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Why qualitative?Why qualitative?

MEANINGMEANINGExperiencesExperiencesSituationsSituationsExploration Exploration -- generation and generation and clarificationclarificationInterpretation Interpretation -- of quantitative of quantitative findingsfindingsExplanation Explanation -- of complex processesof complex processes

PhilosophyPhilosophy

Reality can exist on different levelsReality can exist on different levels

Human perception can be limitedHuman perception can be limited

Perception and interpretation Perception and interpretation fundamentalfundamental

Constructed realities affect Constructed realities affect behaviourbehaviour

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What are the characteristics of What are the characteristics of qualitative methods?qualitative methods?

The observer/researcher inseparable The observer/researcher inseparable from the studyfrom the studyConsists of a set of interpretive Consists of a set of interpretive practices that tries to make sense of a practices that tries to make sense of a cultural contextcultural contextData sources: field notes, interviews, Data sources: field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the selfand memos to the selfStudy a natural setting, attempting to Study a natural setting, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to thempeople bring to them

What fields of study are included in What fields of study are included in qualitative methods?qualitative methods?

Ethnomethodology, Ethnomethodology, phenomenology, hermeneutics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, feminism, deconstructionism, feminism, deconstructionism, ethnography, interviews, ethnography, interviews, psychoanalysis, cultural studies, psychoanalysis, cultural studies, survey research, participant survey research, participant observationobservation

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Ways of categorising qualitative Ways of categorising qualitative methodsmethods

One way of categorising them is according One way of categorising them is according to level of analysis:to level of analysis:–– Individual (e.g. research diaries, life histories)Individual (e.g. research diaries, life histories)–– Group (e.g. focus groups)Group (e.g. focus groups)–– Organisational (e.g. case studies, Organisational (e.g. case studies,

ethnography)ethnography)

No form of categorisation is allNo form of categorisation is all--inclusive, inclusive, but this can be a useful heuristic devicebut this can be a useful heuristic device

Some different qualitative methodsSome different qualitative methods

Action researchAction researchCase StudiesCase StudiesCognitive MappingCognitive MappingConversation analysisConversation analysisCoCo--research (peer research (peer research)research)Critical analysisCritical analysisDiary studiesDiary studies

Discourse analysisDiscourse analysisDocument analysisDocument analysisElectronic InterviewsElectronic InterviewsFocus groupsFocus groupsInterviews Interviews Life HistoriesLife HistoriesMatricesMatrices

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Some different qualitative Some different qualitative methodsmethods

MetaphorsMetaphorsNarrativesNarrativesParticipant Participant ObservationObservationPictures (video etc.)Pictures (video etc.)Research conferencesResearch conferencesStory analysisStory analysisTemplate analysisTemplate analysis

Participatory walksParticipatory walksPlace mappingPlace mappingSelfSelf--directed directed photographsphotographsAutobiographical Autobiographical diaries (i.e. written diaries (i.e. written and visual)and visual)DramaturgyDramaturgy

Theoretical Traditions

PhenomenologyAnalysis /description of everyday life

LIFE-WORLDTheir experience‘Bracketing’ off judgments about socialstructure

MethodInterview

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Theoretical TraditionsTheoretical TraditionsSymbolic InteractionismMaking sense of experience via symbols

Symbols find meaning through and in interactionRole takingSocial relationships shape self conceptGrounded theory

MethodSemiotic analysisInterviewsDramaturgical

Theoretical TraditionsTheoretical TraditionsGender StudiesFeminism

Advocate methods that examineexperience / subjectivity

MethodReflexive encounterNarrativeInteractive interviewing

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Theoretical TraditionsTheoretical TraditionsCultural Studies

Study cultures / subculturesPower / inequality

SociologyMedia studies

MethodInterviewsObservationMedia analysis

Theoretical TraditionsTheoretical Traditions

Post structuralismDeconstructionTexts

MethodDiscourse analysis

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Theoretical TraditionsTheoretical TraditionsEthnographyAnthropology

Community studiesCultureDescription / evaluation of activityPatterns of meaningGuiding action

MethodDirect observationParticipant observationUnstructured Interview

EthnographyEthnographyPut 20 different ethnographers in a room and you will Put 20 different ethnographers in a room and you will get 20 different answers.get 20 different answers.

