Personal strivings as a predictor of emotional intelligence

PERSONAL STRIVINGS AS A

PREDICTOR OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE

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PERSONAL STRIVINGS AS A

PREDICTOR OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE

FERENC MARGITICS

AND

ZSUZSA PAUWLIK

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York

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Margitics, Ferenc.

Personal strivings as a predictor of emotional intelligence / Ferenc Margitics and

Zsuzsa Pauwlik.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-61728-445-8 (eBook) 1. Emotional intelligence. 2. Achievement motivation. 3. Ambition. I. Pauwlik,

Zsuzsa. II. Title.

BF576.M275 2009

152.4--dc22 2009042005

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

CONTENTS

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Method 9

Chapter 3 Results 17

Chapter 4 Conclusion 65

References 71

Index 75

PREFACE

Personal aspirations constitute an important element of a successful way of

life. These include the decisions of the individuals regarding things important for

them in life, and the actions the individuals are willing to take in order to reach

the important goals. Individuals will find their lives sensible and meaningful when

they have objectives congruent with their inner selves and they are committed to

realizing their goals, thus reaching a successful self-actualization and the

extension of their personalities.

Personal aspirations, as dynamic characteristic features of the personalities,

may be in a close relationship with emotional intelligence. In this book, the

authors wish to show the structure of emotional intelligence among college

students, and they make an attempt to reveal the interrelations between personal

aspirations and emotional intelligence. The authors examine the connections

between subjective judgment of religiousness, spirituality and certain components

of emotional intelligence. The authors also wish to reveal differences between the

two genders, if such differences exist.

There were 712 college students who participated in the survey (545 women

and 167 men). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory was used to measure

emotional intelligence; the Aspiration Inventory was used to measure individual

aspirations; the Background Inventory was used to measure subjective

religiousness; and the Daily Spiritual Experience Scale was used to examine

spirituality.

In the course of their research, the authors were unable to detect any

significant difference between the two genders in terms of emotional intelligence,

although there appeared to be major differences among various components of

emotional intelligence. In interpersonal skills, it was found that women were more

emphatic, had a higher social responsibility and had a better ability to manage and

Preface viii

sustain interpersonal relations than men had. In general, no considerable

difference was found between the two genders in terms of intrapersonal emotional

intelligence, but it was found that men had a much higher self-regard, and they

were emotionally more independent than women. On the other hand, women were

found to be able to express and use their emotions more effectively. Women are,

therefore, more aware of their own emotions, whereas men are emotionally more

independent and have a higher assertiveness and self-regard than women. Our

research confirmed that men tolerate stress and cope with it more effectively than

women do.

When examining the connections between individual aspirations and

emotional intelligence, the researchers found that there is a positive relationship

between the importance, likelihood and realization of intrinsic aspirations, the

likelihood and realization of extrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence. Out

of intrinsic aspirations, the likelihood and realization of personal advancement

were found to be in the closest correlation with emotional intelligence. Out of the

components of emotional intelligence, the realization of personal advancement

was in a close relationship with all the skills, whereas the likelihood of personal

advancement was not in a particularly close correlation with interpersonal and

stress management EQ. Emotional intelligence, and its specific components, were,

however, not in a close correlation with the importance of personal advancement.

There was no particularly close interrelation between the combined indicator of

extrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence. We were able to reveal any

considerable connection between specific extrinsic aspirations and emotional

intelligence at certain points only. A close negative correlation was found between

conformity EQ/the realization of wealth/the importance of fame and the EQ of

stress management/the importance of fame. Out of the extrinsic aspirations,

optimism was in close, but not negative, correlation with the realization of image,

and a similar relationship was detected between happiness and the likelihood of

image.

The examination of religiousness/spirituality and emotional intelligence

showed that students who consider themselves more religious had a considerably

higher interpersonal emotional intelligence (especially in the field of social

responsibility) than non-religious students. Non-religious students were

characterized by higher values of conformity and stress management. Emotional

intelligence—regardless of gender—was in a close relationship with peace and

compassionate love out of the spiritual values, and in a negative relationship with

divine help.

Preface ix

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Ferenc Margitics, PhD. Associate Professor, the leader of Health

Psychology group. E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Zsuzsa Pauwlik, PhD, Assistant Professor, member of Health Psychology

group. E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Academic research into emotional intelligence started in the early 1990s.

In the period from 1990 to 1993, the concept of emotional intelligence

emerged. Mayer and Salovey [1] in their study titled Emotional intelligence

summarized a large part of the research previously accomplished and, by

combining the various research trends, created the formal-skill-based-theory of

emotional intelligence and an adequate relevant empirical measuring method.

In the years from 1993 to 1997, the concept of emotional intelligence became

popular worldwide, and a series of research programs began [2, 3].

The present period of research into emotional intelligence started in 1998. In

this period, the definition of emotional intelligence has been refined and

elaborated, and new measuring methods have been developed.

Researchers started exploration in a number of new fields in connection with

emotional intelligence. These include—among others—the influence of emotions

on social thinking and behavior [4] and the connections among emotional

intelligence and alexitimia and maladaptive coping [5], self-actualization [6],

marriage [7], empathic punctuality [8], and education [9].

The first definitions of emotional intelligence, referring to skills, were

formulated by Mayer et al. in the early 1990s [10]. In their opinion, emotional

intelligence was a form of emotional information processing that included an

accurate assessment of the emotions of ourselves and of others, the adequate

expression of the emotions and an adaptive regulation of the emotions that

improved the quality of life.

A few years later, Mayer et al. [11], further developing and expanding their

original idea, defined emotional intelligence as the ability of the individual to

Ferenc Margitics and Zsuzsa Pauwlik 2

recognize the significance and connections of emotions, to think and to solve

problems as a result. In their opinion, emotional intelligence has a role in the

perception of emotions, in the assimilation of feelings attached to the emotions

and in the comprehension and management of the emotions.

The characteristic-based definitions of emotional intelligence—as opposed to

the skill-based definitions—describe emotional intelligence as a component of

abilities or characteristic features.

The characteristic-based models of emotional intelligence are largely different

from the skill-based models. Representatives of characteristic-based models use

the concept of emotional intelligence as a list of characteristic features or skills

through which the individual can be successful in life.

Goleman [3] asserts that emotional intelligence has five components:

knowing emotions, managing emotions, self-motivation, recognition of the

emotions of others and managing human relationships. In this approach, the

emphasis is shifted from the general processing of emotional information, and the

skills required for processing, to motivation (here: self-motivation) and to human

relationships in general, including the ways in which these relationships are

managed.

Bar-On [2] defines emotional intelligence as a complexity of non-cognitive

skills, competences and abilities that influence the ability of the individual to cope

with the requirements and pressure of the external environment, thus meeting the

challenges and expectations posed by daily life.

The Bar-On [2, 12] model contains the five key components of emotional

intelligence:

The ability to recognize, understand and express our emotions and

feelings,

The ability to understand the emotions of others and to establish contact

with them,

The ability to manage and control our emotions,

The ability to manage changes, process and solve personal and

interpersonal problems,

The ability to generate positive emotions and the capability of self-

motivation.

Each of the five components of emotional intelligence contains a certain

number of emotional, personal and social skills and abilities and the facilitators of

these skills. The abilities determining behavior intelligence from an emotional and

social aspect are the following:

Introduction 3

Self-regard: the ability to understand, accept and respect ourselves,

Assertiveness: the ability to express emotions, beliefs and ideas and to

implement them in a non-destructive way,

Self-awareness: the ability to recognize and understand emotions,

Stress-tolerance: the ability of the individual to resist unpleasant events

and stressful situations without “falling apart” through an active and

positive coping with stress,

Impulse-control: the ability to resist or delay impulses, drives or calls for

action,

Adaptability: the ability to estimate, compare and evaluate objective and

subjectively perceived realities,

Flexibility: the ability to adapt in emotions, ideas and behavior to

changing situations and conditions,

Problem-solving: the ability to identify, interpret and effectively solve

problems,

Empathy: understanding and respecting the feelings of others,

Interpersonal relationships: the ability to establish and maintain mutually

beneficial interpersonal relationships, characterized by an emotional

proximity and a balance in providing and receiving emotions.

The behavior intelligence from emotional and social aspects is supported and

facilitated by another five factors. These are the following:

Optimism: the ability to maintain a positive attitude toward life, even

during periods of disasters and misfortune,

Self-actualization: the potential ability of the individual to realize their

skills and capabilities,

Happiness: the ability of the individual to be satisfied with life, to see the

bright side of things, to find pleasure in work, in themselves and others,

to be able to enjoy life in general,

Independence: self-control and self-guidance in thinking and actions, the

ability to be emotionally independent of others,

Social responsibility: the ability of the individual to be active,

constructive and cooperative in a social group.

In Bar-On’s theory [2, 12], mental abilities such as emotional self-awareness

is linked with other characteristic features—independent of mental abilities—such

as independence and self-esteem or mood. Despite of the wide scope of the


model, Bar-On [2, 12] formulated the expectations in connection with it with care

and reservation. In his opinion, emotional intelligence is a simple opportunity for

achieving success, and not success itself.

1.2. PERSONAL STRIVINGS

Personal aspirations constitute an important element of a successful way of

life. These include the decisions of the individuals regarding things important for

them in life and the actions the individuals are willing to take in order to reach the

important goals. Individuals will find their lives sensible and meaningful when

they have objectives congruent with their inner selves and they are committed to

realizing the goals, thus reaching a successful self-actualization and the extension

of their personalities.

We examined the connections between various components of emotional

intelligence and the subjective approach to religiousness and spirituality.

1.2.1. Individual Aspirations

In Emmons’s theory [13], personality is interpreted as a motivation system, in

which the emphasis is on the personal objectives (or system of objectives) that

drive human behavior and on the achievement of the objectives.

The research conducted by Emmons and Diener [14] suggests that individuals

who regard their own actions as ones that do not generate conflicts tend to be

more satisfied with life.

Diener and Fujita [15], in another examination that they carried out in order to

study the interrelations of personal goals, social and internal resources and well-

being/satisfaction with life, found that social and internal resources have a

considerable effect on satisfaction with life. Non-social external resources (e. g.,

material goods, money) do not appear to influence emotional well-being, but they

correlate with satisfaction with life to a medium extent. Furthermore, an

examination of the individual patterns of various resources revealed differences

between men and women. Women find social objectives such as emotional

control and social skills, including the resources required for achieving these

goals, more important than men do. The system of objectives of men, on the other

hand, largely contains performance objectives like authority, achievements in

sports and knowledge acquired through experience. The resources leading to these

goals are primarily performance and instrumental means.

Introduction 5

Kasser and Ryan [16], when examining the connections between values,

objectives and subjective well-being, found that individuals giving priority to

extrinsic goals (their endeavors are focused on financial success and the

acquisition of material goods) demonstrated a generally lower well-being and a

worse psychological situation, regardless of their gender, than those for whom

intrinsic goals (self-acceptance, social relations and social commitments) were

more important.

The research programs conducted by Kasser and Ryan [17], as well as other

researchers, among people of various ages and social backgrounds (lower, middle

and upper classes) in cultures different from that of the U.S., suggest that there is

a reverse proportion between the attribution of great importance to material values

and subjective well-being. The studies mentioned above justify the theories of

humanistic thinkers that for subjective well-being, intrinsic objectives are more

central than extrinsic ones.

1.2.2. Religiousness and Spirituality

The history of research into the psychology religion and spirituality is

relatively brief, as this is a new discipline. Psychologists have only paid really

intensive and serious attention to this new branch of psychology in the past

twenty-five years. Systematic research has only started during that period. Larson

et al. [18] surveyed the issues of four major psychiatric journals from a period of

five years—from 1978 to 1982—and found that only 2.5% of the quantitative

studies included religious and/or spiritual topics.

The first handbook dealing with the psychology of religion and spirituality

was published as late as 2005. The volume, edited by Paloutzian and Parks [19],

with its 30 chapters written by 45 authors, offers a good insight into the most

important conceptual and methodological issues of religion psychology. The

chapter dealing with the neuro-psychology of religious and spiritual experience

deserves special attention. In this chapter, the interrelation between the cognitive

processes and the structures of the brain responsible for the emergence or

appearance of religious and spiritual experience are examined. The chapters that

analyze the development of religion and spirituality through human life—starting

in childhood and lasting to old age—discuss the emergence and development of

the concept of God in a new approach.

An increasing number of research projects have been carried out in the past

ten or fifteen years in order to reveal the effects of religion and spirituality on

people’s physical and mental state [20, 21, 22].


As the connection between spirituality and religiousness and health was

drawn to the focus of interest of researchers in the middle of 1990s, the

“language” of spirituality was also created gradually, it began to develop, and the

changes continue today.

Today there are scales—e.g., the Estimation Scale of Chronicle Illness

Therapy, Spiritual Well-being Scale—that are designed to measure the spiritual

well-being and its changes in individuals suffering from certain chronic illnesses

during the therapic process, using a religious perspective that is not restrictive, so

it is applicable for individuals of different religious backgrounds [23].

Today, the polarization of the two terms is observable: religiousness means

everything that is formal, institutional, doctrinal, authoritarian and external,

whereas spiritual represents things that are subjective, personal, emotional,

internal and not systematic [24].

