CHEMTrust 1September 2019A CHEM Trust Briefing

Invisible threats from persistent chemicals

PFAS the lsquoForever Chemicalsrsquo

2 chemtrustorg

Executive summary

The chemical industry manufactures tens of thousands of synthetic chemicals and some of them can persist in the environment for generations One example is the PFAS (Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances) sometimes called lsquoforever chemicalsrsquo a family of over 4ooo highly fluorinated substances

People and wildlife are exposed to hundreds of PFAS simultaneously from various environmental routes including drinking water and via consumer products Some have proven toxicity and others havenrsquot yet been properly studied but they may well turn out to be toxic once they are properly assessed

PFAS are also extremely mobile in the environment and are already found in the most remote areas And because they are virtually impossible to clean up once they have been released they will go on accumulating in the environment exposing future generations and wildlife in every corner of the globe

We must urgently stop emissions of these highly persistent chemicals that are already undermining the health of both humans and wildlife

Key messagesPFAS are highly persistent and are contaminating the worldbull PFAS are in everyday products from non-stick pans to coats bull They persist in the environment and some PFAS are known to impact on the

effectiveness of childrenrsquos immune response to vaccines

Government action neededbull The UK and other governments must act faster to phase out all PFAS in

collaboration with the EU and through global agreementsbull The UK and other governments must ensure that the environment is monitored for

a wide range of PFAS chemicalsbull Governments should work towards new protective regulation of all highly

persistent man-made chemicals

Industry responsibilitybull Companies should immediately work to phase out PFAS chemicals replacing them

with safer non-PFAS alternatives

Individual actionbull When shopping ask for and choose PFAS-free products for example fluorine-free

waterproof goods and cosmetics

CHEMTrust 3

Table of contents

Executive summary 2

Introduction 4

PFAS ndash A family of over 4000 flourinated chemicals 5

PFAS are in everyday products 5

PFAS have concerning properties 6

P for Persistent 6B for Bioaccumulative 6M for Mobile 7T for Toxic 7

Global exposure of people and wildlife to PFAS 8

Sources of PFAS contamination 8Contamination is global 8How do we come in contact with PFAS 8PFAS transfer from the mother to the baby 9

The inadequacies of PFAS regulation 9

There are over 4000 PFAS but only a handful are currently regulated 9Regrettable substitution replacing one problematic chemical with another problematic one 9

Conclusion 10

lsquoForever chemicalsrsquo - global contamination affecting future generations 10

What can we do 11

1) Urge your government to push for stronger global regulation of PFAS 112) Urge your government to act nationally 113) Ask retailers to stop using PFAS in products 114) Reduce your own and childrenrsquos exposure 11

References 12

4 chemtrustorg

IntroductionWe are surrounded by thousands of man-made chemicals in the products we use every day They usually serve a function from flame retardants in furniture and electronics to stain repellents in clothes or UV filters in cosmetics Many man-made chemicals are not hazardous to human health and the environment but some are These chemicals can go on to contaminate the environment via multiple routes and some will not break down easily This leads to lasting pollution just like with plastic and microplastics But unlike plastic debris floating at the surface of the ocean chemicals are invisible This means that hazardous chemicals and the threat they pose to humans and wildlife easily escape our perception of pollutionMan-made chemicals that donrsquot degrade easily in the environment are known as persistent chemicals Some of them such as Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are infamously known for the large-scale environmental damage they have caused CFCs are responsible for the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere while bioaccumulative and toxic PCBs are responsible among other things for jeopardising the survival of killer whale populations around the world1In both cases the adverse impacts of these chemicals were discovered decades after mass production started And because they are highly persistent and extremely hard to remove from the environment we are still dealing with the negative impacts decades after they have been banned2 High persistence becomes a particular issue when unforeseen adverse effects are demonstrated long after a chemical has been put on the market In such a scenario it will not be possible to quickly reverse the negative effects putting the health of future generations at potential riskThis briefing highlights the case of a lesser known group of highly persistent chemicals PFAS also known as the lsquoforever chemicalsrsquo CHEM Trust is concerned that this group of chemicals could lead to a situation similar to those described above if urgent action such as a global ban is not taken This briefing summarises the current scientific knowledge on this chemical group and the evidence behind these concerns (including the knowledge gaps) We also recommend actions that must be taken to better protect people and wildlife from these chemicals

Bioaccumulative chemicals become more concentrated in our bodies over time as they accumulate

CHEMTrust 5

PFAS A family of over 4000 fluorinated chemicalsPer- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances ndash abbreviated as PFAS ndash are a family of highly fluorinated man-made chemicals that donrsquot occur in natureIt is a large chemical family with 4730 identified to date but more are being identified all the time3 They share the characteristic of having carbon atoms linked to fluorine atoms4 These carbon-fluorine groups can be linked to a wide variety of other chemical groups in various patterns Some PFAS are made of long-chains of carbon-fluorine groups (long-chain PFAS) others of shorter-chains (short-chain PFAS) Some are made of repetitions of these chains forming polymers A well-known example of a PFAS plastic polymer is polytetrafluoroethylene ndash PTFE ndash a fluoropolymer better known under its trade name TeflonTM ndash a household name in non-stick cookware