So what does that tell us?So what does that tell us?–– That ethnography is a diverse enterprise consisting That ethnography is a diverse enterprise consisting

of heterogeneous conceptions and practicesof heterogeneous conceptions and practices

–– Ethnography cannot be commonly defined.Ethnography cannot be commonly defined.

–– Ethnographies are a staple feature of everyday lifeEthnographies are a staple feature of everyday life

–– Ethnography is a members’ ‘method’ for Ethnography is a members’ ‘method’ for investigating, observing, querying, articulating, investigating, observing, querying, articulating, understanding, recognizing, etc., social settings understanding, recognizing, etc., social settings from from within the flowwithin the flow of activities and events that of activities and events that populate those settings populate those settings

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EthnographyEthnography

Social roles and rulesSocial roles and rules

Immersion in cultureImmersion in culture

Varied data sourcesVaried data sources

In the Field…

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Ethnographic Field MethodEthnographic Field MethodEthnography is the work of describing a culture. The core of Ethnography is the work of describing a culture. The core of this method is to understand another way of life from the nativethis method is to understand another way of life from the nativepoint of view.point of view.

Ethnographers are those who enter the natural setting in order Ethnographers are those who enter the natural setting in order to conduct field research.to conduct field research.

Ethnography involves the end product of field research Ethnography involves the end product of field research ––namely the written account of observations.namely the written account of observations.

Ethnography places the researcher in the midst of whatever it Ethnography places the researcher in the midst of whatever it is they study. is they study.

Researchers can examine various phenomena as perceived by Researchers can examine various phenomena as perceived by participants and represent these observations as accounts.participants and represent these observations as accounts.

Ethnographic research allows the investigator to describe Ethnographic research allows the investigator to describe and analyze the practices and beliefs of cultures and and analyze the practices and beliefs of cultures and communities. The focus is to understand the culture or communities. The focus is to understand the culture or community from a participant observer perspective that community from a participant observer perspective that takes into account the insider’s and the outsider’s takes into account the insider’s and the outsider’s perspective (modification of D. perspective (modification of D. MertensMertens, 1998, p. 164). , 1998, p. 164).

Ethnographic research allows the researcher to observe a Ethnographic research allows the researcher to observe a complex world in a way so he/she can describe the complex world in a way so he/she can describe the interrelationships among previously unknown themes and interrelationships among previously unknown themes and patterns and, in turn, in a way that expands and informs patterns and, in turn, in a way that expands and informs the researcher’s own perspective.the researcher’s own perspective.

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research

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Research Phases of FieldworkResearch Phases of FieldworkFirst Phase: Negotiating Entry First Phase: Negotiating Entry

Second Phase: Becoming Acquainted Second Phase: Becoming Acquainted with Routines and Settings with Routines and Settings –– Find ‘key Find ‘key informants’ within the communityinformants’ within the community

Third Phase: Cooperation Acceptance Third Phase: Cooperation Acceptance

Fourth Phase: Withdrawal Fourth Phase: Withdrawal

Final Phase: Inscribe EthnographyFinal Phase: Inscribe Ethnography

The Strains and Stresses of The Strains and Stresses of FieldworkFieldwork

DysadaptationDysadaptation syndromesyndrome(incompetence, fear, anger, frustration)(incompetence, fear, anger, frustration)

“I was afraid of everything at the beginning. It “I was afraid of everything at the beginning. It was just fear, of imposing on people, of was just fear, of imposing on people, of trying to maintain a completely different role trying to maintain a completely different role than anyone else around you. […] I’d keep than anyone else around you. […] I’d keep thinking: am I going to be rejected? Am I thinking: am I going to be rejected? Am I really getting the data I need?” (really getting the data I need?” (WintrobWintrob, , 1969) 1969)

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Recording and Organising DataRecording and Organising Data

FieldnotesFieldnotes-- the traditional means in ethnography the traditional means in ethnography

for recording observational data.for recording observational data.-- They consist of relatively concrete They consist of relatively concrete

descriptions of social processes and descriptions of social processes and their contexts. their contexts.