In Underwood’s [25] interpretation, the adjective “religious” refers to a

person who is in contact with people who think in a similar way, and who share a

religion (belief), belong to a group and practice their religion together.

Spirituality, on the other hand, deals with the transcendental, formulates the

ultimate questions regarding the purpose of life, with the presupposition that life

is more than what we are able to see, hear, perceive or fully comprehend.

Spirituality goes beyond the self and deals with the issues of compassion to other

people. When spirituality appears in a religious context, it may express more than

the internal or personal dimension of religious life; it may also include the

personal connection with God or the personal habits and practices through which

the individual practices compassion. If we extract spirituality from the religious

context, the concept becomes so vague that at the extreme end, it looses its

meaning. While religion helps to maintain a spiritual life, and spirituality is often

an important aspect of the life of religious people, it is possible to use the external

features of religion without a closer link to the transcendental.

Spirituality has a number of definitions; Underwood [25] has collected more

than 200 from various points of the world.

Moberg [26] believes that spirituality is an internal resource of humans; it is

the basic value around which all the other values cluster. It is the central way of

looking at things, let the person be religious, anti-religious or non-religious, this is

what guides the person’s way of life, this is the supernatural, and not the material

dimension of human nature. In this interpretation, every person is spiritual,

including those who do not attend religious institutions and do not practice

religion.

Pargament and Mahonay [27] believe that spirituality is a process, the

purpose of which is seeking, finding and maintaining sacred things in human life.

Introduction 7

This quest takes place in a broader religious context, which can be traditional or

can be lacking traditionality.

Although there has been a relatively high number of research projects dealing

with the connections between religiousness/spirituality and various psycho-social

variables, few researches have been interested in the relationship between

religiousness/spirituality and emotional intelligence, despite the fact that

emotional intelligence is a complexity of skills and abilities that effectively

promotes personal and intellectual advancement [1].

Emotional intelligence appears to influence success in life to a much larger

extent than traditional intelligence does [3, 28], and shows an interrelation with an

increasing number of psycho-social variables, including empathy, emotional

openness, satisfaction with life, interpersonal satisfaction, positive social

interactions, stress management and the regulation of mood [28].

Despite the wide acceptance and far-reaching effect of the concept of

emotional intelligence, relatively little is known about the factors that may play a

role in the development of emotional, personal and social skills and abilities. One

such potential factor is religiousness and spirituality.

According to the research findings of Wiebe and Fleck [29], individuals with

intrinsic religiousness are more sensitive, open to their emotions and have more

empathy than their social counterparts with extrinsic religiousness.

Paek [30] conducted a research among adult Christian believers and found a

positive connection with intrinsic religious orientation and emotional intelligence,

with special attention to the emotional skills and abilities that include the

understanding of our own emotions and discrimination among emotions, and the

ability to feel empathy toward others and adapt the aspects of another individual.

1.3. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Personal aspirations, as dynamic characteristics of the personality, may be in

close correlation with emotional intelligence. In the course of our research, we

examined how emotional intelligence is structured among college students, and

what connections exist between individual aspirations and a subjective assessment

of religiousness and between spirituality and emotional intelligence.

The preliminary hypotheses of our research were the following:

1) There is no considerable difference between the genders in terms of the

complex emotional intelligence [2, 31],


2) In the specific components of emotional intelligence, there are significant

differences between the sexes. Women are better at interpersonal skills

than men, while the latter have a better intrapersonal capacity; they

handle their emotions better and have a better adaptability [2],

3) In the specific subscales of the components of emotional intelligence,

women would score significantly lower on the Independence and

Optimism, and higher on the Social Responsibility scales than men do

[31],

4) Intrinsic personal aspirations, particularly health, personal advancement,

social relations and social responsibility, are in a significantly positive

correlation with the indicators of emotional intelligence [16, 32],

5) Intrinsic personal aspirations, particularly health, personal advancement,

social relations and social responsibility, are in a significantly positive

correlation with the subscales of optimism and happiness [32],

6) Extrinsic personal aspirations, particularly wealth, fame and image, are in

a significantly negative correlation with the indicators of emotional

intelligence, particularly with the subscales of optimism and happiness

[16, 32],

7) Intrinsic personal aspirations would show a significant positive

correlation with self-esteem, emotional self-awareness and the ability of

self-actualization [6],

8) There are different patterns of the connections between individual

aspirations and emotional intelligence in the two genders,

9) Individuals (college students) subjectively considering themselves

religious are more sensitive, more open to their emotions and have a

higher empathy with others than those who regard themselves as less

religious [29],

10) Emotional intelligence is in a positive correlation with religious/spiritual

values. Emotional skills and abilities that include the understanding and

differentiation of our own emotions are in a particularly close connection

with spiritual values. Similarly, empathy and the ability to accept other

people’s aspects are also in a close relationship with spiritual values [30],

11) The connection between spirituality and emotional intelligence show

different patterns in men and women.

Chapter 2

METHOD

2.1. PARTICIPANTS

Data was collected among students at the College of Nyíregyháza. We

collected data randomly at every faculty, and participation was voluntary and it

was done with their consent. There were 700 students who took part in the

research, and 681 of them provided valuable data (465 women and 216 men).

The average age was 19.98 (standard deviation 1.51); the median value was

20 years.

2.1.1. The Aspects of the Test Group Formation

When forming the test groups, we used the scores achieved on the Combined

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Aspirations Indicators scale of the Aspiration Inventory as

a guideline. Students were arranged into the quarters of the sample according to

their scores on the scale (Chart 1).

Students scoring low on the scale were arranged into the first quarter of the

sample, whereas students scoring the highest on the scale were placed in the

fourth quarter.

In the examination of the importance of intrinsic aspirations, 180 students

were in the group representing the lowest scores, and 189 students

belonged to the group with the high scores.


Chart 1. The quartiles of scores on aggregate chart scales of intrinsic and

extrinsic aspirations

Quartiles

First Third

Intrinsic Aspirations:

importance

114 130

Intrinsic Aspirations: probability 94 115

Intrinsic Aspirations: realization 74 100

Extrinsic Aspirations:

importance

52 72

Extrinsic Aspirations: probability 46 66

Extrinsic Aspirations: realization 36 56

In the examination of the probability of intrinsic aspirations, 172 students



In the examination of the realization of intrinsic aspirations, 177 students



In the examination of the importance of extrinsic aspirations, 177

students were in the group representing the lowest scores, and 189

students belonged to the group with the high scores.

In the examination of the probability of extrinsic aspirations, 175 students



In the examination of the realization of extrinsic aspirations, 177 students



For setting up the test groups, the results achieved in the Daily Spiritual

Experience Scales and its subscales were taken into consideration, and the

students were arranged into the groups according to which quarter of the sample

they were in (Chart 2).

Students scoring low on the scale were arranged into the first quarter of the

sample, whereas students scoring the highest on the scale were placed in the

fourth quarter.

Method 11

Chart 2. The results the students achieved on the Daily Spiritual Experience

Scales, arranged into quarters

Quartiles

First Third

Daily Spiritual Experience total 52 78

Connection 4 6

Joy, Transcendent Sense of Self 4 6

Strength and Comfort 4 6

Peace 3 5

Divine Help and Guidance 3 6

Perceptions of Divine Love 3 6

Awe 3 6

Thankfulness, Appreciation 2 5

Compassionate Love 2 6

Union and Closeness 4 6

According to the total results achieved in the Daily Spiritual Experience

Scales, 178 people were delegated to the group scoring lowest, and 179 to the

group of the highest scorers.

In the Connection with the transcendent scale, 210 people were in the lowest

scoring group and 214 in the highest scoring group.

In the Pleasure and Transcendent Sense of Self scale, 244 people were in the

lowest scoring group and 258 in the highest scoring group.

In the Strength and Comfort scale, 249 people were in the lowest scoring

group and 267 in the highest scoring group.

In the Peace scale, 210 people were in the lowest scoring group and 264 in the

highest scoring group.

In the Divine Help and Guidance scale, the number of people in the lowest

scoring group was 212, and there were 258 members in the highest scoring group.

In the Perception of Divine Love, 224 people achieved a low result, and 291

achieved a higher one.

In the Awe scale, 219 individuals were in the group of low scorers and 275 in

that of the high scorers.

In the scale of Thankfulness and Appreciation, 226 people achieved a low

value and 241 achieved higher ones.

In the Compassionate scale the number of people in the group of those who

scored lower was 128, the group of higher scorers consisted of 143 members.


In the Union and Closeness scale, 236 students achieved lower values and

295 achieved higher ones.

In the groups created according to subjective religiousness, 245 individuals

were in the atheist group and 82 in the very religious one.

2.2. MEASURES

2.2.1. Examination of Emotional Intelligence

Bar-on Emotional Quotient Inventory

Bar-On’s Emotional Intelligence Inventory [2] was used for the examination

of emotional intelligence. As the inventory does not yet have a Hungarian version,

only students with a good command of English participated in the survey

According to Bar-On’s model, emotional intelligence does not contain

cognitive skills and abilities, but personal, emotional and social ones. His

inventory, consisting of 121 items, is used to measure these components.

Participants in the examination select and identify on a five-grade Likert-type

scale the statements that they find characteristic of themselves.

Bar-On’s hyerarchic model consists of 15 components of emotional

intelligence. The 15 components are arranged into five factors. The main scales

(compound scales) correspond to the five factors, whereas the subscales

correspond to the 15 components.

The main scales of the inventory are the following:

Intrapersonal scales: assertiveness, emotional self-awareness, self-regard,

independence, and self-actualization

Interpersonal scales: empathy, social responsibilities, interpersonal

relationships

Scales measuring adaptive capabilities: perception of reality, flexibility

and problem-solving

Scales assessing stress management: stress tolerance, impulse-control

General mood scales: optimism, happiness

In the assessment of the inventory, we calculate the values of the main scales

and combined emotional quotient (EQ). This value shows how efficient the

individual is in emotional and social activities and what emotional and social

intelligence the individual possesses. Higher scores in the subscales indicate that

Method 13

the individual is able to offer more efficient answers to the expectations,

challenges and pressures of the environment. Lower scores indicate difficulties in

the individual’s progress in life and may also indicate emotional, social and

behavioral problems [28]:

Individuals achieving higher points in the intrapersonal main scale have

a positive self-evaluation and a generally positive attitude toward what

they do in life; they are in connection with their own emotions, they are

able to comprehend and express their emotions.

Individuals scoring high in the interpersonal main scale have a positive

attitude; they are pleasant, loveable, vivid, sociable, socially sensitive

personalities, who are able to express their emotions.

The persons achieving high grades in the scale measuring adaptation are

flexible, realistic and are able to efficiently find adequate solutions to

problems.

The individuals achieving high points in the stress management scales are

quiet, relaxed, rarely impulsive, and work efficiently even under pressure.

The persons reaching high points in the scales measuring the general

mood are usually cheerful, joyful and trustful; they are full of hope and

have a generally optimistic mood.

The item homogeneity and internal consistency of the inventory was found

good by several examinations: Cronbach-alfa=0.69 to 0.89 [2, 31]. The reliability

of the inventory for a one month period was also found to be good: r=0.85, [28].

2.2.2. Survey of the Individual Aspirations

Aspiration Inventory

The self-determination theory of Deci and Ryan [33, 34] constitutes the

theoretical foundation of the questionnaire, according to which the sound

functioning, growth and inner integration of a personality is primarily driven by

the efforts to satisfy certain innate and universal needs. The authors identify three

of these needs as elementary: the individual’s desire for autonomy, the

individual’s desire for positive relations and an ability for competent, independent

action. These basic needs serve as the major motivational forces of the

personality. It is possible to satisfy these needs through self-motivation (intrinsic

motives) and external motivation (extrinsic motives). The authors revealed the


most characteristic intrinsic and extrinsic motives through empirical research. The

motives were formulated in the form of aspirations, objectives in life.

The Aspiration Inventory [17] is a means of revealing long-term objectives

and aspirations; it contains a total of 35 aspirations, clustered around seven

categories of goals in life, represented by the seven scales of the questionnaire.

Five items belong to each of the seven scales. These are the following:

Wealth

Reputation

Image (good appearance)

Growth (personal advancement)

Social relations (good personal connections)

Society (social commitment)

Health

Respondents are supposed to judge the aspirations listed in the questionnaire

according to three aspects on a seven-grade Likert-scale:

Importance (How important is the objective concerned for you?)

Probability (What is the likelihood of this happening to you in the

future?)

Realization (How much of the objective above have you been able to

achieve?)

The most important extrinsic aspirations are wealth, reputation and image.

The primary intrinsic aspirations are personal advancement, social relations and

social commitment. Kasser and Ryan [17] assert that health does not clearly

belong to any of the aspirations. In compliance with the findings of several

international research programs, V. Komlósi et al. [35], as a result of a survey in

Hungary, listed health with the intrinsic aspirations.

In the course of the Hungarian adaptation of the questionnaire, V. Komlósi et

al. [35] found the reliability of the dimensions excellent (Cronbach-alpha=0.72 to

0.91).

Method 15

2.2.3. Examination of Religiousness

The Background Inventory used in the course of the survey examined the

subjective attitude to religiousness of the respondents by asking the following

question:

How religious do you consider yourself?

