. Whereappropriate, making suggestions forchange to harmonize the system, either

through changes in the plan or throughadjustments in the system.

• Making a more detailed study of the over­all land use plan, with particular referenceto actual or proposed development uses.At this point, some basic determinationcan be made of the land most valuable forindustrial, residential, public, or other uses.Of special interest will be the areasdesignated in relation to the open spacesystem as possible areas for development.The open space system is the frameworkthat will control and order development inrelation to open space.

• Addressing open space planning problemsin relation to the broader plan so thatidentified open spaces are incorporated asa positive element of the plan.

• Determining the feasibility of the openspace system.

• Making recommendations and havingthem approved.

• Supporting approved recommendations byfiscal and non-fiscal measures such asdeferred taxation schemes and zoningregulations.

• Implementing recommendations.

Phase 5: Evaluate/Appraise Effects ofPolicy

Step X - Review and revise open spaceplans and related factors. Open space planningis a continuous process wherein not all theanswers will be available at once and wheredetails will be needed and added later. Bytaking the lead in open space determinationand planning and by assisting local authoritiesand local groups, a firm and workable openspace plan can be developed for continuoususe.

Monitoring, reviewing, and revIsing theplan based on the effects of policy action arethe activities included in this phase.

Planning is a continuous cyclic processwherein not all the answers can be addressedat once. Plans are improved on the basis ofadditional details needed. In the context ofurban development, planning should be basedon a well-defined policy framework that shouldserve as a potent guide in determining thedirection of growth patterns and development

39

Open Space Planning

priorities. A comprehensive plan is a translationof government policies that includes policies onopen space. Through a concerted effort andcommitment of local authorities, and in coordi­nation with civic groups and the public in gene­ral, a comprehensiveand workable open spaceplan can be developed for continuous use.

QUEZON CITY'S OPEN SPACEPOLICY: AN INITIAL ASSESSMENT

Open space is considered as one of theessential components of human settlement andurban planning, and yet, it seems to be themost neglected aspect of urban development.

In the Philippines, the concept of openspace as integral to urban development wasbest exemplified in the 1949 Master Plan ofQuezon City, proclaimed as the new capitalcity of the nation by then President Manuel LQuezon.

This section presents an initial assess­ment of the open space policies of Quezon Cityusing the conceptual framework presentedearlier. The assessment shall attempt to revealthe city's open space values and their evolvingimportance in the growth and development ofQuezon City.

Open Space as an Element of Quezon City'sVision, Urban Development Goals andObjectives

The 1949 Master Plan was anchored upona vision to build Quezon City and transform itinto the first garden city of the country. Theoriginal framers of the plan were inspired bythe appeal of the Garden City concept of SirEbenezer Howard that gained prominenceas amodel during the first decades of the 20llt

century. As such, the Plan for Quezon Cityvisualized an expansive system of interconnec­ted parks, greenbelts, and recreational facili­ties. The Master Plan stated that the CentralPark in the Diliman quadrangle would be the"heart ofthe park system" in Quezon City (PIA,1979).

However, the Capital City Planning Com­mission (CCPC), the lead agency in masterplanning Quezon City, lacked administrativecontrols over the Diliman Quadrangle. Juris-

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNALVol.XXIX No. 1 October 1997

dictional control and authority were vested onthe Quezon City government. This institutionalproblem hindered the implementation of theplan. Moreover, when CCPCwas abolished, itsfunctions and powers were transferred to theNational Planning Commission (NPC) in 1950.As a consultative body, the NPC was notvested with the power and authority to makedecisions that would supersede those of thelocal government (PIA, 1979). In short, itsuffered the same fate as the CCPC.

In retrospect, the plan's failure was duemainly to the absence of an agency that hadthe sole power and authority to implement theplan. Today, given the powers and functionsoflocal government, the tasks of identifying,accounting, recording, developing, conserving,protecting, and monitoringQuezon City's openspace resources should become part of thecity's functions to ensure the long-termsustainability of these resources.

Through the years, after its inception, thevision for Quezon City as a garden city shouldhave taken into consideration the unprece­dented population growth that occurredbetween 1950 and 1970 in order to clearlydefine and mark out adequateopen spaces forfuture uses. During this period, Quezon Cityexperienced rapid urbanization and populationgrowth which peaked at 11.48 percent in 1960.Government attention and resources werefocused on meeting the residential require­ments of the city's burgeoning population.Throughthe years, and until now, much of thecity's vacant land, especially in District 2, arebeing built upon with little concern for district­wide open space requirements.

In 1995, the City Planning and Develop­ment Office (CPDO) revealed an unbalanceddistribution of open spaceswithin the city. Thisis evident in 35 barangays which are notserved by any neighborhood park. Thissituation has long-term implications on thehealth and well-being of the constituents livingin these barangays. Where then are thenearest recreational opportunities which theaffected populanon can avail of at any time?How do the people in these barangays copewith the absenceof green open spaces in theirneighborhood such as parks or playgrounds?

40

These issues"have to be addressed soonest inorder to minimize the adverse impacts of theabsence or lack of open space on the healthand well-being of some sectors of the city. Interms of addressing these issues, the CPDOhas identified location, spatial distribution, andaccessibility as important parameters in plan­ning the city's open space needs.

The city's policy options concerning urbandevelopment are made either by design or bydefault. Based on the original plan for QuezonCity, the vision for the city underscored theneed for a variety of open spaces. The mainreason for such a plan was to enhance thecity's functionand characteras the new capitalcity and to provide recreational venues for itsvisitors and inhabitants. Subsequent policyactions and outcomes, however, showed astrong bias towards urban sprawl and all itsconcomitant evils-ugliness, sub-standardliying conditions, and loss of potential recrea­tional spaces for outdoor sports activities,amongothers.

Thus, despite the avowed commitment topreserve or develop the city's open spacesystem, realities indicate that actual preser­vation was hardly put into practice. Anassessment of the DilimanQuadrangle and therampant encroachment of structures andsquatter settlements along the easements ofthe city's drainage corridors attest to this.Although there are existing laws that prohibitsquatting along river banks, these are notstrictly enforced or monitored by the citygovernment.

Another example where policy is incon­sistently applied involves the plan to com­mercialize a wide swath of open land adjacentto the University of the Philippines Arboretum,considered part of the 'green lungs' of QuezonCity. The city has yet to make public itsposition regarding the adverse impact ofcertain developments on its open spaceresources such as the \J.P. Arboretum. Even ifsuch an open space is not under the city'scontrol, the U.P. Arboretum is a naturalresource that has both positive and beneficialeffects on the city and its constituents.Therefore, it has to be protected againstdevelopments that may encroach upon it oradverselyaffect it.