-- In principle, one should aim to make In principle, one should aim to make notes as soon as possible after the notes as soon as possible after the observed action.observed action.

Walking VoicesWalking VoicesProblems of traditional (qualitative) research methods to understand landscape experience:Reliant on generalisationsGenerally takes place remotely (indoors)Problem of staging by researchers and focus on formal sites of recreation.

www.walkingvoices.group.shef.ac.uk

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Ethnographic Methodology on Ethnographic Methodology on Place AttachmentPlace Attachment

Emphasis on experiential and narrativequalities of place

Reduce the impact of the researcher on directing significance.One residential area, diverse participants. Try to avoid essentialising ethnicity.Shared benefit

Ethnographic Methodology on Ethnographic Methodology on Place AttachmentPlace Attachment

Eleven participants were loaned mini-disc recorders for a three month period, spanning from late summer to early winter.

Their brief was to regularly record live commentaries during ‘normal’ walks or journeys, talking through observations, thoughts and choices prompted by the changing scene.

We worked in collaboration with BBC Radio Sheffield to give training and to work towards broadcasting selected accounts.

Broad ethnographic approach: informal interviews, chats, observations around Burngreave.

Interviews with organisations (both local and national remits) who undertake neighbourhood and environmental initiatives within ethnically diverse communities.

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Visual EthnographyVisual EthnographyVisual ethnography is an attempt to capture, (re)construct and (re)present an external reality by using ‘objectifying tools’ such as the video camera

BUT - no footage can ever be truly ‘objective’ or ‘realistic’

It is the researcher who chooses:– what, how and when to film – what to include and what to exclude from the frame – how to edit the footage

The end product is the reality as perceived by theresearcher, thus, subjectivity and reflexivity becomecentral to the process.

Visual Ethnography

acknowledging the role, the position, or ‘the self’ of the researcher

making theoretical considerations: objectivism vssubjectivism

acquiring a particular set of skills (i.e. camera, editing)

choosing the equipment (small tourist vs large semi-professional or professional camera)

developing adequate techniques of combining filming with other ethnographic methods (i.e. participant observation and interviewing)

attending to ethical issues (informed consent, anonymity, filming permissions etc)

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Visual ethnography is an attempt to capture, (re)construct and (re)present an external reality by using ‘objectifying tools’ such as the video camera

BUT - no footage can ever be truly ‘objective’ or ‘realistic’

It is the researcher who chooses:– what, how and when to film – what to include and what to exclude from the frame – how to edit the footage

the end product of any [moving image] visual ethnographic project is the reality as perceived by the researcher

thus, subjectivity and reflexivity become central to the process

Visual Ethnography

Visual EthnographyVisual Ethnography

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Visual ethnography

Digital EthnographyDigital Ethnography

Using photos or Using photos or video/audio to video/audio to document observationdocument observationGiving people cameras, Giving people cameras, audio or camcorders to audio or camcorders to document their lives document their lives ((videodiariesvideodiaries))Using Using PDAsPDAs, mobile , mobile phones and webcams to phones and webcams to record experiencesrecord experiences

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Virtual EthnographyVirtual EthnographyWhatWhatInIn--game or online observation of user activities game or online observation of user activities and conversation. May also include interviews with and conversation. May also include interviews with participants. Documents activities, context, participants. Documents activities, context, environment, use of specific vocabulary, and other environment, use of specific vocabulary, and other characteristics of digital experiences.characteristics of digital experiences.

WhyWhyUnderstand users hopes, needs, priorities and Understand users hopes, needs, priorities and desires when designing for people who use virtual desires when designing for people who use virtual spaces like World of spaces like World of WarcraftWarcraft, Xbox Live games, or , Xbox Live games, or Second Life, or participate in communities with Second Life, or participate in communities with strong activity on forums, photo and video sharing strong activity on forums, photo and video sharing sites. sites.