PFAS are in everyday productsSince their introduction in the 1940s PFAS have been used in an increasingly wide range of applications due to the special properties given by their carbon-fluorine bond PFAS are extremely stable chemicals they resist high temperature and degradation and most notably they repel both grease and water Waterproof coats swimsuits non-stick pans and the greaseproof paper around takeaways chips are just a few of the common uses of PFAS in everyday itemsPFAS are also used in cosmetic products such as sunscreen foundation hair moisturiser as coatings for smartphones or on solar panels as cleaning agents in floor polish and car care products In non-consumer products they are used in electronics aviation oil production and mining and even in some pesticides Their use in fire-fighting-foams including in training exercises and to extinguish liquid fires such as petroleum fires is particularly concerning This leads to direct emissions into the environment and accounts for a third of global PFAS production5

In the past PFAS were often referred to as PFCs (per-and polyfluorinated chemicals) but this denomination is not in use anymore to avoid confusion with the narrower group of chemicals the perfluorocarbons

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PFAS have concerning propertiesP for PersistentThe carbon-fluorine bond which makes PFAS so useful in a wide range of applications is also what makes PFAS so persistent This bond is one of the strongest bonds known in nature6 making PFAS extremely resistant to degradation in the natural environment (in the water the soil the air our bodies) To be destroyed they have to be incinerated at temperatures above 1100degC7

The persistence of a chemical is described by its half-life ndash the time it takes for the concentration of a chemical in a medium (water soil human body) under certain conditions to have decreased by 50 This is not an easily quantifiable parameter and the half-life of all the 4730+ PFAS is not known

However for some PFAS polymers half-lives of over 1000 years in soil have been estimated89 whilst half-life greater than 40 years in water have been estimated for some non-polymeric PFAS10 However scientists reported that almost no signs of degradation were noticeable during the experiment11 Some PFAS chemicals degrade faster but their degradation products often include other highly persistent PFAS12 For some perspective on persistence the criteria for very persistent chemicals in the EU chemical regulation is a half-life of more than 60 days in water and 180 days in sediments or soil13 The extreme persistence of PFAS is why they are called lsquoforever chemicalsrsquoB for BioaccumulativeBioaccumulative chemicals can build up in the human body and in wildlife because they are absorbed by the organism and are not excreted becoming more and more concentrated higher up the food chain PFAS are unusual because they bind to proteins eg in blood14 most bioaccumulative chemicals (for example PCBs) accumulate in fatty tissues Not all organisms will process PFAS in the same way ndash differences have been shown between sexes and between species and because of their varying structure not all PFAS will behave in the same way For instance in humans long-chain PFAS are slowly eliminated on the scale of years (eg PFHxSne has a half-life in blood of up to 85 years15) and tend to accumulate in protein rich compartments like blood liver kidney and

bones In contrast short-chain PFAS are eliminated more quickly (eg PFBSplusmn has a half-life in blood of 26 days16) and appear to accumulate in different organs and tissues such as the lungs kidneys and the brain17We know less about PFAS behaviour in wildlife but there are concerning reports of their bioaccumulation in water birds wild boars polar bears and dolphins18-20

REACH for Registration Evaluation Authorisation amp restriction of Chemicals is the EU chemical regulationne perfluorohexane-1-sulphonic acidplusmn Perfluorobutanesulfonic acid

The half-lives of some PFAS polymers is gt1000 years in soilrdquo

CHEMTrust 7

M for MobileDue to the high water solubility of PFAS and the fact that they tend not to bind to many materials they are extremely mobile in the environment This is especially the case for the short-chain ones This means that they migrate quickly through soil leaching into groundwater21 PFAS can also easily pass through normal drinking water treatment facilities and contaminate drinking water22-24In addition to migration from soil to ground water short-chain PFAS can also migrate from the soil to plants and have been shown to accumulate in edible parts of fruits and vegetables like strawberries and lettuce25T for ToxicPFAS can be toxic to humans and wildlife The most striking evidence of harm from human exposure to the long-chain PFAS PFOA comes from the results of an epidemiological study of almost 70000 people in the context of a lawsuit against DuPont chemical company in the US in 2001 The science panel of the C8ne Medical Monitoring Program identified a probable link between PFOA exposure and diagnosed high cholesterol ulcerative colitis thyroid disease testicular and kidney cancer and pregnancy-induced hypertension26Another important study in the Faroe Islands found that children exposed to higher levels of PFAS during development had a reduced immune response to routine tetanus vaccination27Many of the thousands of PFAS in use are lacking toxicological data which is of great concern especially as the well-studied ones which are mostly long-chain have been shown to bebull Endocrine disruptors they interfere with the hormonal system (eg contributing

to obesity28 associated with thyroid disease29) bull Reprotoxic they impact on reproductive functions in adults and the development

of the foetus (eg reduced birthweight30 reduced sperm quality31 delayed puberty3233 early menopause34)

bull Immunotoxic they affect the immune system (eg reduced response to vaccine in children27)

bull Possibly carcinogenic they promote the development of certain cancers (eg kidney and testicular cancer35)