The students were requested to mark their subjective religiousness by

choosing an answer from a seven-point Likert-scale, in which Point 1 was “not at

all” and 7 was “entirely.” In this scale, answers 1 and 2 were categorized as

“atheist,” answers 6 and 7 ”highly religious,” while answers 3, 4 and 5 were put in

the ”uncertain” category.

2.2.4. Examination of Spirituality

Daily Spiritual Experience Scale

When setting up the Daily Spiritual Experience Scale, Underwood and Teresi

[36] identified ten dimensions of key importance. These are the following:

Connection

Joy, Transcendent sense of self

Strength and Comfort

Peace

Divine help and guidance

Perceptions of divine love

Awe

Thankfulness, appreciation

Compassionate love

Union and closeness

Respondents were requested to choose their answers from a six-item Likert

scale. The points are the following:

Many times a day

Every day

On the majority of days


Sometimes

Rarely

Never or almost never

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Dr Lynn G. Underwood for

making the Daily Spiritual Experience Scale available to us.

Chapter 3

RESULTS

3.1. DESCRIPTIVE AND COMPARATIVE STATISTICS

3.1.1. Emotional Intelligence

Descriptive and comparative statistics of the results of the Bar-On Emotional

Intelligence Inventory are shown in Chart 3.

No considerable difference was found between the two genders at the

indicators of emotional intelligence.

In the various components of emotional intelligence, any considerable

difference between men and women was only found in EQ and stress management

EQ. Women showed a higher interpersonal EQ than men did. In the various

emotional skills constituting interpersonal EQ, we also identified major

differences between the genders. Women have more empathy, a higher social

responsibility and better abilities to establish and maintain mutually satisfactory

interpersonal relationships than men. Men, on the other hand, scored considerably

higher in stress management than women did. The difference in the emotional

abilities constituting stress management EQ primarily manifested in the higher

stress tolerance of men. In terms of impulse-control, there was no significant

difference between the genders.

In intrapersonal EQ, there was no major difference between the two genders.

An examination of the emotional abilities constituting intrapersonal EQ, however,

revealed that the self-regard of men is considerably higher than that of women. A

smaller, but still significant, difference was observed in emotional independence,

which was higher in men, and in emotional self-awareness, which was higher in

women.


Chart 3. Descriptive and comparative statistics of Bar-On Emotional

Quotient Inventory results

Total

(n=712)

Women

(n=545)

Men

(n=167)

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standar

d

Deviati

on

Emotional

Intelligence total

(EQ)

435.1 50.4 434.1 50.8 438.2 48.9

Intrapersonal

Emotional

Intelligence

127.7 17.9 127.1 17.7 129.5 18.4

Assertiveness 21.3 3.5 21.2 3.5 21.6 3.6

Emotional Self-

Awareness

26.1* 4.7 26.3 4.7 25.1 4.7

Self-Regard 29.9*** 7.3 29.2 7.3 31.8 6.9

Independence 22.9* 4.9 22.7 4.9 23.7 4.8

Self-Actualization 27.7 4.2 27.8 4.1 27.2 4.6

Interpersonal

Emotional

Intelligence

96.7*** 10.9 98.1 10.4 91.2 11.1

Empathy 20.3*** 2.8 20.6 2.7 19.3 3.1

Social

Responsibility

37.1*** 4.4 37.9 4.1 34.6 4.4

Interpersonal

Relationship

39.5*** 5.6 40.1 5.3 37.9 6.3

Adaptability 90.2 11.2 90.3 10.7 90.1 12.7

Reality Testing 34.5* 5.6 34.7 5.5 33.7 5.8

Flexibility 26.2 4.8 26.1 4.9 26.6 4.6

Problem-Solving 30.1 11.7 30.1 13.1 30.1 4.2

Stress

Management

58.1*** 10.7 57.1 10.3 61.9 11.3

Stress Tolerance 28.9*** 5.8 28.2 5.6 31.2 5.8

Impulse Control 29.7 12.9 29.2 14.3 31.1 5.9

General Mood 63.7 10.1 63.4 9.8 64.7 10.6

Optimism 27.8*** 5.5 27.4 5.6 29.1 5.1

Happiness 36.1 5.7 36.2 5.4 35.5 6.5

No difference was found between the sexes in adaptability EQ. An

examination of the emotional abilities constituting adaptability EQ only revealed a

Results 19

small but significant difference in reality control, which was better in women. In

flexibility and problem-solving skills, there was no significant difference.

In general mood EQ, there was no considerable difference between the

genders, either. An examination of the emotional abilities constituting the general

mood EQ, however, revealed that men are a lot more optimistic than women. In

terms of happiness, there was no major difference between the sexes.

We also intended to survey the structure of emotional intelligence in college

students. In order to make the individual components of emotional intelligence

and the subscales comparable, we calculated an average value of the answers

provided for the statements within the scales concerned. The results are shown in

Chart 4.

Chart 4. The average of the values replied to single statement on the Bar-On

Emotional Quotient Inventory

Total

(n=712)

Women

(n=545)

Men

(n=167)

Mean Value Mean Value Mean Value

Emotional Intelligence total (EQ) 3,63 3,62 3,66

Intrapersonal Emotional

Intelligence

3,44 3,43 3,47

Assertiveness 3,00 2,99 3,02

Emotional Self-Awareness 3,73 3,78 3,59

Self-Regard 3,31 3,24 3,53

Independence 3,24 3,22 3,29

Self-Actualisation 3,96 3,98 3,89

Interpersonal Emotional

Intelligence

4,02 4,06 3,89

Empathy 4,06 4,13 3,87

Social Responsibility 4,16 4,22 3,96

Interpersonal Relationship 3,92 3,94 3,85

Adaptability 3,46 3,47 3,43

Reality-Testing 3,46 3,49 3,37

Flexibility 3,24 3,21 3,31

Problem-Solving 3,70 3,68 3,76

Stress Management 3,22 2,98 3,45

Stress Tolerance 3,18 3,10 3,46

Impulse Control 3,35 3,33 3,43

General Mood 3,75 3,71 3,89

Optimism 3,50 3,43 3,71

Happiness 3,98 3,97 4,03

The results in the chart suggest that college students—regardless of their

gender—achieved the highest results on the interpersonal scale out of all the


components of emotional intelligence. Bar-On [28] asserts that individuals

scoring high have a basically positive attitude and are loveable, vivid, sociable

people who are able to express their emotions. Out of interpersonal characteristic

features, social responsibility was the most characteristic of students, followed by

empathy and the ability to establish and maintain mutually satisfactory

interpersonal relations.

Out of the components of emotional intelligence, the second highest values

were scored on the general emotional mood. Bar-On [28] believes that individuals

scoring high on this scale are cheerful, hopeful and basically optimistic.

The following elements in the structure of emotional intelligence were

intrapersonal abilities and adaptability, the order of which was gender dependant.

While women scored higher in adaptability, men did the same in the intrapersonal

scale. Bar-On [28] argues that individuals scoring high on the intrapersonal scale

have a positive self-regard, and they also tend to look positively upon everything

they do in life; they are in connection with their own emotions; they are able to

understand and express their feelings. Out of the intrapersonal abilities, students

selected self-actualization and self-awareness as features characteristic of

themselves. They did not find assertiveness, independence and self-esteem

particularly characteristic of themselves. In Bar-On’s [28] conviction, individuals

who achieve high results on the intrapersonal scale are flexible, realistic and

efficient in understanding problem situations and coming up with adequate

solutions. Out of the skills forming adaptability, students mentioned problem-

solving as one of their characteristics, while they did not believe that they were

particularly flexible or able to perceive reality very sharply. The characteristics

measured by these two scales were also found to be independent of gender.

Among students, the weakest link in emotional intelligence was stress

management. In Bar-On’s opinion [28], persons achieving high degrees on the

stress management scale are quiet, calm, rarely impulsive and work hard, even

under pressure. Our research indicated that all these were not very characteristic

of our students. Women found stress tolerance even less characteristic of

themselves than men did.

3.1.2. Individual Aspirations

The descriptive and comparative statistics of Aspiration Inventory are

summarized in Chart 5.

Results 21

Chart 5. The descriptive and comparative statistics of Aspiration Inventory

Total

(n=712)

Women

(n=545)

Men

(n=167)

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean Value Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Wealth: importance 22.8 5.6 23.6 5.7 24.1 5.4

Wealth: probability 19.9 5.1 19.8 5 20.3 5.5

Wealth: realization 15.1 5.5 15 5.4 15.2 5.9

Reputation:

importance

17** 7.3 16.6 7.2 18.4 7.4

Reputation:

probability

14.9*** 5.9 14.5 5.7 16.4 6.3

Reputation:

realization

11.5*** 5 11.1 4.7 12.9 5.7

Image: importance 23*** 6.7 23.8 6.6 20.6 6.7

Image: probability 21.1*** 5.9 21.7 5.8 19.3 6.1

Image: realization 19.4* 6.3 19.7 6.2 18.3 6.5

Personal

advancement:

importance

32.3 13.2 32.1 8.4 32.6 22.8

Personal

advancement:

probability

26.8* 4.7 27.1 4.5 26 5

Personal

advancement:

realization

21.8 5.5 22 5.5 21.1 5.6

Personal

relationships:

importance

32*** 3.2 32.3 2.8 30.1 4.4

Personal

relationships:

probability

28.5*** 4.7 29 4.2 26.8 5.8

Personal

relationships:

realization

24.5*** 9.4 25.7 9.4 22.6 7.2

Social

commitment:

importance

25.6* 5.8 25.9 5.6 24.5 6.4

Social

commitment:

probability

22.3** 5.7 22.7 5.6 21 5.9

Social

commitment:

realization

16.7 6.1 17 6 16.1 6.1

Health: importance 32.3*** 3.4 32.7 2.9 31 4.5

Health: probability 26.1*** 5.5 26.6 5.3 24.5 6.1

Health: realization 23.5* 6.5 23.8 6.4 22.4 6.8


Chart 5. (Continued)

Total

(n=712)

Women

(n=545)

Men

(n=167)

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean Value Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Intrinsic:

importance

121.5*** 11.7 122.8 10.3 117.3 14.8

Intrinsic:

probability

103.7*** 16.1 105.2 14.9 98.8 18.6

Intrinsic:

realization

86.9** 19.7 88.1 19.2 82.9 20.1

Extrinsic:

importance

64.7 17.1 64.6 17.2 65.1 16.9

Extrinsic:

probability

56.6 14.2 56.6 14 56.4 14.8

Extrinsic:

realization

46.2 14.2 46.1 13.8 46.7 15.5

In the whole sample, when the importance of the various aspirations was

examined, the highest values were measured in health, personal advancement and

social relations. Most respondents found these aspirations extremely important,

which is also indicated by the fact the dispersion was the smallest in health and

social relations (the large standard deviation found in personal growth, on the

other hand, indicates the large personal differences at this point). The least

important goals in life for the respondents were the three extrinsic aspirations:

reputation, wealth and image. Intrinsic aspirations are, therefore, favored by

college students over the extrinsic ones. These findings largely coincide with the

results obtained by V. Komlósi et al. [35] as a result of their examination

conducted on a representative sample (with the exception of the value of standard

deviation found in personal growth, which was larger in their sample). Szondy

[37] also found intrinsic aspirations more characteristic in his sample of late

adolescent age (average age: 17.38 years). The order of importance of the

aspirations was the following: social relations, health and personal growth,

followed by social responsibility. The adolescents also listed extrinsic aspirations

with the least important ones, in the order of wealth, image and, finally,

reputation.

If we examine the order of importance, we find the intrinsic aspirations on the

top of the lists in both genders, with smaller shifts in emphasis. While the order of

importance for women is health, social relations and personal advancement, men

place personal advancement in the first position, followed by health and social

relations. Social commitment is the fourth in the list of both genders. On the list of

Results 23

women, it is followed by image and wealth, with approximately the same values,

whereas wealth precedes image on the list of men. Reputation is the last on the

lists of both sexes. Our findings in connection with the extrinsic aspirations match

those of V. Komlósi et al. [35] obtained from their survey of a representative

sample. They found health as the most important intrinsic aspiration in both

genders, followed by social relations on the list of women and personal growth on

the list of men. The comparative statistical analysis (two-paired t-test) suggests

that women scored considerably higher in the combined index of intrinsic

aspirations, health, social relations, image and social commitment. Men, on the

other hand, gave higher points to reputation. Szondy [37] also observed this

difference between the two sexes, except the higher value of reputation on the list

of men. No considerable difference was observed between the two genders in the

combined index of extrinsic aspirations, personal growth and wealth. These

findings only partially match the results obtained by V. Komlósi et al. [35] from

their representative sample. In their findings, men scored significantly higher in

their aspirations for wealth, whereas women scored considerably higher in image,

personal advancement, social relations, social commitment and health than men

did.

In an examination of the entire sample from the aspect of the probability of

the various aspirations, the highest values were also measured in the intrinsic

aspirations, in the order of social relations, personal advancement and health.

They are followed by the extrinsic aspirations, in the order of the image, wealth

and reputation. Szondy [37] found the same order in late adolescent age. In an

examination of the order or probability according to the two genders, we find the

same tendency in women. In men, there is only one deviation, as they place

wealth before image. In the probability of various aspirations, we found similar

differences to those observed in the degree of importance. The only exception was

that women gave considerably greater emphasis to personal advancement.