A cursory examination of the proposedzoning map of Quezon City, however, revealsa clear bias towards building up both sides ofCommonwealth Avenue as special economiczones. Moreover, the zoning ordinance desig­nates the sides of all major thoroughfareswithin the city as special economic zones. Thismeans buildings would not be subject to heightlimits. But, what are the implications or effectsof this policy on the city's open spaces? Asnoted earlier, although it classifies the U.P.Arboretum as open space, the city has yet toacknowledge this open space as an invaluablenatural habitat or natural asset of the city'secology. In light of this situation, severalquestions must be answered:

1. How can the city protect its open spaces ifit does not recognize the intrinsic values ofthese resources in the context of urbandevelopment?

2. How can the Quezon City governmentably assess the impact of changes orproposed developments on theseresources?

3. What are the possible impacts of theproposed developments in the U.P.Commonwealth property, such as potentialland use conflicts, vis-a-vis the ecology ofthe Arboretum?

Inventory and Forecast of ResourceConditions

In terms of defining open space resources,the 1949 Master Plan was more compre­hensive in scope and coverage compared towhat is formally recognized today. The 1949Master Plan recognized the following elementsas part of Quezon City's open space system:creeks and rivers, parks and playgrounds,greenbelts along river easements, a system ofneighborhood playgrounds, one athletic fieldper neighborhood, a large park for eachdistrict, as well as provision of parks andgreenbelts for future uses.

In short, the 1949 Master Plan clearlydefined the city's open space system which itvowed to develop or preserve. Each elementwas given due importance in a hierarchy ofopen spaces, with the Diliman Quadrangle asthe center of the city's open space system. Theplan, however, fell short of quantifying open

41

Open Space Planning

space needs. Perhaps, as in the open spacesystem approach, the 1949 Master Plan recog­nized the difficulty in quantifying open spaceneeds and regarded the rule-of-thumb stan­dards approach as meaningless. However, itviewed the need to determine "where openspace can be found" as a more relevantparameter in open space planning. The Planreflected this parameter when it acknowledgedthe drainage corridors of the city as alternativerecreational areas.

The need to determine how much openspace is required to serve current and futurepopulation requirements, especially for recrea­tional purposes, is a major issue that thecurrent city government should address,particularly since a substantial portion of itspopulation belong to the youth. In terms ofplanning, parameters such as open spacetype, frequency of use, intensity of use,location, and distribution should be able toguide planners in forecasting potential recrea­tional open space needs.

The 1949 Master Plan of the city did notadequately forecast the impact of a growingpopulation when it envisioned the open spacesystem. From 1950 to the present, unplannedurban growth coupled with changing nationalpolicies and priorities on the city's open spacereduced the city's open space from 30 percentto about 20 percent of the total land area. Ofthe original 400 hectare park system pres­cribed in the Plan, only 50 hectares have beenpreserved for recreational and aesthetic pur­poses which includes the Quezon MemorialCircle and the Parks and Wildlife NatureCenter.

Because of a lack of foresight or com­mitment to implement the 1949 Master Plan,part of the 400 hectare Diliman Quadranglewas converted for institutional uses to accom­modate projects of the national governmentsuch as the Lung Center, Heart Center,Children's Hospital, and the buildings ofvarious government agencies (Le. Departmentof Agrarian Reform, Department of Agriculture,Bureau of Soils and Water Management,National Power Corporation, among others).Moreover, large portions of the Diliman Quad­rangle are occupied by informal settlementssuch as areas adjacent to the Philippine

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Science High School, National PowerCorporation, and Bureau of Internal Revenue.

Another reason why the city's open spacepolicies have been ineffective is the absence ofa comprehensive open space classificationsystem identifying the city's existing and poten­tial open space resources. As emphasized bythe open space system approach, this is animportant step before any resource assess­ment can be done. Such an approach under­scores the need to identify, record, and classifyresources with open space values before theyare assessed. Currently, the city recognizes avery limited number of open space elementssuch as parks and playgrounds. This indi­cates a limited understanding of the natureand types of open spaces. If it expands itsviews on open space, a more appropriateclassification system should include the city'sdrainage corridors, vacant lands, urban forests,golf courses and sports facilities, and schoolcampuses, among others.

In general, a classification system of openspace resources should not be constrained orlimited by ownership and management controlissues. Moreover, classification should bebased on criteria that can be used to assessopen space vis-a-vis other uses or to resolveconflict between potential uses. Such criteria orparameters could include productivity, mone­tary value, amenity and visual quality, healthand safety, variety and uniqueness, historicalor cultural significance, coverage and extent,educational. and scientific value, recreationalvalue, ecological value, etc.

The application of these parameters inclassifying open spaces should provide somebasis of measuring or judging the use for whicha plot of land is suitable with consideration ofits constraints and opportunities. For example,it is possible to assess the relative scenic valueof the U.P. Arboretum based on public opinion.If such an opinion is expressed stronglyenough, then it can be reinforced by law.Consequently, its protection and conservationagainst certain developmentsare guaranteed.

Design Policy

Because of the rapid growth of residentialareas in the city, Quezon City's policy on urban

42

development did not place much emphasis onthe importance and value of an open spacesystem as envisioned in the 1949 Master Plan.

The primary legal tool that is presentlybeing used to control growth and land use inthe city is the 1981 Metro Manila Commission(MMC) Zoning Ordinance. Sixteen years afterits enactment, the ordinance has becomeunreliable in charting the growth and develop­ment of the city and unresponsive to currenturban trends and issues. The Quezon Citygovernment is therefore faced with the urgentneed to formulate a comprehensive land useplan and zoning ordinance that is more res­ponsive to the growing needs of the populationand to the constant changes occurring in thecity. There is a clear trend towards increasingbuilding development especially along majorthoroughfares. This has been the trend basedon the land use maps of Quezon City from1972 to 1995. In the absence of a cohesivepolicy frameworkthat highlightsthe importanceof open space in the context of urbandevelopment, the city's bias towards building­up could consume its potential open spaces.

From 1980 onwards, Quezon City's openspace reservoir was augmented with thepassage of several national laws in order toensure that open space was provided inbuilding and subdivision developments. Theseare the Building Code and the laws onsubdivision development such as P.O. No.121$ and P.O. No. 957. Although these lawscontinue to generate open space for the city,there are ways to circumvent them. Forinstance, P.O. 121$ requires property develop­ers of at least one hectare to make allotmentsfor open space. But, developers circumventthis law by subdividing their lands into parcelssmaller than a hectare, and· then attachingindividual titles to each parcel. This explainsthe absence of recreational open spaces inabout 35 barangays.