Less data is available on the toxicity of PFAS to wildlife However the available studies show that chronic exposure to PFAS could affect20bull the brain reproductive system and

hormonal system of polar bearsbull the immune system and kidney and

liver functions of bottlenose dolphinsbull the immune system of sea otters

Perfluorooctanoic acidne C8 is another appellation for PFOA relating to its 8 carbon atoms

Many of the thousands of PFAS in use are lacking toxicological datardquo

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Global exposure of people and wildlife to PFASSources of PFAS contaminationContamination of the environment by PFAS occurs throughout the whole life cycle at the manufacturing stage during use and via disposal of products containing PFAS They can also enter the environment indirectly when related chemicals degrade into PFAS7 These parent chemicals are called PFAS precursors

Higher contamination rates of the local environment are correlated with the proximity of industrial sites using PFAS (eg PTFE manufacturing the paper and textile industry) and the dispersion of PFAS-containing fire-fighting foams at major airports military sites or landfills36 However not all PFAS contamination can be explained by industrial activity waste disposal or accidental release

PFAS have been detected in some rivers unconnected to PFAS manufacturing sites (eg the River Thames37) which indicates emissions from widespread (diffuse) sources These diffuse sources include consumer products38 eg PFAS can be released into the water system from washing stain resistant school uniforms impregnated with PFAS39 or when PFAS-containing hair conditioners are rinsed off in the shower40Contamination is globalVery worryingly highly persistent PFAS and their precursors contaminate the entire planet They cause large-scale drinking water contamination in the US41 and have been found in European waters including the UK11PFAS and their precursors can be transported over very long distances from their source of emission to remote and pristine locations via oceanic and atmospheric currents and precipitations36 They are present in the Arctic the Antarctic and at high-altitude areas36 Ultimately ocean waters are likely to be the largest reservoir of PFAS with the deep ocean seafloor as the final sink4243 How do we come in contact with PFASPFAS have been found in the bloodstream of wildlife (eg polar bears harbour porpoise and harbour seals dolphins and whales20) and people from all around the world44-46 as well as in breastmilk47 Wildlife is exposed to PFAS mainly via contaminated water air and food7 In addition to environmental exposure including through drinking water48-50 people are exposed to PFAS through food cosmetics clothes and household dust51-53Regarding food there are two types of exposures The first is related to the migration of PFAS from certain types of food packaging (eg greaseproof paper) into the food54 Fast-food is believed to be the main route of exposure in this case55

The second route is when food is already contaminated by PFAS Highly mobile short-chain PFAS have been found in vegetables such as celery and tomatoes grown in contaminated soils56 Another exposure route identified in the US comes via contaminated milk due to farm animals feeding on grass contaminated by PFAS derived from sewage sludge which has been spread on fields57 Finally a major source of exposure via food is through the consumption of seafood41

PFAS have been found in the bloodstream of wildlife and people from all around the worldrdquo

CHEMTrust 9

PFAS transfer from the mother to the babyPFAS can transfer via the placenta during development in the womb and via breast milk58-60 One study in Norway found that the daily PFOA intake of a 6-month-old breastfed infant is 15 times the intake of adults61 However a Spanish study which measured concentrations of PFAS in breast milk formula milk and baby food found PFAS in all samples tested62 Even though it is known that breast milk is one route by which bioaccumulative chemicals from the mother are transferred to the baby breast feeding of babies is acknowledged to be the best option for their health63The same process of PFAS transfer from the mother to the baby has been identified for several marine species including whales seals dolphins and killer whales20

The inadequacies of PFAS regulationThere are over 4000 PFAS but only a handful are currently regulatedMany PFAS are recognised as PBT (Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic) These properties along with the fact that they have potential for long-range transport means that they fulfil the criteria for the global treaty regulating persistent organic pollutants (POPs) the Stockholm Convention (2001)64 This is the convention that regulates and bans the most harmful and worrying chemicals in the world However among the several thousands of PFAS currently in use only PFOS and PFOA are globally regulated64Regrettable substitution replacing one problematic chemical with another problematic oneIn response to regulatory pressure the strategy adopted by the industry has been to substitute the regulated PFAS with unregulated ones especially short-chain PFAS65 The good news is that concentrations of legacy PFAS are decreasing in the environment people and wildlife but unfortunately concentrations of newer PFAS are rising203641 The industry claims that the alternative PFAS are lsquosaferrsquo66 but the truth is that environmental and toxicological data are often lacking for these emerging PFAS6768 Recent studies are starting to reveal that some alternative PFAS could be as toxic as the ones they replace146970 and could equally become dispersed worldwide71This untenable situation has led scientists and experts to raise the alarm through a series of statements72-74 Over 200 scientists signed the Madrid Statement in 2015 calling ldquoon the international community to cooperate in limiting the production and use of PFASs and in developing safer nonfluorinated alternativesrdquo73

Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid

Among the several thousands of PFAS currently in use only PFOS and PFOA are globally regulatedrdquo

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Conclusion

lsquoForever chemicalsrsquo ndash global contamination affecting future generationsPeople and wildlife are exposed to hundreds of PFAS simultaneously from various environmental routes including drinking water and via consumer products Some have proven toxicity and many havenrsquot yet been properly studied but they may well turn out

to be toxic when the analysis is done The special carbon-fluorine structure of PFAS mean that ldquothese are the most persistent chemicals we are facing todayrdquo75 according to Dr Zhanyun Wang of the ETH Zuumlrich a leading scientist in the field67 High persistence of PFAS means that the past and continuous production and use of PFAS will lead to a build-up in the global environment The clean-up of PFAS in contaminated sites is

extremely challenging5 at best and impossible when it comes to the vast ocean Because of their extreme persistence they will last decades or centuries even after emissions have ended exposing future generations and wildlife in every corner of the globeNot acting on highly persistent and harmful chemicals also has an economic cost to society The cost of inaction on PFAS has recently been estimated at euro52 - euro84 billion annually for health-related costs for all countries of the European Economic Area and at euro46 million - euro11 billion annually for environment-related costs for the European Nordic countries76It is unknown what consequences will arise from the global exposure of people and wildlife to increasing level of PFAS but lessons learnt from the past7778 tell us not to wait decades to see what happens and to urgently stop emissions of these highly persistent chemicals that may well undermine the health of both humans and wildlifeItrsquos time that governments around the world moved to phase out these chemicals while companies should stop using them and move to safer non-fluorinated alternatives

The cost of inaction on PFAS has been estimated at euro52 ndash euro84 billion annually for the EEArdquo

CHEMTrust 11

What can we doIndividuals and organisations can help to build the pressure for these chemicals to be phased out Here are some ideas1) Urge your government to push for stronger global regulation of PFASPFAS are global contaminants and have the potential to be transported far from their source of emission therefore they need to be regulated at global level The Stockholm Convention is the global treaty best suited to regulate PFAS but it is not currently strong enough Any government that is part of the Convention such as the UK could help change thisWrite to your MP andor to the Environment Minister (Secretary of State for the Environment in the UK) calling for your government to push for stronger global rules in particularbull A grouping approach in the regulation of PFAS The Stockholm Convention is

too slow at the moment as it regulates one type of PFAS at a time (PFOS and related compounds in 200964 PFOA and related compounds ten years later in 201979) Adopting a grouping approach to regulate PFAS as a class would accelerate regulation processes prevent regrettable substitution80 stop the building up of these highly persistent chemicals in the environment and better protect people and wildlife

bull Push for stronger regulation of all highly persistent man-made chemicals The current framework does not regulate chemicals just on their high persistence alone In CHEM Trustrsquos view high persistence should be sufficient criteria for stringent regulation of these chemicals

2) Urge your government to act nationallybull Ask your government to add PFAS (legacy and emerging PFAS) to

monitoring programs For instance PFAS are currently not part of the contaminants monitored in the context of the UK Marine Strategy81 The exact scale of the PFAS contamination is not known in the UK and Europe in general because there is currently no comprehensive PFAS monitoring in EU waters11 These data are crucial to inform risk management policies

bull Ask your government to be proactive in addressing the PFAS issue by banning PFAS in consumer products Denmark is preparing a national ban on all PFAS in paper and cardboard used in food contact materials by July 202082

3) Ask retailers to stop using PFAS in productsRetailers should follow the steps of Kingfisher (owner of BampQ and Screwfix in the UK) who announced a phase-out on PFAS in their own-brand products by 202583 4) Reduce your own and childrenrsquos exposureHere are some recommendations to reduce your exposure to PFAS via everyday products Food Avoid PFAS coated non-stick cookware favour non-coated stainless-steel

pans Limit your consumption of fast-food that could have been in contact with PFAS impregnated greaseproof paper or cardboard

Textiles PFAS are used to waterproof outdoor clothes and tents but fluorine-free alternative exists check for PFAS- or PFC-free labels

PFAS are also used to provide stain resistance to a wide range of textiles including school uniforms carpets and furniture Be wary of stain resistant labels and visit the PFASfree website hosted by the Scottish NGO FIDRA for PFAS-free school uniforms options