When analyzing the realization of the aspirations in the whole sample, the

highest values are observed in the intrinsic aspirations. The order is the following:

social relations, health and personal growth. The fourth one here was an extrinsic

aspiration, image, followed by social commitment, wealth and reputation. This

was the order in both genders. In connection with realization, Szondy [37] found a

similar pattern among adolescents, with slight changes of emphasis: health, social

relations, personal advancement, image, social responsibility, wealth and

reputation. In the probability of various aspirations, we found similar differences

to those observed in the degree of importance. The only exception to that was that

no significant difference between the two genders was observable in terms of the

realization of social commitment.


Unfortunately, we did not have an opportunity to compare the probability and

realization of the various aspirations with the representative sample, as V.

Komlósi et al. [35] did not provide relevant data in their study.

3.1.3. Religiousness

The average values of subjective assessment of religiousness are summed up

in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The averages of subjective appreciation of religiousness.

We found a considerable difference between the two genders in terms of a

subjective assessment of religiousness. Women found themselves a lot more

religious than men did (t=2,415; p<0.016).

3.1.4. Spirituality

The descriptive and comparative statistics of the results achieved on the Daily

Spiritual Experience Scale are shown in Chart 6 (when evaluating the results

2.9

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Total Women Men

3.43

3.51

3.15

Results 25

scored on the Daily Spiritual Experience Scale and its subscales, it is to be noted

that there is a reverse order of values, and higher values indicate the lack of

susceptibility to spirituality, whereas the lower values indicate a higher

susceptibility).

Chart 6. Descriptive and comparative statistics of the Daily Spiritual

Experiences Scale results

A kérdőív itemei Total

(n=712)

Women

(n=545)

Men

(n=167)

Mean Value Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

1. I feel God’s presence. 4.15 1.51 4.09 1.51 4.35 1.51

2. I experience a connection

to all of life.

4.31 1.39 4.33 1.39 4.24 1.38

3. During worship, or at

other times when

connecting with God, I feel

joy which lifts me out of

my daily concerns.

4.59* 1.44 4.52 1.43 4.83 1.46

4. I find strength in my

religion or spirituality.

4.55 1.49 4.51 1.48 4.67 1.51

5. I find comfort in my

religion or spirituality.

4.61 1.47 4.56 1.46 4.77 1.48

6. I feel deep inner peace

and harmony.

4.18 1.34 4.19 1.33 4.14 1.41

7. I ask for God’s help in

the midst of daily activities.

4.07*** 1.65 3.95 1.64 4.46 1.61

8. I feel guided by God in

the midst of daily activities.

4.35** 1.64 4.26 1.65 4.63 1.57

9. I feel God’s love for me,

directly.

4.41* 1.62 4.32 1.64 4.68 1.53

10. I feel God’s love for

me, through others.

4.74 1.40 4.73 1.40 4.76 1.39

11. I am spiritually touched

by the beauty of creation.

4.73 1.38 4.73 1.37 4.72 1.43

12. I feel thankful for my

blessings.

3.70** 1.65 3.61 1.61 4.00 1.72

13. I feel a selfness caring

for others.

3.39* 1.14 3.33 1.13 3.57 1.18

14. I accept others even

when they do things I think

are wrong.

3.45 1.17 3.43 1.16 3.51 1.19

15. I desire to be closer to

God or in union with the

divine.

4.79 1.42 4.77 1.41 4.85 1.47

16. Daily Spiritual

Experiences Total (1-15

items)

63.95* 16.68 63.27 16.59 66.17 16.81

The results of our research indicate that the most important feature of

spirituality among students is compassionate love, followed by thankfulness and


appreciation. David et al. [38] believe that the most powerful dimensions of

spirituality in the American general public are joy and a transcendent sense of self

(M=3.6. SD=1.63), then came the perceptions of divine love experienced through

other people (M=3.76, SD=1.59). Among college students, union and closeness

and the perceptions of divine love experienced through other people appeared to

be the weakest dimensions of spirituality. In the findings of David et al. [38], the

weakest dimension of spirituality in the American general public were

thankfulness and appreciation (M=4.88, SD=1.11).

Differences between the two genders in terms of spirituality were also

examined. Women were found to be considerably more spiritual than men. The

greatest differences between the two sexes were found in divine help and

guidance, and in thankfulness and appreciation. Somewhat smaller, but still

significant, was the difference in the joy and transcendent sense of self, the

perception of divine love and compassionate love. These were all found to be

more characteristic of women.

3.2. DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

ACCORDING TO LEVELS OF INDIVIDUAL ASPIRATIONS

In the course of research, the differences in terms of emotional intelligence

between the first quarter (high on the Compound Intrinsic and Extrinsic Scales of

the Aspiration Inventory) and the fourth quarter (people scoring low on the

Compound Scales) were also surveyed.

Figure 2 contains the averages of the significant differences in emotional

intelligence (EQ) and its components as observed in the groups formed according

to the results scored on the combined importance scales of Intrinsic Aspirations of

the Aspirations Inventory.

The level of emotional intelligence of students who attributed great

significance to intrinsic aspirations was considerably higher than that of those

who did not find intrinsic aspirations that important (t=4,570; p<0.000).

An examination of the components of emotional intelligence revealed that

students who attributed great significance to intrinsic aspirations achieved

considerably higher values in the intrapersonal EQ (t=3,237; p<0.001),

interpersonal EQ (t=10,324; p<0.000), adaptability EQ (t=4,393; p<0.000) and

general mood EQ (t=3,289; p<0.000) scales than those who did not find intrinsic

aspirations that important. No significant difference between the two groups was

found in terms of stress management EQ.

Results 27

Figure 2. Emotional Intelligence and the averages of some of its significant differences

among the examined groups formed on the basis of the results of the aggregated

importance range of Intrinsic Aspirations on the Aspirations Inventory.

Figure 3 contains the average values of the scales showing significant

differences in emotional intelligence (EQ) and in its elements in the test groups

General Mood

Stress Management

Adaptability

Interpersonal Emotional Intelligence

Intrapersonal Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence total (EQ)

65.3

57.1

93

101.7

131.1

446.1

61.8

56.9

87.6

60.9

125.2

421.4

First quarter Fourth quarter


formed according to the results the students scored on the probability scale of the

Intrinsic Aspirations Combined Indicator of Aspiration Inventory.

Figure 3. Emotional Intelligence and the averages of some of its significant differences

among the examined groups formed on the basis of the results of the aggregated

probability index range of Intrinsic Aspirations on the Aspirations Inventory.

The emotional intelligence of students who found intrinsic aspirations more

likely was considerably higher than that of those who did not regard it likely

(t=10,790; p<0.000).

0 100 200 300 400 500

General Mood

Stress Management

Adaptability




68.7

61

94.9

102.6

137

461.1

57.6

55.6

84.8

90.4

118

407


Results 29

When examining the individual components of emotional intelligence, we

found that students finding intrinsic aspirations more probable scored significantly

higher in intrapersonal EQ (t=10,914; p<0.000), interpersonal EQ (t=10,494;

p<0.000), adaptability EQ (t=8,314; p<0.000), stress management EQ (t=4,587;

p<0.000) and general mood EQ (t=10,633; p<0.000) than those who did not find

the future realization of their intrinsic aspirations very likely.



formed according to the results the students scored on the realization scale of the

Intrinsic Aspirations Combined Indicator of Aspiration Inventory.

The emotional intelligence of students who found intrinsic aspirations

realized to a higher degree was considerably higher than that of those who

regarded it realized to a lesser extent (t=9,209; p<0.000).


found that students finding intrinsic aspirations realized to a higher degree scored

significantly higher in intrapersonal EQ (t=10,643; p<0.000), interpersonal EQ

(t=7,359; p<0.000), adaptability EQ (t=6,877; p<0.000), stress management EQ

(t=3,632; p<0.000) and general mood EQ (t=9,452; p<0.000) than those who

found their intrinsic aspirations realized in the present to a lesser degree.

No significant difference in emotional intelligence (EQ) was found between

the test groups formed according to the scores achieved on the importance scale of

the Combined Indicator of Extrinsic Aspirations of the Aspirations Inventory. As

for the individual components of emotional intelligence, any significant difference

between the two groups was only observed in the general mood EQ. Students who

ascribed more significance to extrinsic aspirations achieved considerably higher

results on the general mood EQ scale (t=2.051; p<0.047) than those who did not

attribute much importance to these aspirations.



formed according to the results the students scored on the probability scale of the

Extrinsic Aspirations Combined Indicator of Aspirations Inventory.

The emotional intelligence of students who found extrinsic aspirations more

probable was considerably higher than that of those who regarded it as less

important (t=5,442; p<0.000).


found that students finding extrinsic aspirations more likely scored considerably

higher in intrapersonal EQ (t=7,767; p<0.000), interpersonal EQ (t=2,713;

p<0.007), adaptability EQ (t=3,419; p<0.001), stress management EQ (t=2,312;


p<0.021) and general mood EQ (t=7,740; p<0.000) than those who found their

extrinsic aspirations less probable.

Figure 4. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) and the averages of some of its significant

differences among the examined groups formed on the basis of the results of the

aggregated realization index range of Intrinsic Aspirations on the Aspirations Inventory.

0 100 200 300 400 500

General Mood

Stress Management

Adaptability




68.3

60

94.7

101.1

137.3

459.3

58.3

55.6

86.1

92.4

118.5

408.5


Results 31



aggregated probability index range of Extrinsic Aspirations on the Aspirations Inventory.



formed according to the results the students scored on the realization scale of the

Extrinsic Aspirations Combined Indicator of Aspirations Inventory.

0 100 200 300 400 500

General Mood

Stress Management

Adaptability




67.6

59.5

92

97.9

135

448.8

59.6

56.7

87.5

94.6

120.7

417.3





aggregated realization index range of Extrinsic Aspirations on the Aspirations Inventory.

The emotional intelligence of students who found extrinsic aspirations

realized to a larger extent was considerably higher than that of those who regarded

it as realized to a lesser extent (t=5,366; p<0.000).


found that students finding extrinsic aspirations realized to a larger extent scored

considerably higher in intrapersonal EQ (t=6,736; p<0.000), interpersonal EQ

0 100 200 300 400 500

General Mood

Stress Management

Adaptability




68.1

59.6

91.8

98.4

134.7

450.5

59.9

56.3

89

94.8

121.7

419.4


Results 33

(t=3,043; p<0.003), adaptability EQ (t=2,376; p<0,.18), stress management EQ

(t=2,756; p<0.006) and general mood EQ (t=7,680; p<0.000) than those who

found their extrinsic aspirations realized in the present to a lesser extent.

3.3. CORRELATION BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

AND INDIVIDUAL ASPIRATIONS

Chart 7 shows the intensity of the connection between individual aspirations

and emotional intelligence.

Chart 7. Correlations between the importance of individual aspirations and

Emotional Intelligence

1 2 3 4 5 6

Wealth -0.009 -0.009 -0.080* -0.048 -0.108** -0.014

Reputation 0.042 0.090* 0.001 -0.041 -0.025 0.082*

Image 0.050 0.060 0.070 -0.014 -0.102** 0.094*

Personal advancement 0.069 0.089* 0.077* 0.035 -0.012 0.034

Personal relationships 0.152** 0.061 0.340** 0.154** -0.025 0.132**

Social commitment 0.094* 0.034 0.318** 0.060 -0.008 0.071

Health 0.206** 0.146** 0.240** 0.185** -0.013 0.163**

Intrinsic total 0.220** 0.142** 0.407** 0.196** -0.005 0.175**

Extrinsic total 0.056 0.073 0.026 -0.023 -0.077* 0.087*

1= Emotional Intelligence total (EQ), 2= Intrapersonal EQ, 3= Interpersonal EQ, 4=

Adaptability EQ, 5= Stress Management EQ, 6= General Mood EQ, *=p<0.05,

**p<0.01.

Emotional intelligence was found to be in the closest correlation with intrinsic

aspirations and, within that, the importance of health and personal relations.

Extrinsic aspirations did not show any particularly close connection with

emotional intelligence.


found that the importance of personal aspirations were in the closest correlation

with interpersonal EQ and, within that, intrinsic aspirations (social commitment,

personal relations and health). There was a close connection between adaptability

EQ and the importance of intrinsic aspirations and, within those, health and social

commitment. Similarly, close connections were revealed between general mood

and intrapersonal EQ and intrinsic aspirations (health and social commitments).

Stress management EQ was generally not in a close connection with the


importance of individual aspirations; there was only a negative correlation with

the importance of wealth and image.

Chart 8 shows the intensity of the connection between the probability of

individual aspirations and emotional intelligence.

Chart 8. Correlations between the probability of individual aspirations and

Emotional Intelligence

1 2 3 4 5 6

Wealth 0.269** 0.304** 0.107** 0.143** 0.088* 0.307

Reputation 0.192** 0.250** 0.077* 0.090* 0.124** 0.245**

Image 0.264** 0.281** 0.194** 0.121** 0.057 0.317**

Personal

advancement

0.495** 0.528** 0.387** 0.394** 0.255** 0.501**

Personal

relationships

0.404** 0.336** 0.450** 0.309** 0.162** 0.443**

Social

commitment

0.215** 0.176** 0.403** 0.178** 0.089* 0.213**

Health 0.361** 0.336** 0.247** 0.298** 0.207** 0.386**

Intrinsic total 0.460** 0.429** 0.460** 0.377** 0.228** 0.473**

Extrinsic

total

0.264** 0.308** 0.139** 0.127** 0.082* 0.326**


Adaptability EQ, 5= Stress Management EQ, 6= General Mood EQ, *=p<0.05, **p<0.01 .