Existing open space policies therefore donot assure an equitable distribution of publicopen spaces within the city. Results of theassessment show that most public openspaces of city-wide significance such as theQuezon Memorial Park and the Ninoy AquinoParks and Wildlife Nature Center are located inDistrict 1 while District 2 has the most numberof neighborhood parks and playgrounds with

limited public accessibility. District 2 however,has the most number of informal settlementsand the biggest squatter POPulation. Most ofthe residents, if not all, are not served by anypublic open spaces such as neighborhoodparks and playgrounds.

Unle<;s the city expands its views on theconcept of open space in order to clearlydefine a comprehensive open space policy, itwould seem that efforts to protect, conserve,and developsuch a resourcewould be futile. Inthe face of competing demands on limitedurban land and rampant encroachments onpotential open space reserves such asdrainage corridors, utility easements, and exis­ting open spaces such as the U.P. Arboretumand the La Mesa Reserve, open spaces inQuezon City will always be in constant threat.Squatter encroachment on the city's drainagecorridors such as river easements is sorampant in Quezon City that these' openspaces have become unavailable for develop­ment as potential recreationalvenues.

Implementing Policy Recommendations

In 1990, the city's concern for open spacewas underscored through the creation of theParks Development and AdministrationDepartment (PDAD). The PDAD was tasked toformulate plans and programs for the improve­ment of open spaces in the city. Since itsinception, however, the agency has notreceived adequate financial support to imple­ment its programs and projects. 'BUdgetaryallocations reveal that from 1992 to 1997, thebulk of PDAD's financial resources wasactually concentrated on personnel servicesrather than on capital outlay (Figure 2).Moreover, the PDAD has been concentratingmore in the planning, development, andmaintenance of open space within residentialsubdivisions as well as in-city greening efforts,without venturing into city-wide open spaceplanning.

According to the PDAD, its performancehas been hamstrung by budgetary constraintswhich disables it from implementingmost of itsprograms and projects. Also, it is constrainedby limited technical expertise in open spaceplanning. As to monitoring, PDAD finds itimpossible to closely monitor on a regUlarbasis more than 900 parks and playgrounds

43

OpenSpace Planning

throughout the city. It concedesthe low prioritygiven to the development and maintenance ofthe city's open space which partly explainswhythe department responds to problems likeencroachments when they are only reported. Inany case, public tolerance or lack of initiativetoreport encroachments continually put to testPDAD's efficiency and productivity in perfor­ming its far-ranging tasks. In 1995, the CityPlanning and Development Office (CPDO)carried out the formulationof a ComprehensiveParks and Open Space DevelopmentProgram.Considered as a first of its kind, the planessentially crystallized the city's open spacepolicies and programs which seek to addressthe urgency of prOViding adequate openspaces through conservation and developmentfor the health and welfare of the population(Quezon City Planning and DevelopmentOffice, 1995).

Although its policy framework includedgoals and objectives as well as strategies andprograms, the Open Space Development Pro­gram hasyet to be approved for implementationby the Mayor's Office. In the meantime, it iscurrently being refined to make it consistentand compatible with the city's ComprehensiveDevelopment Plan. Both plans, conceived in1995, are still awaitingofficial approval.

An examination of the open space plan ofthe city revealedthe following:

• The inventory of the city's open spaceresources includes only existing openspaces.

• Its accounting was based on a limitedview of open space-its types andclassification. Because of the limitedparameters used in identifying, recor­ding, and classifying open spaces,no new open space types ere addedto the eXisting open space reservoirofthe city.

• The proposed strategies'·and prog­rams are generic, not site specific,and seem to be limited to greening,upgrading, and maintenance of neigh­borhood parks and playgrounds.

• Among its recommendations is theidentification of all areas designatedas open space for programimplemen­tation.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX No. 1 October 1997

35.000.000.00 r----------------------------,32,593,138.00

30,000.000.00 +---------------------------t

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,000.00

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

o PERSO NA L SERV ICES• MA INTENANCE & OTH ER OPERATING EXPENSESmCAPITAL OUTLAYmJ LUMP SUM APPROPRIATIONS

Figure 2:Approved Budget from Cy 1992 -1997

Parks Development and Administration Department

44

• The plan did not make any referenceto the proposed ComprehensiveDevelopment Program of the city.

Although based on the city's policy topreserve and develop its open space resource,the open space plan is not feasible because itwas not conceptualized within a broader plan­the Comprehensive Development Plan. Even ifthe broader plan has yet to be approved, theremust be some linkages and consistency interms of programs and strategies between thetwo plans.

A cursory examination of the proposedComprehensive Development Plan revealed anemphasis on city-wide greening programs andthe maintenance of the existing open spacereservoir. In the mean time, no concretemeasures were suggested to conserve existingopen space elements such as drainagecorridors, vacant lands, and utility easementsfrom illegal encroachments or to develop moreopen spaces of city-wide significance.

Although the city's open space plan iden­tified the need for more open space for city­wide use, it did not recommend any newdevelopments of this nature. Moreover, it didnot identify strategies to develop public openspaces to serve areas without such provision.Neither did the plan expand its open spaceclassification system nor suggest parametersthat could be of use for future planning.

In 1997, the Office of the City Mayorenacted Executive Order (E.O.) NO.8 in orderto address the problem of random conversionof open space into built-up areas. An ad hocCommittee on Open Space was then createdto set the guidelines for the treatment anddisposition of the city's open spaces. The E.O.,Which is based on the policy of the city topreserve its natural environment, was in effectexpressing the city government's commitmentto protect its open spaces against rampantsquatter and bUilding encroachment Asidefrom parks and playgrounds, it also identifiescreeks and rivers as parts of its open spacereservoir.

Although the 1995 open space program ofQuezon City is still awaiting approval, some ofits recommendations are already being

45

OpenSpacePlanning

implemented. Among these are the greening ofmain thoroughfares and side streets, and thereforestation of parks, playgrounds, and otherpubfic areas. These activities are being under­taken by the PDAD.