Cosmetics PFAS can be present in cosmetics check the ingredient list to avoid product containing chemicals with ldquofluorordquo or PTFE in their name Also avoid dental floss with PTFE coatings

12 chemtrustorg

References1 Des forges JP 2018 Predicting global killer whale population collapse from PCB

pollution Science 361(6409) pp 1373-1376 httpsdoiorg101126scienceaat1953

2 Cou sins IT et al 2019 Why is high persistence alone a major cause of concern Environmental Science Processes amp Impacts 21 pp 781-792 httpdoiorg101039C8EM00515J

3 OEC D 2018 Toward a new comprehensive global database of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) summary report on updating the OECD 2007 list of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) Series on Risk Management No 39 httpwwwoecdorgofficialdocumentspublicdisplaydocumentpdfcote=ENV-JM-MONO(2018)7ampdoclanguage=en

4 Buc k RC et al 2011 Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment terminology classification and origins Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 7 4 pp 513ndash41 httpsdoiorg101002ieam258

5 IPE N 2019 Stockholm Convention COP-9 White Paper The Global PFAS Problem Fluorine-Free Alternatives As Solutions 120p httpsipenorgsitesdefaultfilesdocumentsthe_global_pfas_problem-v1_5_final_18_aprilpdf

6 Sie gemund G et al 2016 Fluorine Compounds Organic Ullmannrsquos Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Weinheim Germany Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH amp Co KGaA httpsdoiorg10100214356007a11_349pub2

7 OEC D 2013 Synthesis paper on per- and polyfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) OECDUNEP Global PFC Group Environment Health and Safety Environment Directorate OECD Publishing Paris France 60p httpswwwoecdorgenvehsrisk-managementPFC_FINAL-Webpdf

8 Rus sell MH et al 2008 Investigation of the biodegradation potential of a fluoroacrylate polymer product in aerobic soils Environmental Science amp Technology 42 3 pp 800-807 httpsdoiorg101021es0710499

9 Was hington JW et al 2009 Degradability of an acrylate-linked fluorotelomer polymer in soil Environmental Science amp Technology 43 17 pp 6617-6623 httpsdoiorg101021es9002668

10 UNE P 2006 Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Risk Profile Adopted by the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee at its second meeting November 2006 UNEPPOPSPOPRC217Add5 httpchmpopsintImplementationIndustrialPOPsPFOSOverviewtabid5221Defaultaspx

11 Gol denman G et al 2017 Study for the strategy for a non-toxic environment of the 7th EAP Sub-study d Very Persistent Chemicals Milieu Ltd Brussels 123 p httpeceuropaeuenvironmentchemicalsnon-toxicpdfSub-study20d20very20persistent20subst20NTE20finalpdf

12 Wan g Z et al 2015 Hazard assessment of fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and their precursors status quo ongoing challenges and possible solutions Environment International 75 pp 172ndash179 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201411013

13 ECH A 2017 Guidance on Information Requirements and Chemical Safety Assessment Part C PBTvPvB assessment Version 30 22p httpsechaeuropaeudocuments1016213643information_requirements_part_c_enpdf

CHEMTrust 13

14 Gom is MI et al 2018 Comparing the toxic potency in vivo of long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids and fluorinated alternatives Environment International 113 pp 1ndash9 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201801011

15 Ols en G W et al 2007 Half-life of serum elimination of perfluorooctanesulfonate perfluorohexanesulfonate and perfluorooctanoate in retired fluorochemical production workers Environmental Health Perspectives 115 9 pp 1298-1305 httpsdoiorg101289ehp10009

16 Ols en GW et al 2009 A comparison of the pharmacokinetics of perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS) in rats monkeys and humans Toxicology 256 1-2 pp 65-74 httpdoiorg101016jtox200811008

17 Peacuter ez F et al 2013 Accumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human tissues Environment International 59 pp 354ndash 62 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201306004

18 Vie rke L et al 2012 Perfluorooctanic acid (PFOA) ndash main concerns and regulatory developments in Europe from an environmental point of view Environmental Sciences Europe 2416 httpsdoiorg1011862190-4715-24-16

19 Wal ker LA et al 2015 Perfluorinated compound (PFC) concentrations in northern gannet eggs 1977-2014 a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report Centre for Ecology amp Hydrology Lancaster UK 18pp httpspbmscehacuksitesdefaultfilesPBMS_Gannet_PFCs_report_2013pdf

20 Fai r PA and Houde M 2018 Chapter 5 - Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Marine Mammals Marine Mammals Ecotoxicology Impacts of Multiple Stressors on Population Health pp 117-145 httpsdoiorg101016B978-0-12-812144-300005-X

21 Gel lrich V et al 2012 Behavior of perfluorinated compounds in soils during leaching experiments Chemosphere 87 9 pp 1052-1056 httpsdoiorg101016jchemosphere201202011