The probability of the specific aspirations was found to be in a very close

correlation with emotional intelligence and its individual components. Within the

individual components, emotional intelligence was in a close connection with the

likelihood of both intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations. As for the components of

intrinsic aspirations, emotional intelligence was in the closest connection with the

likelihood of personal advancement, followed by the probability of personal

connections and health. Among the components of emotional intelligence, the

same order was found in the case of general mood EQ, intrapersonal EQ,

adaptability EQ and stress management EQ. In interpersonal EQ, the order was

the following: the probability of personal relations, social responsibility and

health. Out of the components of extrinsic aspirations, the probability of wealth

and image was in the closest correlation with emotional intelligence. The same

tendency was observable when the probability of extrinsic aspirations was

compared with the specific components of emotional intelligence. Intrapersonal

Results 35

EQ was in the closest and stress management EQ in the weakest correlation with

the probability of extrinsic aspirations.

Chart 9 shows the intensity of the connection between the realization of

individual aspirations and emotional intelligence.

Chart 9. Correlations between the realization of individual

aspirations and Emotional Intelligence

1 2 3 4 5 6

Wealth 0.194** 0.221** 0.094* 0.077* 0.091* 0.268**

Reputation 0.181** 0.245** 0.094* 0.081* 0.119** 0.245**

Image 0.273** 0.303** 0.183** 0.138** 0.063 0.334**

Personal

advancement

0.450** 0.479** 0.305** 0.344** 0.271** 0.454**

Personal

relationships

0.221** 0.193** 0.221** 0.165** 0.071 0.260**

Social

commitment

0.212** 0.187** 0.299** 0.133** 0.080* 0.220**

Health 0.309** 0.288** 0.160** 0.270** 0.206** 0.336**

Intrinsic total 0.400** 0.391** 0.326** 0.295** 0.202** 0.415**

Extrinsic total 0.250** 0.295** 0.148** 0.108** 0.096* 0.330**


Adaptability EQ, 5= Stress Management EQ, 6= General Mood EQ, *=p<0.05,

**p<0.01.

The realization of the specific aspirations was in close correlation with

emotional intelligence as a whole and with its components as well. Emotional

intelligence was also in a close relationship with the realization of both intrinsic

and extrinsic aspirations. Among intrinsic aspirations, the realization of personal

advancement and health, and among extrinsic aspirations, the realization of

image, were in the closest correlation with emotional intelligence. As far as the

specific components of emotional intelligence are concerned, general mood and

intrapersonal EQ were in the closest connection with the realization of the various

intrinsic aspirations. The same tendency was observable in the case of the

extrinsic aspirations.

In the following part of the research, we carried out a linear regression

analysis (stepwise method) for the whole sample and separately for the two

genders, for emotional intelligence in general and for its specific components. The

scales measuring emotional intelligence served as dependent variables, whereas


the importance, probability and realization of the specific individual aspirations

were used as predictors.

Chart 10 contains a summary of the results of the regression analysis of

emotional intelligence of the entire sample.

Chart 10. Regression of Emotional Intelligence to the Aspirations Inventory

ranges (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor Β t p<

Total: Ftotál=88,248; df=3/712; p<0.000

Personal advancement:

probability

0.275 5,469 0.000


realization

0.189 4,148 0.000

Personal relationships:

probability

0.143 3,428 0.001

Women: Ftotál=51,150; df=3/545; p<0.000


probability

0.252 4,340 0.000


realization

0.221 4,235 0.000


probability

0.101 2,131 0.034

Health: importance 0.082 2,102 0.036

Men: Ftotál=29,035; df=2/167; p<0.000

Intrinsic: probability 0.892 5,904 0.000


probability

-0.372 -3,371 0.001

Health: probability -0.278 -2,073 0.040

In the entire sample, emotional intelligence was in a significant positive

relationship with the probability and realization of personal advancement and the

probability of meaningful human relationships, all together explaining 27.6% of

the variance. A higher degree of emotional intelligence is more characteristic of

an individual when the likelihood of his personal advancement is higher, and he

has a higher chance of establishing meaningful human relationships in the future.

In a breakdown according to the two genders, personal aspirations explain a

higher proportion of the variance of emotional intelligence (34.3%). A positive

significant connection was observed with the probability of intrinsic aspirations,

Results 37

and a negative with the probability of meaningful human relations and health. In

the case of women, 27.7% of the variance of emotional intelligence was explained

by personal aspirations. The aspirations were in a positive significant connection

with the probability and realization of personal advancement as well as with the

probability of meaningful human relationships.

Chart 11 contains the results of the regression analysis of intrapersonal EQ.

Chart 11. Regression of Intrapersonal EQ to the Aspirations Inventory


Predictor β T p<

Total: Ftotál=79,248; df=4/712; p<0.000


probability

0.407 8,991 0.000


realization

0.173 3,605 0.000


probability

-0.101 -3,010 0.003

Image: realization 0.086 2,308 0.021

Women: Ftotál=123,285; df=2/545; p<0,000


probability

0.408 8,134 0.000


realization

0.218 4,351 0.000

Men: Ftotál=35,684; df=2/167; p<0.000


probability

0.431 6,002 0.000


realization

0.221 3,084 0.002

Intrapersonal EQ is the ability of the individual to recognize, understand and

express his/her feelings and emotions. In the entire sample, intrapersonal EQ was

in a positive significant connection with the probability and realization of personal

advancement, the importance of sensible human relations and the realization of

image, all together explaining 31.4% of the variance of intrapersonal EQ.

In the two genders, individual aspirations explain approximately the same

proportions of the variance of intrapersonal EQ 31.9% in women and 30.1% in

men. In the women, intrapersonal EQ was in a positive significant connection

with the probability and realization of personal advancement, and in men, with the


probability of personal advancement and the realization of meaningful human

relationships.

We also examined the connections between the abilities constituting

intrapersonal EQ (assertiveness, emotional self-awareness, self-regard, emotional

independence and self-actualization) and the specific individual aspirations in the

whole sample and in the two genders separately.

Assertiveness within intrapersonal EQ is the ability of the individual to

recognize and express emotions. In the entire sample, assertiveness was in a

positive significant relationship with the probability of personal advancement

(t=7,674; p<0.000) and the realization of fame (t=3,659; p<0.000), and in a

negative significant connection with the importance of social connections (t=-

4156; p<0.000), explaining 11.8% of the variance of assertiveness.

In the two genders separately, personal aspirations explained approximately

the same proportion of the variance of assertiveness in both genders: 12.6% in the

women and 11.6% in the men. There was a significant difference between the

sexes, however, in the personal aspirations explaining assertiveness. While in the

case of the women, the tendency reinforced what had been experienced in the

entire sample, in the case of the men, assertiveness was found to be in a close

positive relationship with the probability of wealth (t=3,543; p<0.000) and the

realization of health (t=2,600; p<0.000), and in a negative relationship with the

realization of wealth (t=-2,195; p<0.030).

Within intrapersonal EQ, self-awareness is the ability of the individual to

express his/her emotions, beliefs and thoughts and to use them in a non-

destructive way. In the entire sample, emotional self-awareness was in a close

positive relationship with the realization (t=3,754; p<0.000) and probability

(t=2,889; p<0.003), of personal advancement, and with the probability of personal

relationships (t=2,192; p<0.029), all together explaining 14.4% of the variance of

self-awareness.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a higher degree of variance

of the emotional self-awareness in the case of the men (18.7%) than in the case of

the women (13%). While in the case of the women, emotional self-awareness was

in a close, positive relationship with the probability (t=3,734; p<0.000) and

realization (t=3,270; p<0.001) of personal advancement, in the case of the men, it

was in a similarly close and positive correlation with realization of personal

advancement (t=2,852; p<0.005) and the probability of social relations (t=3,322;

p<0.000).

Within intrapersonal EQ, self-regard is the ability of the individual to

understand, accept and respect himself. In the entire sample, self-regard was

found to be in a close positive correlation with the probability (t=6,091; p<0.000)

Results 39

and realization (t=2,805; p<0.005) of personal advancement, and the realization of

image (t=5,684; p<0.000), in a negative correlation with the importance of image

(t=-4,461; p<0.000) and the probability of social relationships (t=-4,031;

p<0.000). These personal aspirations explain 24.7% of the variance of self-regard.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a higher degree of the

variance of self-regard (29.7%) in men than in the case of the women (25.9%).

While in the case of the women, we found the general tendency reinforced (with

the exception of the social relations), in the case of the men, self-regard was in a

close positive correlation with the realization of the intrinsic aspirations (t=3,827;

p<0.000), the probability of image (t=3,642; p<0.000) and the importance of

health (t=2,598; p<0.011), and in a negative correlation with the importance of

extrinsic aspirations (t=-2,560; p<0.010) and image (t=-2,189; p<0.030).

Within intrapersonal EQ, emotional independence is the ability of self-control

and self-guidance in the thinking and actions of the individual. It is also the ability

of the person to remain emotionally independent of others. In the entire sample,

emotional independence was in a close positive connection with the probability of

personal advancement (t=8,034; p<0.000) and the realization of reputation

(t=3,731; p<0.000), explaining 12.6% of the variance of independence.

In the two genders, personal aspirations were responsible for approximately

the same proportion of the variance of emotional independence in both sexes:

14% in the women and 13% in the men. In both sexes, independence was in a

close positive correlation with the probability of personal advancement. In the

case of the women, the pattern of personal aspirations was the same as observed

in the entire sample.

Within intrapersonal EQ, self-actualization is the ability of the individual to

realize his/her gifts and skills. In the entire sample, self-actualization was found to

be in a close positive correlation with the probability (t=8,439; p<0.000) and

realization (t=3,667; p<0.000) of personal advancement; these personal

aspirations explaining 26.5% of the variance of self-actualization.

In the two sexes, personal aspirations explained a higher proportion of the

variance of self-actualization in the men (30.1%), than in the case of women

(26.4%). Whereas in the women, self-actualization was in a close, positive

correlation with the probability (t=6,869; p<0.000) and realization (t=3,654;

p<0.000) of personal advancement, in the case of men, such a connection was

observed with the probability of personal advancement (t=5,974; p<0.000), but

not with its realization. Instead, there was a similarly close and positive

relationship with the probability of wealth (t=2,541; p<0.012).

The results of the regression analysis for the interpersonal EQ are shown in

Chart 12.


Chart 12. Regression of Interpersonal EQ to the Aspirations Inventory


Predictor β T p<

Total: Ftotál=66,441; df=4/712; p<0.000



Wealth: probability -0.130 -3,443 0.001

Health: importance 0.119 3,279 0.001

Women: Ftotál=49,493; df=3/545; p<0.000




Men: Ftotál=29,459; df=3/167; p<0,000



importance

0.160 2,145 0.034


Interpersonal EQ is the ability of the individual to understand the emotions of

others and to establish contacts with others. In the entire sample, interpersonal EQ

was in a positive significant connection with the probability of intrinsic

aspirations, and in a negative connection with the probability of health and wealth.

These personal aspirations together explained 27.6% of the variance of

interpersonal EQ.

In the two genders, personal aspirations were responsible for a higher

proportion of the variance of interpersonal EQ (34.7%) in the case of the men than

in the case of women (21.8%). While in the women the tendency coincided with

that of the entire sample, in the case of the men, interpersonal EQ, closely

associated with the probability of intrinsic aspirations, was also in a close positive

correlation with the probability of a partnerial relationship.

Results 41

We also examined the connections of the abilities constituting interpersonal

EQ (empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relations) with the individual

aspirations in the entire sample as well as in the two genders separately.

Within interpersonal EQ, empathy is the ability of the individual to

understand and respect the emotions of others. In the entire sample, empathy was

in a close positive correlation with the probability of social relations (t=7,573;

p<0.000) and social responsibility (t=5,536; p<0.000), and in a negative

correlation with the probability of health (t=-3,194; p<0.001). These individual

aspirations explained 16% of the variance of empathy.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a slightly higher proportion

of the variance of empathy in the case of the men (16.4%) than in women

(13.5%). In the positive correlations, there was no difference between the two

genders from the pattern of the entire sample. In the negative correlations,

however, the tendency characteristic of the whole sample was not observable in

the two genders. A negative correlation was only detected between empathy and

the probability of wealth in the case of the women (t=--3,456; p<0.001).

Within interpersonal EQ, social responsibility is the ability of the individual

to cooperate in the joint efforts of a specific social group. In the entire sample,

social responsibility was found to be in a close positive correlation with the

importance of intrinsic aspirations (t=8,104; p<0.000), the probability of social

commitment (t=5,491; p<0.000), and in a negative relationship with the

importance of wealth (t=-4,970; p<0.000) and the probability of fame (t=-4,276;

p<0.000). These personal aspirations explained 29.1% of the variance of social

responsibility.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a higher degree of the

variance of social responsibility in the men (29.7%) than in the case of the women

(23.9%). In the women, social responsibility was in a close positive correlation

with the importance of intrinsic aspirations (t=5,524; p<0.000), the probability of

social commitment (t=5,016; p<0.000), and in a negative relationship with the

importance of extrinsic aspirations (t=-7,136; p<0.000). In the men, social

responsibility was also in a close, positive correlation with the importance of

intrinsic aspirations (t=4,432; p<0.000), and with its probability (t=3,214;

p<0.034), and in an also negative correlation with the importance of extrinsic

aspirations (t=-2,560; p<0.041).