Open Space Trends of Quezon City

Table 1 shows that from 1972 to 1995,open space growth in Quezon City wasmaintained at less than two percent of the totalland area of the city. This, however, may notbe an entirely accurate picture of the city'sopen space resources. Although the city takespride in its open spaces, these have not beendeveloped fUlly to meet the needs of a growingpopulation. Throughout the years, the citylikewise has relied on the private sector toprovide for this urban essential through sub­division and building developments. Thesedevelopments have contributed to the city'sopen space reservoir.

An examination of Table 1 reveals that thesudden increase in the city's open spacereservoir in the proposed land use plan wasdue primarily to the inclusion of the La MesaReserve under the parks/recreational category.The city has yet to arrive at a comprehensivedefinition of open space to classify potentialopen spaces such as institutional open space,open space around buildings, cemeteries,vacant land, and ecologically sensitive areas.

Using the definition of open space as afunctional land use serving a vital purpose inclassification and planning, the city's openspace resources include, among others, thefollowing:

• All parks and playgrounds.• La Mesa reserve.• Faultline easements.• Open space distributors such as water­

ways, creeks, rivers, and other waterchannels and utility easements.

• All penetrants such as the U.P. Arboretumand green wedges such as golf courses,urban forests in between buildings andresidential developments.

• Centerpieces such as U.P. Campus,Ateneo Campus, and Miriam College.

• Landmarks such as the Quezon MemorialCircle.

• Strip buffers and corridor separators such

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Table 1: QUEZON CITY COMPARATIVE ACTUAL LAND USE ALLOCATION(1972, 1985, 1995, Proposed 1997 Land Use Plan)

1972 1985 1972- 1995 1985- PROP.LAND USE

(HAS)%

(HAS)% 1985

(HAS)% 1995 LUP %

INCIDEC INCIDEC (1997)

Residential 3370.64 21.07 5582.60 34.89 2211.96 5007.09 31.30 -575.51 8102.74 50.64........__... -----_....-_......... .__....__..... _._._._--- 1--._-_.- ... '----'--' ......- ._.__._--

Commercial 129.89 0.81 388.48 2.43 258.59 484.32 3.03 95.84 1818.43 11.361-._---f-.--..--..... ._...•__._---1-..._ .._._.__.-- ........... ....__..... .._........__.._-- 1---.._ ........--......... ............................. --~._ .............._........._. ............_---_..._.. -_...- .._-Industrial 261.96 1.64 662.08 4.14 400.12 708.57 4.43 46.49 1076.87 6.75

._-- ..__...._.. .__._--_.-...--------1--'-"""""'" .......--._------ ..._-_........

Institutional 537.59 3.35 801.22 5.00 263.63 824.23 5.15 23.01 1528.87 9.55._-1---"_- 1---.._- 1--._.__.. ......__...- 1---- .._-_............_... -_._-1--"---

Parks! 169.54 1.06 142.56 0.89 -26.98 160.99 1.01 18.43 2872.22 17.95Recreational1-._---1---- ._........ --_.--1----_.-- -_......_._- 1--....._--_.._ .. -----_ .._- ........_.................._.... -_._-- ......_-Utility 69.54 0.43 138.66 0.87 69.12 193.18 1.21 54.52 216.70 1.35................. ..........__.__........ .....•.._......... ..... ............................... _-0. ...•....•....._............. . ................ ........._........__.._..- .. --_................_....... ............•••_........... f-----...----.......--... _........._.__............ _......._--_......

Cemetery 31.65 0.20 48.68 0.30 17.03 61.92 0.40 13.24 61.92 0.39.._-_.__.._.......... -'--- _.._....__......- _...__.._._-- ....._ .._... ........._.................._........ ..__...._--_._-- - ......_............... ._....._ ...._- _.....__._.._. ._..__....__.........

Military 212.78 1.33 210.46 1.32 -2.32 225.58 1.41 15.12 0.00 0.00--1---._.... .._._.._...... 1--.,-",1---"--,,,'-- t----...--......--. .._..__.- f----.-.----.. _..-..._...._..._- ._....__......

Squatters 795.42 4.97 0.00 0.00.1---..-.-....... _..._..__....... 1--..._._---1----......._ .. ........._..- 1----.--...... _..__..__.- t-.-._....

Vacant 8642.91 54.02 5451.76 34.07 -3191.15 4965.20 31.00 -486.56 0.00 0.00..............__.............-_..... ...........__.............. ..-._."..--.•.- ......................................... ............_......... . ............................_..__...... ...--_.__._-................. ...__..-...._. ..,. ...._._..__..-..•.- --_..__ ......._.... .~....- .•........-

Socialized0.00 323.16 2.01Housing

...._----- "'-""""-._-_..--- .._.. .............._...._.- _.-...-....__.... --.""_."'...--.- _ ...._....._._._.... .__......_- ---_...__...__. _.........__._. ._-_.-

TOTALURBAN 13426.50 83.91 13426.50 83.91 13426.50 83.91 16000.91 100.00AREA

TOTAL RES. 2574.41 16.09 2574.41 16.09 2574.41 16.09 0.00 0.00

TOTAL 16000.91 100.00 16000.91 100.00 16000.91 100.00 16000.91 100.00

Source: CPDO, J997

46

as rights-of-way which can sufficientlyprovide green space for separating andbuffering.

To rationalize these elements into afunctional and orderly system, the element ofcontinuity of an open space system should beprovided by linkages. Open spaces thatprovide continuity such as major routes andwaterways should be used to connect and giveaccess to green and utility open spaces. Thecity's linkages may also include plazas andlandmarks such as the Quezon MemorialCircle as well as other focal points or areaswhich fix, locate, or join the elements of theopen space system.

To further enhance the ecology of the city,open space that serves as breaks intodevelopment such as green wedges (i.e. U.P.Arboretum, Parks and Wildlife Nature Center,and urban forests) and open space areasextending from a linear system (i.e. golfcourses, La Mesa Reserve) could serve as thecity's true breathing space and provide abalance between the man-made and naturalelements of the urban environment. Thesespaces should provide variety and contrast tothe urban landscape.

Furthermore, the city's greenbelt could becentered on its sprawling institutional cam­puses (i.e. U.P. - Ateneo - Miriam College)where bUilding development should be limited.This greenbelt area could be used for multi­purpose activities and provide an alternativesetting for outdoor recreation. The city's river,utility, and faultline easements could serve asgreenways that link up with other elements ofan open space system. Lastly, the majorhighways of the city could provide green spaceuse for separation and buffering. All theseelements of an open space system alreadyprovide the skeleton form that can stringtogether otherwise disjointed and unrelatedbuilt-up areaswithin the city.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR PLANNING

This study recognized the importance ofopen space as an essential resource and landuse that contributes to the over-all improve­ment of the urban environment. In QuezonCity, it cannot be denied that certain issues

47

OpenSpace Planning

and concerns have to be addressed inconnection with the protection, conservation,and developmentof its open space resources,especially in the face of competing demandson limited urban land supply.