22 Sun M et al 2016 Legacy and emerging perfluoroalkyl substances are important drinking water contaminants in the Cape Fear River Watershed of North Carolina Environmental Science amp Technology Letters 3 12 pp 415ndash419 httpsdoiorg101021acsestlett6b00398

23 Kab oreacute HA et al 2017 Worldwide drinking water occurrence and levels of newly-identified perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances Science of the Total Environment 616-617 pp 1089-1100 httpsdoiorg101016jscitotenv201710210

24 Bre ndel S et al 2018 Short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids environmental concerns and a regulatory strategy under REACH Environmental Science Europe 309 httpsdoiorg101186s12302-018-0134-4

25 Bla ine AC et al 2014 Perfluoroalkyl acid uptake in lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) irrigated with reclaimed water Environmental science amp technology 48 24 pp 14361-14368 httpsdoiorg101021es504150h

26 C8 Medical Monitoring Program httpwwwc-8medicalmonitoringprogramcom27 Gra ndjean P et al 2012 Serum vaccine antibody concentrations in children

exposed to perfluorinated compounds (Clinical report) JAMA the Journal of the American Medical Association 307 4 pp 391-397 httpsdoiorg101001jama20112034

14 chemtrustorg

28 Hal ldorsson TI et al 2012 Prenatal Exposure to Perfluorooctanoate and Risk of Overweight at 20 Years of Age A Prospective Cohort Study Environmental Health Perspectives 120 pp 668ndash 673 httpsdoiorg101289ehp1104034

29 Kim MJ et al 2018 Association between perfluoroalkyl substances exposure and thyroid function in adults A meta-analysis PloS one 13(5) pe0197244 httpsdoiorg101371journalpone0197244

30 Fei C et al 2007 Perfluorinated Chemicals and Fetal Growth A Study within the Danish National Birth Cohort Environmental health perspectives 115 11 pp 1677-1682 httpsdoiorg101289ehp10506

31 Ves ted A et al 2014 Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health Asian Journal of Andrology 16 1 pp 71-80 httpsdoiorg1041031008-682X122345

32 Lop ez-Espinosa M-J et al 2011 Association of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) with age of puberty among children living near a chemical plant Environmental Science amp Technology 45 19 pp 8160minus8166 httpsdoiorg101021es1038694

33 Kri stensen SL et al 2013 Long-term effects of prenatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances on female reproduction Human Reproduction 28 12 pp 3337minus3348 httpsdoiorg101093humrepdet382

34 Tay lor KW et al 2013 Evaluation of the Association between Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Diabetes in Epidemiological Studies A National Toxicology Program Workshop Review Environmental Health Perspectives 121 7 pp 774-783 httpsdoiorg101289ehp1205502

35 IAR C 2016 Perfluorooctanoic acid IARC monographs on the identification of carcinogenic hazards to humans Monograph 110 74p httpsmonographsiarcfrwp-contentuploads201806mono110-01pdf

36 OEC D 2015 Working Towards a Global Emission Inventory of PFASs Focus on PFCAs-Status Quo and the Way Forward OECDUNEP Global PFC Group Environment Health and Safety Environment Directorate OECD Publishing Paris France 85p httpswwwoecdorgchemicalsafetyrisk-managementWorking20Towards20a20Global20Emission20Inventory20of20PFASSpdf

37 Pan Y et al 2018 Worldwide Distribution of Novel Perfluoroether Carboxylic and Sulfonic Acids in Surface Water Environmental Science amp Technology 52 14 pp 7621-7629 httpsdoiorg101021acsest8b00829

38 Ahr ens L 2011 Polyfluoroalkyl compounds in the aquatic environment a review of their occurrence and fate Journal of environmental monitoring 13 1 pp 20-31 httpsdoiorg101039c0em00373e

39 PFASfreeorg httpswwwpfasfreeorguk40 The Danish Environmental Protection Agency 2018 Risk assessment of fluorinated

substances in cosmetic products 118 p httpswww2mstdkUdgivpublications201810978-87-93710-94-8pdf

41 Sun derland EM et al 2019 A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly-and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects Journal of Exposure Science amp Environmental Epidemiology 29 2 pp 131-147 httpsdoiorg101038s41370-018-0094-1

42 Pre vedouros K et al 2006 Sources fate and transport of perfluorocarboxylates Environmental Science amp Technology 40 1 pp 32ndash44 httpsdoiorg101021es0512475

CHEMTrust 15

43 Cou sins IT Kong D and Vestergren R 2011 Reconciling measurement and modelling studies of the sources and fate of perfluorinated carboxylates Environmental Chemistry 8 pp 339ndash354 httpsdoiorg101071EN10144

44 Han sen KJ et al 2001 Compound-specific quantitative characterization of organic fluorochemicals in biological matrices Environmental Science amp Technology 35 4 pp 766ndash770 httpsdoiorg101021es001489z