Virtual EthnographyExtends the traditional notions of “field” andethnographic study from the observation of co-located,face-to-face interactions, to physically distributed, technologically mediated interactions in virtual networksand virtual communities.

Attempts to maintain the values of traditionalethnography through providing a "thick" descriptionthrough the "immersion" of the researcher in the livesof their subjects.

Examples: studies of chat rooms, social networkingsites (i.e. facebook, MySpace), distributed gamingcommunities.

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Virtual Ethnography: Virtual Ethnography: FacebookFacebook StudyStudy

Why Interviews?Why Interviews?

A major advantage of the interview is its A major advantage of the interview is its adaptabilityadaptabilityA skillful interviewer can follow up ideas, probe A skillful interviewer can follow up ideas, probe responses and investigate motives and feelingsresponses and investigate motives and feelings--something a survey can never dosomething a survey can never doThe way in which a response is made (tone of The way in which a response is made (tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation) can provide voice, facial expression, hesitation) can provide information that a written response would information that a written response would concealconcealSurvey responses have to be taken at face value, Survey responses have to be taken at face value, but a response in an interview can be developed but a response in an interview can be developed and clarifiedand clarified

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InterviewsInterviewsStructured: Structured: a questionnaire or checklist that is a questionnaire or checklist that is completed by the interviewer rather than the completed by the interviewer rather than the respondentrespondent

SemiSemi--structured: a list of questions as outline structured: a list of questions as outline of main themes of the interview.of main themes of the interview.

InIn--depth/unstructured: depth/unstructured: informal interview in informal interview in which the shape is determined by individual which the shape is determined by individual respondentsrespondents

The Structured InterviewThe Structured Interview

Freedom to allow the respondent to talk about Freedom to allow the respondent to talk about what is of central significance is clearly importantwhat is of central significance is clearly importantHowever, some loose structure to ensure all However, some loose structure to ensure all topics which are considered critical to the study topics which are considered critical to the study are covered does eliminate some of the problems are covered does eliminate some of the problems of unstructured interviewsof unstructured interviewsA framework is established by selecting topics A framework is established by selecting topics around which the interview is guided, which around which the interview is guided, which makes for easier analysismakes for easier analysisCertain questions are asked, but respondents are Certain questions are asked, but respondents are given freedom to talk about the topic and give given freedom to talk about the topic and give their views at the same timetheir views at the same time

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SemiSemi-- ((un)structuredun)structured InterviewsInterviews

This type of interview may produce a This type of interview may produce a wealth of valuable data, but they require a wealth of valuable data, but they require a great deal of expertise to control and a lot great deal of expertise to control and a lot of time to analyzeof time to analyzeAn interview is more than an interesting An interview is more than an interesting conversationconversationYou need certain information and methods You need certain information and methods have to be devised to obtain that have to be devised to obtain that information if at all possibleinformation if at all possible

ProblemsProblems

Interviews are time consumingInterviews are time consumingIn an action research project you will be In an action research project you will be able to interview only a relatively small able to interview only a relatively small number of peoplenumber of peopleInterviews are a highly subjective method Interviews are a highly subjective method and the danger of bias always existsand the danger of bias always existsAnalyzing responses can present problemsAnalyzing responses can present problemsWording the questions is almost as Wording the questions is almost as demanding as for surveysdemanding as for surveys

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BiasBiasThere is always the danger of bias creeping into interviews, There is always the danger of bias creeping into interviews, because they are conducted by human beingsbecause they are conducted by human beingsMany factors can influence responses:Many factors can influence responses:–– Eagerness of the respondent to please the interviewerEagerness of the respondent to please the interviewer–– A vague antagonism that sometimes arises between partiesA vague antagonism that sometimes arises between parties–– Tendency to seek out answers that support one’s viewsTendency to seek out answers that support one’s views