Foremost is the local government's lack ofappreciation and understanding of the con­cepts of open space. With some notableexceptions, open space is still generallytreatedas a residual land use after other urbandevelopment demands have been met. Openspace is and should not be treated as aresidual use of land, but as a vital componentof the urban environment that serves manyirreplaceable functions.

An open space system viewed on equalfooting with other land uses is needed toprevent ill-advised or destructive developmentand to ensure a more liveable environment.Elements of the city's open space systemthreatened by encroaching urban developmentneed immediate protection. Urban develop­ment and open space development must belinked together or integrated through planningthat is based on appropriate policy-makingprocessfor urban development.

Change is inevitable. As gleaned from itsproposed land use plan and zoning map,Quezon City will be further converted into ahighly-bUilt up city with commercial districtslining almost all of its major thoroughfares inthe coming years. However, subdivisiondevelopmentis expected to slow down.

As pointed out, the significance of openspace in Quezon City's urban development,since the inception of its 1949 Master Plan,became muted over the course of time. Thiswas aggravated further by changing govern­ment priorities and policies pertaining toQuezon City's urban development. After the1949 Plan of Quezon City, there has been alack of a clearly-defined policy framework thatgUides local government actions and res­ponses in protecting, preserving, and develop­ing the city's open space resources. At best,the city's policy actions towards open spaceconservation or expansion have been sporadicand haphazard. At worst, they have not beenconsistent with the original vision for QuezonCity.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

Today, as population increases, the citygovernment has realized, that its reservoir ofopen spaces, especially in residential subdivi­sions, is threatened by the encroachments ofbuilding developments and informal settle­ments. If pursuedvigorously, E.O. NO.8 shouldbe able to address the growing problem ofillegal conversion of open spaces. This has tobe complemented, however, with a well­defined policy framework that will establish theimportance of open space conservation anddevelopment within the context of the city'slong-term growth and development. Such apolicy framework should gUide the citygovernment in its planning and implementationefforts.

Towards this end, an appropriate openspace plan for the city should also beformulated to alleviate, if not improve, presentopen space conditions. It is essential that sucha plan must be linked to, if not anchored on,the city's comprehensive development planand zoning ordinance. The open space planshould establish appropriate planning para­meters to redefine and delineate the city'sopen space resources, both existing andpotential. The plan should also recommendmeasures, fiscal and non-fiscal, to conserveand develop these resources on a sustainedbasis. Ultimately, what is good for the cityshould be based on what is best for thecommon good-the long-term health, welfare,and well-being of the city's constituents.

This stUdy advocates the following sug­gestions and planning directions in which theprimary consideration is the city government'ssupport and commitment to attain its vision forQuezon City. The recommendations under­score the importance of a well-defined openspace policy to ensure the conservation andexpansion of the city's open space resources.An overall framework of open space conser­vation and development, including relevantparameters, is therefore recommended asfollows:

1. Develop an essential framework for policymaking. As earlier pointed out in thisstudy, open space is an essential com­ponent of sound urban planning. Thesuggested framework- Processof UrbanDevelopmentPolicy-Making - guaranteesthat open space is given its proper place in

48

the planning. process. This entire processis fully explained in the section on theplanningof an open space system.

2. Before a setof assessmentcriteria can bedeveloped, it is first necessary for the cityto determine, record, and classify all of itsopen space resources, both existing andpotential. Based on a cursory examinationof Quezon City's physical resources, abroad classification of open spaces isrecommended:

I. Open space for managed resourceproduction• Lands for water supply such as

ground water recharge areas,watershed areas, and reservoirsites.

• Energy production and transmis­sion easements.

• Easements of water supply anddistributionsystems.

II. Open space for the preservation ofnatural and humanresources.• Water courses such as rivers and

creeks.• Urban forests and animal refuge

such as the U.P. Arboretum.• Geologic feat!Jres such as fault

zones.

III. Open space for health, welfare, andwell-being• Land to protect the quality of

groundwater.• Open space for disposal (i.e. gar­

bage, etc.).• Open space to improve air

quality.• Areas for recreation such as:

» Neighborhood parks andplaygrounds.

» Communityparks.» City-wideparks.» Campuses and other institu­

tional facilities that providerecreational values.

» Walks, trails, tracks forhiking, jogging, riding andbicycling.

» Roads and highways provid­ing scenic.views.

» Golf courses and fields foroutdoor recreation.

• Areas that provide visualamenity:» Hillsides, lakes, lagoons, etc.

that provide visual andphysical relief to the built-upor man-madelandscape.

» Centerpieces such as courts,patios, parks, natural andman-madelandmarks.

» Golf courses and outdoorsports facilities.

• Open space to shape and gUidedevelopment» Open space that provide

neighborhood, district andcity identity.

» Open space that serve asseparators or buffers bet­ween conflicting land usessuch as greenbelts, green­ways, corridor separators,strip buffers, and areabuffers.

• Open space for public safety» Flood control reservoir, flood

prone areas, and drainagechannels.

» Easements of rivers, canals,creeks and other waterbodies.

» Power transmission lineroutes.

» water distribution and aque­duct routes.

• Open spacefor urban expansion» Open space around com­

mercial, residential, and indus­trial areas including vacantlands, cemeteries, etc.

A comprehensive inventory of existing andpotential open spaces should consider thosewhich are publicly owned as well as thoseprivately held as part of an open space plan.The total open space system may .be acomposite of pUblic and private land used foropen space purposes and protected againstencroachments and permanentdamage.

Location, distribution, accessibility, type,size, and density of use of open space must beamong the parameters in planning the city'sopen space system. They take into account

49

OpenSpacePlanning

population density and distribution, recreationalneeds per district, and the distribution ofeXisting open spaces within the city, amongothers. The city's reservoirof open space mustbe developed with emphasis on linkage andcontinuity. Priority of use as a parametershould determinethe hierarchy or relationshipsamong various open space elementswithin thesystem.

As much as possible, the city's openspaces should serve multiple purposes or in away where they can be put to multi-use inrelation to non-open space uses. To get themaximumbenefits from open spaces, sites thatserve more than one function are preferable.For example, the preservation of river banksand utility easementswill assurethe integrityofthe natural drainage way, provide recreationareas if appropriaterights are acquired, protecturban development, and afford visual relieffrom the urban scene. Furthermore, roads andhighways should be integrated into the overallopen space program of the city, so that effortsto 'green' them through plantings or as bufferswould enhancethe overall open space system.