45 Ves tergren R and Cousins IT 2009 Tracking the pathways of human exposure to perfluorocarboxylates Environmental Science amp Technology 43 15 pp 5565-5575 httpsdoiorg101021es900228k

46 Ye X et al 2018 Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in sera from children 3 to 11 years of age participating in the national health and nutrition examination survey 2013-2014 International journal of hygiene and environmental health 221 pp 9-16 httpsdoiorg101016jijheh201709011

47 Mac heka-Tendenguwo LR et al 2018 Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in human breast milk and current analytical methods Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25 36 pp 36064-36086 httpsdoiorg101007s11356-018-3483-z

48 Esc hauzier C et al 2012 Impact of Treatment Processes on the Removal of Perfluoroalkyl Acids from the Drinking Water Production Chain Environmental Science amp Technology 46 3 pp 1708-1715 httpsdoiorg101021es201662b

49 Pos t GB Cohn PD and Cooper KR 2012 Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) an emerging drinking water contaminant A critical review of recent literature Environmental research 116 pp 93-117 httpsdoiorg101016jenvres201203007

50 Rah man MF Peldszus S and Anderson WB 2014 Behaviour and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water treatment A review Water research 50 pp 318-340 httpsdoiorg101016jwatres201310045

51 Tit tlemier SA et al 2007 Dietary Exposure of Canadians to Perfluorinated Carboxylates and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate via Consumption of Meat Fish Fast Foods and Food Items Prepared in Their Packaging Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 8 pp 3203-3210 httpsdoiorg101021jf0634045

52 Bjouml rklund JA Thuresson K and De Wit CA 2009 Perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) in indoor dust concentrations human exposure estimates and sources Environmental science amp technology 43 7 pp 2276-81 httpsdoiorg101021es803201a

53 Sch ultes L et al 2018 Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances and fluorine mass balance in cosmetic products from the Swedish market implications for environmental emissions and human exposure Environmental Science Processes amp Impacts 20 12 pp 1680-1690 httpsdoiorg101039C8EM00368H

54 Beg ley TH et al 2008 Migration of fluorochemical paper additives from food-contact paper into foods and food simulants Food additives amp contaminants Part A Chemistry analysis control exposure amp risk assessment 25 3 pp 384-390 httpsdoiorg10108002652030701513784

55 Tri er X et al 2017 PFAS in paper and board for food contact -options for risk management of poly- and perfluorinated substances Copenhagen K Denmark Nordic Council of Ministers TemaNord No 573 Vol 2017 httpscoreacukdownloadpdf13673878pdf

16 chemtrustorg

56 Men gelers M J B et al 2017 Risicobeoordeling van GenX en PFOA in moestuingewassen in Dordrecht Papendrecht en Sliedrecht Bilthoven (abstract in English) httpswwwrivmnlpublicatiesrisicobeoordeling-van-genx-en-pfoa-in-moestuingewassen-in-dordrecht-papendrecht-en

57 Val dmanis R and Schneyer J 2019 The curious case of tainted milk from a Maine dairy farm Reuters 19 March 2019 httpswwwreuterscomarticleus-usa-dairy-chemicalsthe-curious-case-of-tainted-milk-from-a-maine-dairy-farm-idUSKCN1R01AJ

58 Fro mme H et al 2010 Pre- and postnatal exposure to perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) Environmental Science amp Technology 44 pp 7123ndash7129 httpsdoiorg101021es101184f

59 Tho msen C et al 2010 Changes in concentrations of perfluorinated compounds polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in Norwegian breast-milk during twelve months of lactation Environmental Science amp Technology 44 pp 9550 ndash9556 httpdoiorg101021es200682w

60 Guumlt zkow K B et al 2012 Placental transfer of perfluorinated compounds is selective--a Norwegian Mother and Child sub-cohort study International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 215 pp 216ndash219 httpsdoiorg101016jijheh201108011

61 Hau g L S et al 2011 Characterisation of human exposure pathways to perfluorinated compounds--comparing exposure estimates with biomarkers of exposure Environment International 37 pp 687ndash693 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201101011

62 Lor enzo M et al 2016 Perfluoroalkyl substances in breast milk infant formula and baby food from Valencian community (Spain) Environmental Nanotechnology Monitoring amp Management 6 pp 108-115 httpsdoiorg101016jenmm201609001

63 Wor ld Health Organization Nutrition Breastfeeding httpswwwwhointnutritiontopicsexclusive_breastfeedingen

64 UNE P Stockholm Convention All POPs listed in the Stockholm Convention httpchmpopsintTheConventionThePOPsAllPOPstabid2509Defaultaspx

65 Wan g Z et al 2013 Fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and their potential precursors Environment International 60 pp 242ndash248 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201308021