Within interpersonal EQ, interpersonal relationship is the ability of the

individual to establish and maintain mutually satisfactory interpersonal

relationships. These relationships are characterized by an emotional closeness and

a sound balance of offering and receiving emotions. In the entire sample,

interpersonal relationships were found to be in a close positive correlation with


the probability of social connections (t=8,252; p<0.000), the realization of

personal advancement (t=4,443; p<0.000), and the importance of intrinsic

aspirations (t=3,150; p<0.002), all these being responsible for 25.8% of the

variance of interpersonal relationships.

A slightly higher degree of the variance of interpersonal relationships of the

men (28.8%) was explained by personal aspirations than that of women (25%). In

both sexes, there was a close positive correlation between interpersonal

relationships and the probability of social relations and, in the case of the women,

with the realization of personal advancement (t=4,214; p<0.000). In the case of

the men, a similar correlation with the probability of personal advancement

(t=4,686; p<0.000) was observed. Furthermore, in the case of the women, there

was a close but negative relationship with the realization of health (t=-3,115;

p<0.002).

Chart 13 contains the results of the regression analysis of the adaptability EQ.

Chart 13. Regression of the Adaptation EQ to the Aspirations Inventory


Predictor β T p<

Total: Ftotál=40,406; df=4/712; p<0.000

Personal advancement: realization 0.300 6,158 0.000

Personal advancement: probability 0.217 3,874 0.000


Reputation: importance -0.087 -2,442 0.015

Women: Ftotál=44,764; df=3/545; p<0.000


Personal advancement: probability 0.179 3,268 0.000

Image: importance -0.110 -2,746 0.000

Men: Ftotál=12,328; df=4/167; p<0.000

Wealth: realization -0.451 -4,559 0.000


Wealth: probability 0.250 2,651 0.009

Personal relationships: probability 0.220 2,503 0.013

Within emotional intelligence, adaptability EQ is the collection of abilities of

the individual to manage and handle changes, to shape, transform and solve

interpersonal problems. In the entire sample, adaptability EQ was in a close,

positive connection with the realization and probability of personal advancement,

and in a negative connection with the realization of wealth and the importance of

Results 43

reputation. These personal ambitions explained 18.7% of the variance of

adaptability.

Personal aspirations explained approximately the same degree of the variance

of adaptability in both genders: 20.1% in the women and 22% in the men. In the

case of the women, adaptability EQ—similar to the overall tendency—was in a

close positive relationship with the probability and realization of personal

advancement. In the case of the men, a similar connection between adaptability

and the realization of personal advancement, the probability of wealth and the

probability of social relationships was detected. Adaptability EQ was in a close,

negative relationship with the importance of image in the women, and with the

realization of wealth in the men.

The connections between the abilities constituting adaptability EQ (reality-

testing, flexibility, problem-solving) and individual aspirations were also

examined in the entire sample and in the two genders separately.

Within adaptation EQ, perception of reality is the ability of the individual to

assess and compare subjectively experienced and objectively existing reality. In

the entire sample, the perception of reality was in the closest positive connection

with the probability of personal advancement (t=5,555; p<0.000) and health

(t=3,222; p<0.001). With the importance of reputation, it was in a negative

correlation (t=-5,341; p<0.000). These individual aspirations explained 14.5% of

the variance of the perception of reality.

In the two genders, personal aspirations were responsible for a slightly higher

proportion of the variance of the perception of reality in the case of the women

(17.8%) than in the case of the men (16.1%). In the women, the perception of

reality was in a close, positive correlation with the realization (t=4,480; p<0,000)

and probability (t=3,803; p<0,000) of personal advancement, whereas in the case

of the men, similar connections were observed with the probability of health

(t=3,480; p<0,000) and the realization of personal relations (t=2,131; p<0,039). In

both sexes, a close and negative correlation was detected between the importance

of reputation and the perception of reality. A negative connection between the

perception of reality and social responsibility (women, t=-3,112; p<0,002), and

the realization of wealth (men, t=-3,161; p<0,002) was also revealed.

Within adaptation EQ, flexibility is the ability of the individual to adapt in

emotions, thoughts and behavior to changing situations and conditions. In the

entire sample, flexibility was in a close positive correlation with the probability

intrinsic aspirations (t=7,508; p<0,000) and in a negative correlation with the

importance of social responsibility (t=-2,440; p<0,015); the two explaining a mere

7,5% of the variance of flexibility.


In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a higher proportion of the

variance of flexibility in the case of the men (13,9%) than in the case of the

women (7,6%). In the women, the tendency of connection between personal

aspirations and flexibility matched that of the entire sample. In the men, flexibility

was only found to be in a close, positive relationship with the probability of

personal relations (t=5,189; p<0.000).

Within adaptation EQ, problem-solving ability is the skill of the individual to

identify, interpret, and effectively solve problems. In the entire sample, personal

advancement was the only feature of personal aspirations that was found to be in a

close positive correlation (t=3,094; p<0.002). It only explains 1.2% of the

variance of problem-solving ability.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a much higher proportion

of the variance of problem-solving in the case of the men (15.6%) than in the case

of the women (0.9%). While in the women, problem-solving was only found to be

in a close positive correlation with the probability of personal advancement,

(t=2,496; p<0.015) in the men, it was in a close positive correlation with the

probability of personal advancement (t=4,055; p<0.000), the realization of

personal relations (t=2,097; p<0.038), and in a negative correlation with the

realization of wealth (t=-3,533; p<0.001).

Chart 14 contains the results of the regression analysis of stress management

EQ.

Chart 14. Regression of the Stress Management EQ to the Aspirations

Inventory ranges (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=29,790; df=3/712; p<0.000


realization

0.226 5,442 0.000

Image: importance -0.184 -4,960 0.000

Health: probability 0.154 3,647 0.001

Women: Ftotál=27,080; df=3/545; p<0.000

Health: probability 0.197 4,195 0.000


realization

0.193 4,121 0.000

Wealth: importance -0.164 -4,002 0.000

Men: Ftotál=13,183; df=2/167; p<0.000


probability

0.389 5,061 0.000

Social commitment:

importance

-0.178 -2,319 0.002

Results 45

Within emotional intelligence, stress management is the ability of the

individual to manage and control his emotions. In the entire sample, stress

management EQ was in a close positive correlation with the realization of

personal advancement and the probability of health, and in a negative correlation

with the importance of image, these factors together explaining 11.2% of the

variance of stress management EQ.

In the two genders, approximately the same proportion of the variance of

stress management EQ was explained by personal aspirations in both the men

(13%) and the women (13.1%). In the women, stress management EQ was—in

accordance with the tendency observed in the entire sample—in a close positive

correlation with the realization of personal advancement and the probability of

health. Stress management was—as opposed to what was detected in the entire

sample—not in a close negative correlation with the importance of image. It was

in a negative correlation with the importance of wealth, instead. In the men, stress

management EQ was also in a close positive correlation with the realization of

personal advancement, and in a negative connection with social responsibility.

The connections of the skills constituting stress management EQ and the

individual aspirations were also examined in the entire sample and specifically for

the two genders.

Within stress management EQ, stress tolerance is the ability of the individual

to resist unfavorable events and stressful situations without “falling apart” by

being able to cope with stress in an active and positive way. In the entire sample,

stress tolerance was in a positive relationship with the probability of personal

advancement (t=8,616; p<0.000) and reputation (t=4,413; p<0.000), and in a

negative relationship with the importance of intrinsic aspirations (t=-5,497;

p<0.000), all these factors explaining 15.6% of the variance of stress tolerance.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained approximately the same

proportion of stress tolerance in the women (16.1%) and in the men (16.3%). In

the case of the women, stress tolerance was in a close, positive correlation with

the realization of personal advancement (t=6,211; p<0.000) and the probability of

health (t=4,381; p<0.000), whereas in the case of the men, a similar correlation

was observed with the probability of personal advancement (t=3,501; p<0.000)

and personal relations (t=2,113; p<0.036). Stress tolerance was in a negative

correlation with the realization of social responsibility in the case of the women

(t=-2,713; p<0003), and the importance of intrinsic aspirations in the case of the

men (t=-3,146; p<0.002).

Within stress management EQ, impulse-control is the ability of the individual

to resists impulses, temptations and drives to act. In the entire sample, impulse-

control was only found to be in a close positive correlation with the realization of


health (t=2,304; p<0.015), explaining a mere 6% of the variance of impulse

control.

In the two genders, no close correlation between the personal aspirations and

impulse control was observed in the women. In the men, impulse control was in a

positive interrelation with the probability of personal connections (t=3,1332;

p<0.000), and in a negative connection with the importance of reputation (t=-

2,964; p<0.003), explaining 7.9% of the variance of the impulse control.

Chart 15 contains the results of the regression analysis of general mood.

Chart 15. Regression of the General Mood EQ to the Aspirations Inventory


Predictor β T p<

Total: Ftotál=75,661; df=4/712; p<0.000


probability

0.293 5,916 0.000


probability

0.243 4,926 0.000


realization

0.166 3,704 0.000


importance

-0.141 -3,506 0.001

Women: Ftotál=61,618; df=4/545; p<0.000


probability

0.217 4,848 0.000


realization

0.215 4,230 0.000


probability

0.220 3,975 0.000


importance

-0.138 3,975 0.002

Men: Ftotál=45,688; df=2/167; p<0.000


probability

0.472 6,066 0.000


Within emotional intelligence, general mood EQ is the ability of the

individual to generate positive emotions and to motivate himself. In the entire

sample, general mood EQ was in a close positive correlation with the probability

Results 47

and realization of personal advancement and the probability of personal relations,

and in a negative correlation with the importance of personal relations. These

aspirations explained 30.4% of the variance of the general mood EQ.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a slightly higher proportion

of the variance of general mood EQ in the case of the men (35.7%) than in the

case of the women (31.7%). In the women, the tendency of the connections

between the general mood EQ and the personal aspirations was the same as that in

the case of the entire sample. In the men, the general mood EQ was only found in

a close positive correlation with two individual aspirations: the probability of

personal relations and the probability of intrinsic aspirations.

There are connections between the abilities constituting the general mood EQ

(optimism, happiness) and the specific individual aspirations in the whole sample

and in the two genders separately.

Within the general mood EQ, optimism is the ability of the individual to

sustain a positive attitude towards life, even during the time of disasters and

catastrophes. In the entire sample, optimism was found to be in a close positive

correlation with the probability (t=7,438; p<0.000) and realization (t=2,615;

p<0.009) of personal advancement, and with the realization of reputation

(t=2,159; p<0,039). These personal aspirations were responsible for 22.9% of the

variance of optimism.

In the two genders, a higher proportion of the variance of optimism was

explained by personal aspirations in the women (27.5%) than in the men (21.7%).

In the women, optimism was in a close positive correlation with the probability

(t=6,709; p<0.000) and realization (t=4,171; p<0.000) of personal advancement,

and in a negative correlation with the importance of wealth (t=-2,509; p<0.012).

In the men, optimism was in a positive correlation with the probability of intrinsic

aspirations (t=5,820; p<0.000), and in a negative connection with the social

responsibility (t=-1,975; p<0.049).

Within the general mood EQ, happiness is the ability of the individual to be

satisfied with his life, to see the sunny side of things, to find pleasure in himself

and in others, and to be able to have a good time. In the entire sample, happiness

was in a close positive correlation with the probability of personal relations

(t=7,885; p<0.000) and image (t=4,034; p<0.000), and the realization of personal

advancement (t=5,736; p<0.000). These personal aspirations explained 29.,4 % of

the variance of happiness.

In the two genders, personal aspirations explained a considerably higher

proportion of the variance of happiness in the case of the men (41.2%) than in the

case of the women (26.8%). In the men, happiness was in a close positive

interrelation with the probability of personal relations (t=4,549; p<0.000) and


image (t=3,378; p<0.001), and the realization of health (t=2,098; p<0.038). In the

women, happiness was found to be in a close positive relationship with the

probability of personal relations (t=4,352; p<0.000), the probability (t=2,865;

p<0.000) and realization of personal advancement (t=4,462; p<0.000).

3.4. CONNECTION OF THE SUBJECTIVE JUDGMENT OF

RELIGIOUSNESS TO EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Chart 16 contains the descriptive and comparative statistics of the results

achieved by the atheist and very religious groups—set up according to their

subjective approach to religiousness—on Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient Inventory.