The city should consolidate all enact­ments, policy statements, executive pro­nouncements, plans and programs, and othersthat are directly relevant to open spacedevelopment and conservation in order toserve as the legal basis of future planning andadministrative actions. Also, the Building Codeshould be carefully re-examined to introduceinnovative approaches so that building deve­lopments can become essential units of theopen space system.

All open space elements presentlyexistingin the city such as Quezon Memorial Circle,Parks and Wildlife Nature Center, the U.P,Campus, Ateneo de Manila, Miriam College,the La Mesa Reserve, the Balara Reserve,cemeteries and memorial parks, golf courses,and others should be declared as part of thecity's open space resources. Towards this end,the city government should initiate a policy ofcooperation, collaboration, and assistance toall the entities involved, so that future actionspertaining to these open space resourcescould be monitored or guided by specific rulesand regulations.

PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

A campaign to educate the pUblic,particularly Quezon City residents, should beundertaken to increase their awareness. Resi­dents can serve as guardians or watchdogs toprotect, conserve, and promote the expansionand development of open space for public use.For instance, in Paris, France, people aremade to be aware that each tree is consideredan essential part of the city's assets. Treesshould, therefore, be inventoried individuallyand be considered as the responsibility of thecity and the property owner in order to ensurethat they are not irresponsibly cut down.

By no means is all of the city's landreservoir needed or suitable for urban deve­lopment. It is clear that urban developmentshould not occur in flood prone areas, riversand drainage systems, and in natural areasneeded for educational or recreational pur­poses. Although development has occurredand continues to occur in these locations, thiscan be prevented in the future through theadoption and implementation of a long-termcity-wide open space plan anchored on abroader plan for the city.

The preservation of open space in QuezonCity is needed because of the followingreasons: to protect and preserve its naturaldrainage corridors and waterways, its f1ood­prone areas, existing parks and playgrounds,and recharge areas; to make optimum use ofits remaining vacant spaces in order to ensurea quality environment for living; to providesuitable space and appropriate sites for therecreational needs of its present populationand that of the future; and to provide a socially­desirable environment for all its constituents byassuring that natural and significant openspaces shall be interspersed throughout theurban area through an appropriate open spacesystem, thereby avoiding a pattern of unbrokenurbanization.

Although facilities such as golf coursesand country clubs should be part of the city'sopen space system, they cannot be used tosatisfy public recreational open space needsdue to the limited nature of their membershipand use. The city government should thereforesee to it that the development of more publicopen spaces are encouraged for the benefit ofthe majority of its inhabitants.

50

Lastly, potential areas for further researchfor the benefit of cities, urbanizing munici­palities as well as metropolitan areas such asMetro Manila are suggested by the followingquestions:

1. What are the costs and benefits to thelocal government of a comprehensiveopen space plan? How much publicinvestment is needed in implementing anopen space system?

2. How can an open space system beoperationalized in Quezon City?

3. What methods or techniques of preservingopen spaces are appropriate in Philippinecontext? What are the fiscal and non-fiscalmeasures that can be adopted toimplement an open space system?

4. What kind of open space system issuitable or appropriate in a heavily built-upcity like Manila?

5. What are the preferred recreationalactivities of Quezon City's inhabitants?

6. How can recreational and non-recreationalopen spaces be measured or plannedfor?

7. What kind of public environment or urbanlandscape do the constituents of QuezonCity envision?

8. What open space classification system isappropriate for Quezon City?

9. What are the existing and potential openspace resources of Quezon City? Whatkind of open space system can be formedgiven the city's open space resources?What types of open spaces, single ormultiple, can be formed to constitute thecity's open space system?

10. How much monetary value of propertystems from an improved open spacesystem? Does the presence of specificopen space elements raise the desirabilityof a commercial or residential area in anyquantifiable way?

11. What are the evidences to show that openspaces have .a positive effect upon themental health and emotional well-being ofhuman beings?

12. How do people in Metro Manila spendtheir recreation and Where? How muchrecreational open space is needed byQuezon City?

13. What sort of activities can be encouragedin an open space like La Mesa Reser­vation?

14. How much airshed is needed to cleansethe air within Metro Manila?

15. What microclimatic changes would occurwithin the U.P. Arboretum if the Universityof the Philippines pushes through with thedevelopment of its Commonwealth pro­perty?

16. How can open spaces be used to res­tructure the form or pattern of develop­ment of Quezon City to improve the overallurbanscape of the city?

17. What kind of open spaces can be deve­loped under the mass railway transitsystem? Along a fault line? Along powertransmission easements? Along waterdistribution easements? Along canals andcreeks?

18. What kind of open space system can bedeveloped Within Metropolitan Manila andits suburbs? What should be the planningparameters?

19. Does the presence of green open spaceheighten environmental awareness ofpeople which is then reflected in the valuethey place upon such a resource?

20. How much recreational value does theUniversity of the Philippines in Dilimanprovide for the benefit of Quezon City?How can the open spaces of U.P. Campusbe optimized to serve the recreationalneeds of Quezon City's constituents?

21. How much green open space should therebe within an area's open space system?How much should be conserved or pro­tected to be able to have a beneficialimpact on a given population?

22. How can an open space system approachbe successfully adopted to improve theenvironment in urban areas?

REFERENCESQuezon City Planning and Development Office.

1995 Parks and open space developmentprogram. Quezon City.

Davis, J.M. and P. House. 1968. Open space:Its use and preservation. WashingtonD.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

No author. 1991. "Cities in the 21st century:The urban half,· in Work in Progress. UNUniversity, Vol. 13.

51

OpenSpace Planning

Gold, S.M. 1973. Urban recreational planning.Philadelphia: Lea &Febiger.

Goldsteen, J.B. and C.D. Elliot. 1994.Designing America: Creating urbanidentity. New York: Van NostrandReinhold.

Halprin, L. 1972. Cities. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Kent, T.J. Jr. 1970. Open space for the SanFrancisco Bay Area: Organizing to guidemetropolitan growth. Berkeley: Universityof California.

Little, C.E. 1969. Challenge of the land. NewYork: Pergomon Press.

Manning, O. 1979. Designing for nature incities," in Nature in Cities. Edited by Ian C.Laurie. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

McHarg, I.L. 1969. Design with nature. NewYork: Doubleday and Company, Inc.