66 ENV IRON International Corporation 2014 Assessment of POP Criteria for Specific Short-Chain Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances FluoroCouncil Washington DC 144p httpsfluorocouncilcomwp-contentuploads201703ENVIRON-Assessment-of-POP-Criteria-Resources-1pdf

67 Wan g Z et al 2017 A never-ending story of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) Environmental Science amp Technology 51 5 pp 2508ndash2518 httpsdoiorg101021acsest6b04806

68 Pat l ewicz G et al 2019 A Chemical Category-Based Prioritization Approach for Selecting 75 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) for Tiered Toxicity and Toxicokinetic Testing Environmental Health Perspectives 127 1 httpsdoiorg101289EHP4555

69 Wan g Z et al 2016 Comparative assessment of the environmental hazards of and exposure to perfluoroalkyl phosphonic and phosphinic acids (PFPAs and PFPiAs) current knowledge gaps challenges and research needs Environment International 89ndash90 pp 235ndash247 httpsdoiorg101016jenvint201601023

CHEMTrust 17

70 Che ng W and Ng CA 2018 Predicting Relative Protein Affinity of Novel Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) by An Efficient Molecular Dynamics Approach Environmental Science amp Technology 52 14 pp 7972ndash7980 httpsdoiorg101021acsest8b01268

71 Gom is MI et al 2014 A modeling assessment of the physicochemical properties and environmental fate of emerging and novel per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances Science of the Total Environment 505 1 pp 981ndash991 httpsdoiorg101016jscitotenv201410062

72 Sch eringer M et al 2014 Helsingoslashr Statement on poly-and perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) Chemosphere 114 pp 337-339 httpsdoiorg101016jchemosphere201405044

73 Blu m A et al 2015 The Madrid statement on poly-and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) Environmental health perspectives 123 5 pp A107-A111 httpsdoiorg101289ehp1509934

74 Rit scher A et al 2018 Zuumlrich statement on future actions on per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) Environmental health perspectives 126 8 p084502 httpsdoiorg101289EHP4158

75 Lim X 2019 Tainted water the scientists tracing thousands of fluorinated chemicals in our environment Nature news features 06 February 2019 httpswwwnaturecomarticlesd41586-019-00441-1fbclid=IwAR36Bnl6PEhjlWWhN26MflvvXwdb16jDpJSFKBpNDKrwPJ2-Qv6-MUYc67I

76 Gol denman G et al 2019 A socioeconomic analysis of environmental and health impacts linked to exposure to PFAS TemaNord ISSN 0908-6692 2019516 httpdxdoiorg106027TN2019-516

77 EEA 2001 Late Lessons from Early Warnings The Precautionary Principle 1896-2000 European Environment Agency Copenhagen httpswwweeaeuropaeupublicationsenvironmental_issue_report_2001_22

78 EEA 2013 EEA Late lessons from early warnings II Science precaution innovation European Environment Agency 2013 httpswwweeaeuropaeupublicationslate-lessons-2

79 Blo omberg Environment 2019 UN Chemical Regulators Approve PFOA Ban With Exemptions 3 May 2019 httpsnewsbloombergenvironmentcomenvironment-and-energyun-chemical-regulators-approve-pfoa-ban-with-exemptions

80 CHE M Trust 2018 From BPA to BPZ a toxic soup How companies switch from a known hazardous chemical to one with similar properties and how regulators could stop them 46p httpschemtrustorgtoxicsoup

81 CHE M Trust 2019 UK Government must act now to protect UK seas from chemical pollution httpschemtrustorguk-act-now-protect-seas

82 Foo d Packaging Forum 2019 Denmark to ban PFAS in paper amp board in 2020 3 September 2019 httpswwwfoodpackagingforumorgnewsdenmark-to-ban-pfas-in-paper-board-in-2020

83 Kin gfisher 2019 Kingfisher pledges to phase out three chemical families from its supply chain Press release 23 January 2019 httpswwwkingfishercomenmedianewssustainability-news2019kingfisher-pledges-to-phase-out-three-chemical-families-from-itshtml

Written by Dr Julie Schneider July 2019

This briefing was produced by CHEM Trust a charity working at UK EU and International level to protect humans and wildlife from harmful chemicals

CHEM Trustrsquos particular concerns are endocrine disrupting chemicals the cocktail effect of chemicals and the role of chemical exposures in the early life of wildlife and humans

CHEM Trust engages with scientific environmental medical and policy communities to improve the dialogue concerning the role of adverse effects of chemicals in wildlife and humans and to harness a wide coalition to drive improved chemicals policy and regulation

For more about our work including our regularly-updated blog see chemtrustorg

Further copies of this briefing can be downloaded from chemtrustorgPFASbrief

CHEMTrust

This briefing should be cited as CHEM Trust 2019 PFAS ndash the lsquoforever chemicalsrsquo Invisible threats from persistent chemicals A CHEM Trust briefing

This briefing was designed by Deborah Thompson wwwdebthompsondesigncom

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