Chart 16. Descriptive and comparative statistics of Bar-On Emotional

Quotient Inventory results (on the basis of the subjective evaluation of

religiousness)

Very religious

(n=82)

Atheist

(n=245)

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Emotional Intelligence total

(EQ)

428.5 63.1 438.8 47.1

Intrapersonal Emotional

Intelligence

127.1 16.9 129.2 17.6

Assertiveness 20.9 3.3 21.7 3.4

Emotional Self-Awareness 26.6 4.3 26.1 5.1

Self-Regard 28.8 7.2 30.6 7.3

Independence 22.4 4.7 23.3 4.5

Self-Actualization 28.5 4.2 27.8 4.3

Interpersonal Emotional

Intelligence

40.3*** 5.6 38.8 5.9

Empathy 20.6 2.9 20.1 3

Social Responsibility 39*** 4.3 36.1 4.4

Interpersonal Relationship 40.3 5.6 38.8 5.9

Adaptability 89.1* 10.7 91.8 10.5

Reality-Testing 34.1 5.9 35.1 5.3

Flexibility 25.4* 4.8 26.8 5.1

Problem-Solving 29.6 3.6 30 4.2

Results 49

Very religious

(n=82)

Atheist

(n=245)

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Mean

Value

Standard

Deviation

Stress Management 55.6** 11.6 59.4 10.3

Stress Tolerance 27.7* 6.4 29.3 6.1

Impulse Control 27.9 7.3 31.2 19.7

General Mood 63.3 10.1 63.7 10.8

Optimism 27.6 5.6 27.8 5.6

Happiness 36 5.5 35.8 6.3

As the indicator of the combined emotional intelligence suggests, we did not

find any significant difference between the test groups formed according to their

subjective attitude to religiousness. In the specific components of emotional

intelligence, the very religious group scored considerably higher in interpersonal

EQ (t=3,531; p<0.000) and, within that, in social responsibility (t=5,192;

p<0.000). Students considering themselves less religious (atheists), on the other

hand, achieved significantly higher results in the adaptability EQ (t=1,997;

p<0.047) and, within that, flexibility (t=2,082; p<0.038), stress management EQ

(t=2,846; p<0.005) and, within that, stress tolerance (t=2,081; p<0,038) scales

than those who regarded themselves as very religious.

3.5. DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

ACCORDING TO LEVELS OF SPIRITUALITY

The differences in terms of emotional intelligence between the test group

scoring lowest in the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale and its subscales (first

quarter) and the group scoring highest (fourth quarter) were also examined.

Figure 7 shows the averages of the significant differences in terms of

emotional intelligences and its specific components between the test groups

formed according to results (total scores) achieved in the Daily Spiritual

Experience Scale.

As it is seen from the results of the comparative statistical analysis (two-

paired t-test), there was no considerable difference in the total scores of emotional

intelligence between the two test groups formed according to their results in the

Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale. In the specific components of emotional

intelligence, there was only any significant difference between the two groups in

the Interpersonal EQ and the General mood EQ. Students more receptive to


spirituality (first quarter) scored significantly higher in the interpersonal EQ

(t=6,085; p<0.000) as well as the general mood EQ (t=2,827; p<0.000) than those

students who were not so susceptible to spirituality (fourth quarter).

Figure 7. Averages of significant differences in the field of Emotional Intelligence among

groups formed on the basis of Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale results (total score).

Figure 8 shows the averages of the scales of the differences found in terms of

the emotional intelligence between the two groups formed according to their

results achieved in the Connection with the Transcendental Subscale of the Daily

Spiritual Experiences Scale.

According to the comparative statistical analysis (two-paired t-test), students

who regarded themselves to be in connection with the transcendental and who

scored lower in the Connection with the Transcendental Subscale of the Daily

Spiritual Experiences Scale (first quarter) reported a significantly higher degree of

emotional intelligence (emotional intelligence total score: t=2,311; p<0.021) than

the students who did not consider themselves as linked to the transcendental to the

same extent (fourth quarter). Considerable differences were revealed between the

groups in terms of the specific components of emotional intelligence as well.

Students who regarded themselves as connected to the transcendental scored

significantly higher on the interpersonal EQ scale (t=3,426; p<0.001) and the

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

General Mood EQ Interpersonal EQ

61.8

93.3

64.9

100.1

Fourth quarter First quarter

Results 51

general mood EQ scale (t=3,380; p<0.001) than the students who did not consider

themselves as linked to the transcendental to the same extent.


groups formed on the basis of results on the Relation to Transcendence subfield of the

Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale.

According to the results achieved by the students on the Joy and Transcendent

Sense of Self subscale of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale, there was a

considerable difference between the two groups in only one component of

emotional intelligence: interpersonal EQ. On this scale, students who enjoyed the

pleasure of a connection with the transcendental to a larger extent achieved a

higher score (t=3,888; p<0.000).

0 100 200 300 400 500

General Mood EQ

Interpersonal EQ


61.8

95.8

430.4

65.3

99.3

441.8



According to the results achieved by the students on the Strength and Comfort

Subscale of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale, the students who found

strength and comfort in spirituality achieved a higher score in only one component

of emotional intelligence: interpersonal EQ (t=3,181; p<0.002). On this scale,

students who had a different attitude toward spirituality (fourth quarter) scored

lower on the same scale.

Figure 9 contains the averages of the scales showing the significant

differences found in emotional intelligence according to the results scored by the

students on the Peace Subscale of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale.


groups formed on the basis of results on the Peace Subfield of the Daily Spiritual

Experiences Scale.

Results 53

As the results of the comparative statistical analysis (two-paired t-test)

suggest, students who scored low on the Peace Subscale of the Daily Spiritual

Experiences Scale (first quarter) and who experience a deeper harmony and inner

peace, reached a considerably higher result in all dimensions of emotional

intelligence (emotional intelligence total score: t=6,253; p<0.000; intrapersonal

EQ: t=3,890; p<0.000; interpersonal EQ: t=4.487; p<0.000; adaptability EQ:

t=3,834; p<0.000; stress management EQ: t=4,846; p<0.000; general mood EQ:

t=7,555; p<0.000) than those students who lacked inner harmony and peace

(fourth quarter).

At the Divine Help and Guidance Subscale of the Daily Spiritual Experiences

Scale, there was a significant difference between the two groups in only one

dimension of emotional intelligence: interpersonal EQ, where students who

believed in divine help and guidance (first quarter) achieved a higher result

(t=4,274; p<0.000).

At the Perception of Divine Love Subscale of the Daily Spiritual Experiences

Scale, it was also interpersonal EQ in which a significant difference was observed

between the two groups. In this scale, students who experience divine help on

themselves and on others (first quarter) scored higher (t=4,274; p<0.000).

In the Awe Subscale of Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale, our result was the

same: it was also the same in interpersonal EQ in which a significant difference

was observed between the two groups. In this scale, students who were touched

by the beauty of creation (first quarter) scored higher (t=2,204; p<0.028).

Our results were also the same in the Gratitude and Appreciation Subscale of

the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale, where there was only a difference between

the two groups in terms of interpersonal EQ again. In this scale, students who

were grateful for what God had provided to them appreciated that (first quarter)

(t=4,019; p<0.000).

In Figure 10, we summed up the averages of the results of the significant

differences in emotional intelligence between the groups formed according to

their scores on the Compassionate Love Subscale of the Daily Spiritual

Experiences Scale.

As the results of the comparative statistical analysis (two-sample t-test)

suggest, students who scored low on the Compassionate Love Subscale of the

Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (first quarter) and who believed in the presence

of more compassionate love in their lives, reached a considerably higher result in

almost all the dimensions of emotional intelligence (interpersonal EQ: t=4,712;

p<0.000; adaptability EQ: t=2,324; p<0.021; stress management EQ: t=2,854;

p<0.005; general mood EQ: t=2,363; p<0.019) than those students who did not

experience compassionate love (fourth quarter).



groups formed on the basis of results on the Compassionate Love Subfield of the Everyday

Spiritual Experiences Range.

The results the students achieved on the Union and Closeness Subscale of the

Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale did not reveal any considerable differences

between the two groups in terms of emotional intelligence.

0 50 100 150

General Mood EQ

Stress Management EQ

Adaptability EQ

Interpersonal EQ

62.9

56.6

89.1

93.8

65.9

60.7

92.8

100.7


Results 55

3.6. CORRELATION BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

AND SPIRITUALITY

In the following part of the project, we carried out a linear regression analysis

(stepwise method) for the entire sample and for the two genders separately in

order to examine the specific components of subjective welfare. In the

examination, the components of emotional intelligence were used as dependant

variables, whereas the items used for measuring daily spiritual experiences served

as predictors. (When analyzing the results our students achieved on the Daily

Spiritual Experiences Scale and on its subscales, it is to be noted that, because of

the reverse scale system, a positive connection refers to the lack of susceptibility

to spiritualism, whereas a negative relation indicates the inclination of the

individual to spiritualism).

Chart 17 contains the results of the regression analysis of the total score of

emotional intelligence.

Chart 17. Regression of Emotional Intelligence (total score) to the subscales

of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale results (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=30,145; df=3/712; p<0,000

Peace -0.371 -8,980 0.000

Divine help and guidance 0.246 5,970 0.000

Compassionate love -0.141 -3,843 0.004

Women: Ftotál=23,004; df=3/545; p<0,000

Peace -0.308 -6,333 0.000



Men: Ftotál=11,365; df=3/167; p<0,000

Peace -0.412 -5,045 0.000



In the entire sample, emotional intelligence was found to be in a positive

correlation with divine help and guidance, and in a significant negative correlation

with peace and compassionate love, all these explaining 10.3% of the variance.

In the two genders, daily spiritual experiences explained a higher degree of

the variance of emotional intelligence in the case of the men (20%) than in the


case of the women (10.8%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection

with emotional intelligence, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same

tendency was observed in both sexes.

Chart 18 shows the results of the regression analysis of intrapersonal EQ.

Chart 18. Regression of Intrapersonal EQ to the subscales of the Daily

Spiritual Experiences Scale results (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=46,268; df=2/712; p<0,000

Peace -0.384 -9,368 0.000


Women: Ftotál=30.789; df=2/545; p<0.000

Peace -0.370 -7,734 0.000


Men: Ftotál=12.319; df=3/167; p<0.000

Peace -0.377 -4,585 0.000



Intrapersonal EQ is the ability of the individual to recognize, understand and

express his emotions and feelings. In the entire sample, intrapersonal EQ was in a

positive relationship with divine help, and in a significant negative relationship

with peace, these factors explaining 11.3% of the variance.


the variance of intrapersonal EQ in the case of the men (22.3%) than in the case of

the women (9.9%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with

intrapersonal EQ, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency

was observed in both sexes. The only exception was that in the case of the men,

compassionate love was also in a close negative correlation with intrapersonal

EQ.

The connections between the abilities constituting intrapersonal EQ

(assertiveness, emotional self-awareness, self-regard, emotional independence and

self-actualization) and spiritual experiences were also examined, in the entire

sample as well as in the two genders separately.

Within intrapersonal EQ, assertiveness is the ability of the individual to

recognize and understand their emotions. In the entire sample, assertiveness was

in a positive relationship with the sense of divine help (t=5,254; p<0.000) and in a

Results 57

negative connection with peace (t=-4,611; p<0.000), the two explaining 4.1% of

the variance.


the variance of assertiveness in the case of the men (6.5%) than in the case of the

women (3.5%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with

assertiveness, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was

observed in both sexes. The only exception was that in the case of the men,

compassionate love (t=-2,048; p<0.042) was also in a close negative correlation

with assertiveness.

Within intrapersonal EQ, emotional self-awareness is the ability of the

individual to express his beliefs, thoughts and emotions, and to use them in a non-

destructive way. In the entire sample, self-awareness was in a positive relationship

with the sense of awe (t=3,005; p<0.003) and in a negative connection with peace

(t=-6,258; p<0.000), the two explaining 5% of the variance.

In the two genders, daily spiritual experiences explained approximately the

same degree of the variance of emotional self-awareness in both sexes (women:

4.4%, men 5.6%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with

assertiveness, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was

observed in both sexes. The only exception was that in the case of the women, we

were unable to detect any close positive relationship between self-awareness and

awe.

Within intrapersonal EQ, self-regard is the ability of the individual to

understand, accept and respect himself. In the entire sample, self-awareness was

in a positive relationship with the sense of divine help (t=6,470; p<0.000) and in a

negative connection with peace (t=-8,849; p<0.000), the two explaining 10.3% of

the variance.


the variance of emotional self-regard in the men (18.6%), than in the women

(8.7%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with self-regard, we

did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was observed in both

sexes. The only exception was that in the case of the men, there was a significant,

close negative correlation between compassionate love (t=-2,580; p<0.011) and

self-regard.

Within intrapersonal EQ, emotional independence is the ability of the

individual to guide and control himself and to be emotionally independent of

others. In the entire sample, emotional independence was in a positive relationship

with the sense of divine help (t=5,152; p<0.000) and in a negative connection with

peace (t=-4,730; p<0.000), the two explaining 4.1% of the variance.



the variance of emotional independence in the men (7.2%), than in the women

(3%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with self-regard, we did

not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was observed in both

sexes. The only exception was that in the case of the men, there was a significant,

close negative correlation between emotional independence and the joy and

transcendental sense of self (t=3,267; p<0.042), instead of divine help.

Within intrapersonal EQ, self-actualization is the ability of the individual to

realize his skills and capabilities. In the entire sample, emotional independence

was in a positive relationship with the sense of divine help (t=4,636; p<0.000) and

in a negative connection with peace (t=-5,743; p<0.000) and compassionate

love(t=-5,648; p<0.000), the three factors explaining 12% of the variance.


same degree of the variance of self-actualization in both sexes (women: 12%, men

10.5%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with self-

actualization, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was

observed in both sexes.

The results of the regression analysis carried out for interpersonal EQ are

summed up in Chart 19.