Metro Manila Development Authority 1996.Towards a humane world class metropolis:A physical development framework planfor Metro Manila. Manila: MMDA.

Miller, R.w. 1988. Urban forestry: Planning andmanaging urban greenspaces. NewJersey: Prentice Hall.

Northeastern Illinois Metropolitan AreaPlanning Commission. 1962. Open spacein Northeastern Illinois: Technical reportNO.2. Chicago.

Office of the Mayor of Quezon City. 1997.Comprehensive development program forQuezon City.

Philippine Institute of Architects. 1979. Reporton the Quezon Memorial Park.

Pitt, D. et al. 1979. "Trees in the City" in Naturein Cities. Edited by Ian C. Laurie.Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

Recht, R.J. and R.J. Harmon. 1969. Openspace and the urban growth process: Aneconomic evaluation using a growthallocation model. California: University ofCalifornia Printing Department.

Williams, S. 1995. Recreation and the urban.environment. London: Routledge.

Zisman, S.B. 1968. Where not to build: A guidefor open space planning. Washington D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office.

GLOSSARY OF PLANNING TERMS

Ecology

Inland Water

Ecosystem

Forest Lands

Ancestral Lands

Areas of CriticalEnvironmentalConcernCritical Watershed

Irrigated LandsKaingin

Irrigated Areas

- all lands exclusively and actually possessed, occupied, or utilized by indi­genous cultural communities by themselves or through their ancestors inaccordance with their customs and traditions since time immemorial, and asmay be defined and delineated by law.

- areas where uncontrolled development could result in irreparable damage toimportant historic, cultural, or aesthetic values or natural systems orprocesses of national significance.

- a drainage area of a river system supporting existing and proposed hydro­electric power and irrigation works needing immediate rehabilitation as it isbeing subjected to fast denudation causing accelerated erosion and destruc­tive floods. It is closed from logging until it is fully rehabilitated.

- that branch of science that deals with the study of the interrelationships ofliving things (organisms, plants and animals) and their environments.

- the ecological community considered together with non-living factors and itsenvironment as a unit.

- lands of the public domain which have not been declared as alienable ordisposable, public forests, permanent forests or forest reserves, forestreservations, timberlands, grazing lands, game refuge, and bird sanctuaries.

Human Settlements - the habitat or built environment of human beings encompassing both ruraland urban areas where man settles himself to live.

Indigenous CUltural - Filipino citizens residing in the Autonomous Region who are:1) Tribal peoplesCommunities whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other

sectors of the national community and whose status is regulated wholly orpartially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations;and 2) Bangsa Moro people regarded as indigenous on account of theirdescent from the populations that inhabited the country or a distinct geo­graphical area at the time of conquest or colonization and who, irrespective oftheir legal status, retain some or all of their own socioeconomic, cultural andpolitical institutions.

- the minority groups as defined by the United Nations Subcommission onPrevention and Protection of Minorities, those non-dominant groups in apopulation which possess and wish to preserve stable ethnic, religious orlinguistic traditions or characteristics markedly different from those of the restof the population. As strictly applied to the Philippines, it refers to those whoare somewhat outside the orbit of the Hispanic Christian culture which hascharacterized the majority of inhabitants of the Philippines.

- an interior body of water or watercourse such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers,streams, creeks, etc. that has beneficial usage other than public water supplyor primary contact recreation. Tidal affected rivers or streams are consideredinland waters for purposes of effluent regulations.

- lands which are artificially provided with water to enhance or increase agri­cultural production.

- agricultural lands which are supported by irrigation services.

- a portion of the forest land, whether occupied or not, which is subjected toshifting and/or permanent slash-and-burn cultivation having little or noprovision to prevent soil erosion.

Local Government - a political subdivision of a nation or state which is constituted by law and hasUnit substantial control of local affairs.

- a political subdivision of a nation or state which is constituted by law and hassubstantial control of local affairs, with officials elected or otherwise locallyselected. In the Philippines, it refers to provinces, cities, municipalities, andbarangays.

52

National IntegratedProtected AreasSystems (NIPAS)

National Park

NeighborhoodPlayground

Open Space

Park andPlayground

Playlot

Primitive Tribe

Protected Area

ProtectedLandscape!Seascape

Public Way

Resource Reserve

Strict NatureReserve

Watershed

WatershedReservationWater Zone r.;NZ}

Glossary of Terms

- the classification and administration of all designated protected areas tomaintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems, to preservegenetic diversity, to ensure sustainable use of resources found therein, and tomaintain their natural conditions to the greatest extent possible.

- a forest land reservation essentially of primitive or wilderness character whichhas been withdrawn from settlement or occupancy and set aside as suchexclusively to preserve the scenery, natural and historic objects, and wildanimals or plants therein, and to provide enjoyment of these features in sucha manner that will leave them unimpaired for future generations.

- a place designed to serve children under 14 years of age, and may haveadditional interesting features to attract teeners and adults. Its location is insome neighborhood park school.

- areas allocated for the following purposes: circulation, community facilities,park/playground, easements, and courts.

- areas for recreation; preservation/conservation, ecology and as tools toenhance and control urban growth; an area reserved exclusively for parks,playgrounds, recreational uses and other similar facilities and amenities.

- that portion of the subdivision which is generally not built on and intended forpassive or active recreation.

- a type of center piece open space which may range from neighborhood tocity/municipality park which cater to the recreational needs of the residents ofthe community.

- a safe recreation and play area designed for the pre-school children. It isusually located in densely populated areas with high concentration of pre­school age group and with a service radius of 0.25 kilometers from everyhome and commonly located on playground sites.

- a group of endemic tribe living primitively as a distinct portion of a people froma common ancestor.

- identified portions of land and water set aside by reason of their uniquephysical and biological significance, managed to enhance biological diversityand protected against destructive human exploitation.

- area of national significance which is characterized by a harmoniousinteraction of man and land while providing opportunities for pUblic enjoymentthrough recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle and economicactivity of these areas.

- any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky,deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated for pUblicuse.

- an extensive and relatively isolated and uninhabited area normally withdifficult access designated as such to protect natural resources of the area forfuture use and prevent or contain development activities that could affect theresource pending the establishment of objectives which are based uponappropriate knowledge and planning.

- an area possessing some outstanding ecosystem, features and/or species offlora and fauna of national scientific importance maintained to protect natureand maintain processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologicallyrepresentative examples of the natural environment available for scientificstudy, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance ofgenetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state.