It is easier to acknowledge the fact that bias can creep in It is easier to acknowledge the fact that bias can creep in than to eliminate it altogetherthan to eliminate it altogetherIf you know you hold strong views about some aspect of If you know you hold strong views about some aspect of the topic, you need to be careful about the way questions the topic, you need to be careful about the way questions are constructedare constructedThe same question put by 2 people but with different The same question put by 2 people but with different emphasis and in a different tone of voice can produce 2 emphasis and in a different tone of voice can produce 2 unique responsesunique responses

QuestionsQuestions

Many of the same strategies used for Many of the same strategies used for constructing survey questions apply for constructing survey questions apply for interviewsinterviewsIt is crucial to avoid using yes/no or short It is crucial to avoid using yes/no or short answer questions, unless you plan to use answer questions, unless you plan to use some sort of prompt sheetsome sort of prompt sheetUse care when approaching controversial Use care when approaching controversial questions questions Watch for nonWatch for non--verbal cues and make note verbal cues and make note of themof them

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Recording & VerificationRecording & VerificationIf you are using a structured format which enables you to If you are using a structured format which enables you to mark a prepared checklist or prompts, you should leave the mark a prepared checklist or prompts, you should leave the interview with a set of responses that can be easily interview with a set of responses that can be easily analyzedanalyzedIf you are using a lessIf you are using a less--structured approach, you will need structured approach, you will need to devise some means of recording responses, such as with to devise some means of recording responses, such as with a tape recorder or using videoa tape recorder or using videoWith experience, interviewers learn to devise short hand With experience, interviewers learn to devise short hand systems of their own and as long as notes can be written systems of their own and as long as notes can be written up immediately, it is possible to provide a reasonable up immediately, it is possible to provide a reasonable record of the sessionrecord of the sessionWhenever possible, interview transcripts and direct Whenever possible, interview transcripts and direct quotations should be verified with the respondent before quotations should be verified with the respondent before the write up stagethe write up stage

Time, Place, and Style of the Time, Place, and Style of the InterviewInterview

Try to fix a venue and a time when you will not be Try to fix a venue and a time when you will not be disturbeddisturbedMake sure all official channels have been cleared, including Make sure all official channels have been cleared, including administration approvaladministration approvalYou should always introduce yourself and explain the You should always introduce yourself and explain the purpose of the research, even if you sent an official letterpurpose of the research, even if you sent an official letterMake it quite clear what you will do with the information Make it quite clear what you will do with the information and whether or not quotes need to be anonymous or can be and whether or not quotes need to be anonymous or can be attributedattributedIt is the responsibility of the interviewer, not the It is the responsibility of the interviewer, not the interviewee, to end an interviewinterviewee, to end an interviewSome difficulties include interviewing senior colleagues and Some difficulties include interviewing senior colleagues and trying to maintain a balance between making the trying to maintain a balance between making the interviewee comfortable while not being leadinginterviewee comfortable while not being leading

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Things Interviewers must always Things Interviewers must always DODO

Be courteous, confident and positiveBe courteous, confident and positiveOutline the introduction correctly Outline the introduction correctly (explaining the purpose of the study, for (explaining the purpose of the study, for whom, by whom and assure whom, by whom and assure confidentiality)confidentiality)Ask questions in the correct orderAsk questions in the correct orderAsk the appropriate questionsAsk the appropriate questionsRecord the answers fully and accuratelyRecord the answers fully and accuratelyThank the respondent for their Thank the respondent for their cooperationcooperation

Things Interviewers must NEVER Things Interviewers must NEVER DODO

Mislead respondents about the Mislead respondents about the length of the interviewlength of the interviewChat about other issuesChat about other issuesPass any opinion about respondents’ Pass any opinion about respondents’ answersanswersInterview children without special Interview children without special permission (from school, parents or permission (from school, parents or carers)carers)

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AssumptionsAssumptions

Behaviour is contextualBehaviour is contextualParticipants are activeParticipants are activeHolisticHolisticTheory discoveryTheory discoveryInterpretative analysisInterpretative analysisResearcher is ‘research tool’Researcher is ‘research tool’