- a land area drained by a stream or fixed body of water and its tributarieshaving a common outlet for surface run-off.

- a forest land reservation established to protect or improve the conditions ofthe water yield thereof or reduce sedimentation.

- bodies of water within cities and municipalities which include rivers, streams,lakes, and seas except those included in other zone classification.

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PHILIPPINE PLANNING JOURNAL Vol. XXIX NO.1 October 1997

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Geronimo V. Manahan is currently the president ofPlanning Resources and Operations Systems (PROS). Hebegan his expertise in planning with the pioneering firmUrban DesignersAssociates, Inc. in 1967 until the companymergedwith PROS in 1976.

He obtained a diploma in Drafting (with honors) from thePhilippine College of Arts and Trades and later, a Bachelorof Science degree in Architecture (cum laude) from theUniversity of the Philippines in 1962. In 1968, he went on aColombo Plan scholarship to the University of Sydney,Australia where he graduated with· a masters degree inTown and Country Planning. In 1992, he received his Ph.D.in Urban Planning at the University of the Philippines,Diliman.

Recently, he was awarded"Most Outstanding Professionalin Environmental Planning" by the Professional RegUlationCommission.

Rex Victor O. Cruz is an Associate Professor at theDepartment of Forest Resources Management andconcurrentlyserves as the Director of Forestry DevelopmentCenter, at the University of the Philippines College ofForestry in Los Bal'los, Laguna.

He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Forestry and aMaster of Science degree in Water Management and SoilConservation from the University of the Philippines in LosBai'los. He acquired his Ph.D. in Watershed Managementfrom the Universityof Arizona in 1990.

RabinderDickton S. Rye acquired his Bachelor of Sciencein Architecture from the University of the Philippines inDiliman and is now enrolled under the Master of Artsprogram in Urban and Regional Planning of the UP SURPwhere he is completing his thesis on "Open SpaceDevelopment".

Currently, he is a Training Associate at the UP School ofUrban and Regional Planning and a member of thePhilippine Instituteof Environmental Planners.

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Administration

BENJAMIN V. CARINO, B.A. (Public Administration), M.A. (Political Science), Ph.D. (Political SCience), Dean

FEDERICO B. SILAO, A.B. (Political Science), M.P.A., Secretary

OLEGARIO G. VILLORIA, JR., B.S. (Industrial Engineering), M.S. (Civil Engineering,Traffic Engineering),Ph.D. (CivilEngineering,TransportationPlanning), Directorof Graduate Stucles

DOLORES A. ENDRIGA, A.B. (Psychology),M.A. (Sociology), M.R.P., Directorof Research andPublcations

ROSARIO D. JIMENEZ, A.B. (History), Diploma in Comprehensive RegionalDevelopmentPlanning, M.A. (URP),Directorof Training

MINERVA VERGEL DE DIOS, B.S.C. (Management),Administrative Officer

ALEX RAMON Q. CABANILLA, A.B. (Political Science),Diploma in Integrated Surveys, M.U.R.P., AssistantProfessor

Faculty

JAIME U. NIERRAS, B.S. (Architecture), M.S. (UrbanPlanning), M.S. (Transport Planning). AssociateProfessor

CANDIDO A. CABRIDO, JR., B.S. (Medical TechnologylBiology), M.S. (Biology), Diploma & M.S. (Environ­mental Engineering), Ph.D. (EnvironmentalScience), AssochJte Professor

PRIMITIVO C. CAL, B.S.C.E., M. Eng. (TransportationEngineering), Ph.D. (Transportation Planning), Ll.B.,Professor

ANNALIE L. CAMPOS, B.S. (Agri-business), M.A.(Resource Development Urban Studies), AssistantProfessor

BENJAMIN V. CARINO, B.A. (P.A.) M.A. (PoliticalScience), Ph.D. (Political Science), Professor

DOLORES A. ENDRIGA, A.B. (Psychology), MA(Sociology),M.R.P., Professor

MANUEL L. JAVIER, M.A. (URP), MA (EducationalAdministration), Associate Professor

ROSARIO D. JIMENEZ, A.B. (History), Diploma inComprehensive Regional Development Planning,M.A. (URP), Associate Professor

HUSSEIN S. L1DASAN. B.A (Economics). CertifICate inDevelopment Economics, M. (EnvironmentalSciences), Ph.D. (Urban and Regional Planning)Associate Professor

ROQUE A. MAGNO, B.S. (G.E.), M.T.C.P., AssociateProfessor

ZENAIDA A. MANALO, A.B. (Economics), Certificate inSpecial Program in Urban and Regional Studies(SPURS), M.A. (URP), Ph.D. (URP), AssociateProfessor

RACHEL H. RACELlS, B.S. (Statistics, cum laUde), M.A.(Economics), Certificate in Population Studies,Ph.D. (Economics), Associate Professor

NORMAN R. RAMOS, B.A. (Economics), M.A.(Economics), Ph.D. (Management), AssociateProfessor

MARQUEZA C.L. REYES, B.S. (Geology), M.A. (URP),AssistantProfessor

ASTEYA M. SANTIAGO, Ll.B. (cum laude), M.T.C.P.,CertifICate in Government Management, Ph.D.(Architecture), Professor

ERNESTO M. SEROTE, A.B. (English), Diploma inIntegrated Surveys, M.U.R.P., Master in UrbanStudies, Associate Professor

FEDERICO B. SILAO, A.B. (Political Science), M.P.A.,Professor

CYNTHIA D. TURINGAN, B.A. (P.A.), Diploma inComprehensive Regional Development Planning,Associate Professor

L1TA S. VELMONTE, B.S. (Social Work), Diploma inUrban Studies, Associate Professor

OLEGARIO G. VILLORIA, JR., B.S. (Industrial Engineer­ing), M.S. (Civil Engineering, Traffic Engineering),Ph.D. (Civil Engineering, Transportation Planning),Associate Professor

DAVID LEONIDES T. YAP, B.S. (Architecture), M.A.(Architecture), Ph.D. (SCience of Art and Design),Associate Professor

Research Staff

University SUZANNE M. NAZAL, B.A. (Social Work), M.A. (URP),University Research Associate

LEO ALVAREZ URRUTIA, B.A. (Humanities), UniversityResealr;h Associate

DELIA R. ALCALDE, A.B. (Sociology),Researcher II

CARMELITA R.E.U. L1WAG, A.B. (Political Science).M.A. (URP), M.R.R.P., University ResearcherI

Training Staff

RABINDER DICKTON S. RYE, B.S. (Architecture), University Extension Associate