Chart 19. Regression of Interpersonal EQ to the Subscales of the Daily


Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=56,045; df=2/712; p<0,000


Peace -0.121 -3,373 0.001

Women: Ftotál=41,542; df=2/545; p<0,000


Peace -0.101 -2,443 0.015

Men: Ftotál=12,117; df=2/167; p<0,000


Peace -0.194 -2,550 0.012

Interpersonal EQ is the ability of the individual to understand the emotions of

others and establish contact with other people. In the entire sample, interpersonal

EQ was in a close negative correlation with peace and compassionate love,

explaining 13.4% of the variance of interpersonal EQ.

Results 59


same degree of the variance of interpersonal EQ in both sexes (women: 13%, men

11.8%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with interpersonal

EQ, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was observed

in both sexes.

The connections between the abilities constituting interpersonal EQ

(empathy, social responsibility and interpersonal relationship) and spiritual

experiences were also examined, in the entire sample as well as in the two genders

separately.

Within interpersonal EQ, empathy is the ability of the individual to

understand and respect the emotions of others. In the complete sample, empathy

was in a significant negative correlation with compassionate love (t=-6,962;

p<0.000), explaining 6.7% of the variance of empathy.

In the two sexes, daily spiritual experiences were responsible for a higher

degree of the variance of empathy in the case of the women (8.1%) than in the

case of the men (2.8%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with

empathy, we did not find any gender-specific pattern; the same tendency was

observed in both genders.

Within interpersonal EQ, social responsibility means the ability of the

individual to cooperate and to be involved in the joint efforts of a specific group.

In the entire sample, social responsibility was found to be in a significant negative

relationship with the sense of compassionate love (t=-12,187; p<0.000), which

explained 17.2% of the variance of social responsibility.


same degree of the variance of social responsibility in both sexes (women: 16.9%,

men 15.7%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with social

responsibility, no gender-specific pattern was detectable; the same tendency was


Within interpersonal EQ, interpersonal relationship is the individual’s ability

to establish and sustain mutually satisfactory interpersonal connections. This

relationship is characterized by emotional closeness and a balanced system of

providing and receiving emotions. In the entire sample, an interpersonal

relationship was also found to be in a significant negative relationship with the

sense of compassionate love (t=-7,044; p<0.000), which explained 6.4% of the

variance of interpersonal relationship.


same degree of the variance of interpersonal relations in both sexes (women:

6.8%, men 6.9%). In the spiritual experiences that were in connection with social


responsibility, no gender-specific pattern was detectable; the same tendency was


Chart 20 contains a summary of the results of the regression analysis of

adaptation EQ.

Chart 20. Regression of the Adaptation EQ to the Subscales of the Daily


Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=22,014; df=3/712; p<0.000


Peace -0.206 -4,852 0.000


Women: Ftotál=17.354; df=3/545; p<0.000


Peace -0.201 -4,077 0.000


Men: Ftotál=5.161; df=1/167; p<0.000


Within emotional intelligence, adaptability EQ is a set of abilities of the

individual used for managing changes, for transforming and solving personal and

interpersonal problems. in the entire sample, adaptability EQ was in a positive

relationship with the sense of divine help and in a significant negative relationship

with the sense of peace and compassionate love, these factors explaining 8,1% of

the variance.

At the two genders, daily spiritual experiences explained a higher degree of

the variance of adaptability EQ in the case of the women (8,3%) than in the case

of the men (2,4%). in the women, the daily spiritual experiences in connection

with adaptability EQ followed the pattern observed in the entire sample. In the

case of the men, daily spiritual experiences were in a significant negative

relationship with the sense of compassionate love only.

We also examined the connections between the abilities constituting

adaptability EQ (reality-testing, flexibility, problem-solving) and the daily

spiritual experiences in the entire sample and in the two sexes separately.

Within adaptability EQ, perception of reality is the ability of the individual to

assess and compare subjectively perceived and objectively existing realities. In

the complete sample, perception of reality was in a positive relationship with the

sense of awe (t=4,560; p<0.000) and in a significant negative relationship with the

Results 61

sense of peace (t=-4,862; p<0.000), the two factors explaining 3.6% of the

variance of the sense of perception.

In the two genders, the daily spiritual experiences were found to be in a

significant connection with the perception of reality in the case of the women only

(in accordance with the pattern observed in the entire sample), explaining a mere

4% of the variance of the perception of reality.

Within adaptability EQ, flexibility is the ability of the individual to adapt to

changing situations and conditions in emotions, thoughts and behavior. In the

complete sample, flexibility was in a positive relationship with the sense of divine

help (t=3,628; p<0.000) and in a significant negative relationship with the sense

of compassionate love (t=-4,408; p<0.000), the two factors explaining 3.5% of the

variance.


the variance of flexibility EQ in the case of the men (6.5%) than in the case of the

women (3.2%). In terms of the daily spiritual experiences in connection with

flexibility, no considerable difference was detected between the two genders; the

general tendency of the complete sample was observable in both sexes.

Within adaptability EQ, problem-solving is the ability of the individual to

identify, interpret and effectively solve problems. Our research did not reveal any

considerable connection between problem-solving and daily spiritual experiences

either in the entire sample or in the case of the two genders separately.

Chart 21 contains the results of the regression analysis of stress management

EQ.

Chart 21. Regression of the Stress Management EQ to the subscales of the

Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale results (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=32,251; df=2/712; p<0,000

Peace -0.309 -7,412 0.000


Women: Ftotál=16,014; df=2/545; p<0,000

Peace -0.244 -5,112 0.000


Men: Ftotál=11,212; df=2/167; p<0,000

Peace -0,373 -4,442 0.000

Divine help and guidance 0,298 3,534 0.000


Within emotional intelligence, stress management EQ is the ability of the

individual to handle and control his emotions. In the entire sample, stress

management EQ was found to be in a positive relationship with divine help and in

a negative relation with peace, the two factors explaining 8.1% of the variance.


the variance of stress management EQ in the case of the men (11%) than in the

case of the women (7.6%). In terms of the daily spiritual experiences in

connection with stress management, no considerable difference was detected

between the two genders; the general tendency of the complete sample was

observable in both sexes.

We also examined the connections between the abilities constituting stress

management EQ (stress tolerance, impulse control) and the daily spiritual

experiences in the entire sample and in the two sexes separately.

Within stress management EQ, stress tolerance is the ability of the individual

to resist unfavorable events and stressful situations without “falling apart” and to

cope with stress in an active and positive way. In the entire sample, stress

tolerance was found to be in a positive relationship with the sense of divine help

(t=6,920; p<0.000) and in a significant negative relation with peace, (t=-8,456;

p<0.000) the two factors explaining 10% of the variance.

In the two genders, daily spiritual experiences explained a higher proportion

of the variance of stress tolerance EQ in the case of the men (12.6%) than in the

case of the women (7.3%). In terms of the daily spiritual experiences in

connection with stress tolerance, no considerable difference was detected between

the two genders; the general tendency of the complete sample was observable in

both sexes.

Within stress management EQ, impulse control is the ability of the individual

to resist or delay impulses and drives calling for action. In the entire sample,

impulse control was found to be in a positive relationship with the sense of divine

help (t=3,806; p<0.000) and in a significant negative relation with peace, (t=-

3,036; p<0.002) the two factors explaining 1.9% of the variance.


the variance of impulse control EQ in the case of the men (7.2%) than in the case

of the women (1.4%). In terms of the daily spiritual experiences in connection

with stress tolerance, no considerable difference was detected between the two

sexes; the general tendency of the complete sample was observable in both

genders.

The results of the regression analysis carried out for general mood are

summed up in Chart 22.

Results 63

Chart 22. Regression of the General Mood EQ to the subscales of the

Everyday Spiritual Experiences Range results (approved models: p<0.05)

Predictor β t p<

Total: Ftotál=36,324; df=3/712; p<0,000

Peace -0.365 -8,820 0.000



Women: Ftotál=27.567; df=3/545; p<0.000

Peace -0.359 -7,469 0.000



Men: Ftotál=9.987; df=3/167; p<0.000

Union and closeness 0.358 3,322 0.000

Peace -0.322 -3,915 0.000

Perceptions of divine love -0.253 -2,215 0.028

Within emotional intelligence, general mood EQ is a set of abilities of the

individual to generate positive emotions and to motivate himself. In the entire

sample, general mood EQ was in a positive relationship with the sense of divine

help and in a significant negative relationship with the sense of peace and

compassionate love, these factors explaining 13% of the variance.

In the two genders, daily general mood EQ explained approximately the same

degree of the variance in both sexes (women: 12.8%, men: 14%). In the women,

the daily spiritual experiences in connection with general mood EQ followed the

pattern observed in the entire sample. In the case of the men, general mood EQ

was in positive relationship with the union and closeness and in a significant

negative relationship with the sense of peace and divine love.

The connections between the abilities constituting general mood EQ

(optimism, happiness) and the daily spiritual experiences were also examined in

the entire sample and in the two sexes separately.

Within general mood EQ, optimism is the ability of the individual to sustain a

positive attitude toward life, even during times of disasters and misfortune. In the

complete sample, optimism was in a positive correlation with the sense of divine

help (t=5,498; p<0.000) and in a significant negative correlation with peace (t=-

9,118; p<0.000) and compassionate love (t=-4,034; p<0.000). The two factors

explained 13.9% of the variance.


same degree of the variance in both sexes (women: 13.5%, men: 12.4%). In the


women, the daily spiritual experiences in connection with optimism followed the

pattern observed in the entire sample. In the case of the men, optimism was in a

positive relationship with the sense of joy and a transcendental sense of self

(t=2,268; p<0.025) and in a significant negative relationship with the sense of

peace (t=-4,821; p<0.000).

Within general mood EQ, happiness is the ability of the individual to be

satisfied with life, to see the sunny side of things, to find pleasure in himself and

in others, to be able to have a good time. In the complete sample, happiness was

in a positive correlation with the sense of strength and comfort (t=4,200; p<0.000)

and in a significant negative correlation with peace (t=-6,921; p<0.000) and

compassionate love (t=-2,917; p<0.004). The two factors explained a mere 8.2%

of the variance.


the variance of happiness in the case of the men (11.6%) than in the case of the

women (8.2%). In terms of the daily spiritual experiences in connection with

happiness, no considerable difference was detected between the two sexes; the

general tendency of the complete sample was observable in both genders.

Chapter 4

CONCLUSION

In the course of our research, we examined the connections between

emotional intelligence and personal aspirations among college students.

As for the differences between the two genders, we found that—in

accordance with our hypothesis—in general, there is no difference between men

and women in terms of emotional intelligence. Researchers examining largely

different populations found very similar patterns with very slight differences in

the two genders [6].

Bar-On [2], as a result of his research conducted on the American normative

population, did not find any significant difference between the two sexes in terms

of the general points of emotional intelligence. In the specific components of

emotional intelligence, however, major differences between the genders were

detected. Women were better at interpersonal skills than men, who had, on the

other hand, a better intrapersonal capacity, handled their emotions more

effectively and had better adaptation skills.

Dawda and Hart [31], as a result of their research conducted on a sample of

university students, did not find any significant difference between the genders in

terms of the overall score of emotional intelligence, either. They were unable to

confirm the gender-specific patterns of the components of emotional intelligence

identified by Bar-On [2] in the normative sample of American population, as

Dawda and Hart [31] did not find any major difference between the genders in

that respect. In the subscales dealing with the specific components of emotional

intelligence, women scored considerably lower on the Independence and

Optimism and higher on the Social Responsibility subscales than men did.

We were not able to detect any considerable difference between the genders

in terms of the overall emotional intelligence. Contrary to the findings of Dawda

and Hart [31], we identified considerable differences between the specific


components of emotional intelligence of men and women in the sample of college

students. In accordance with the findings of Bar-On [2]—and our second

hypothesis—we found that women had more empathy, a higher sense of social

responsibility and better skills in managing and maintaining interpersonal

relations than men had. In intrapersonal emotional intelligence, no major general

differences were observed, although we found that men had a significantly higher

self-regard and were emotionally more independent than women were. Women

were, on the other hand, able to express and actualize their emotions more

efficiently. While women were more aware of their own emotions, men were

emotionally more independent, had a higher self-regard and tended to trust

themselves more than women did. In compliance with Bar-On’s research findings

[2], our research confirmed that men were able to cope with stress more

efficiently than women, and they had a better stress tolerance.

In accordance with our third hypothesis and confirming the results of Dawda

and Hart [31], we found men to be more optimistic than women. We did not find

any major difference between the two sexes in adaptability, however.

We were only able to partially confirm our fourth hypothesis, that is, intrinsic

goals increase, whereas extrinsic ones reduce, the level of emotional intelligence.

The importance, probability and realization of intrinsic aspirations were all in a

positive relationship with emotional intelligence. We were, however, unable to

verify the alleged negative correlation between extrinsic aspirations and emotional

intelligence. We found a positive relationship between the probability and

realization of extrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence.

We were also able to partly justify our fifth hypothesis, that is, a significant

positive correlation exists between intrinsic aspirations—particularly health,

personal advancement, personal relations and social responsibility—and the

indicators of emotional intelligence, particularly with the Optimism and

Happiness subscales. No close relationship was found between the combined

indicators of intrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence. Close correlation

was found, however, between certain intrinsic aspirations and emotional

intelligence and its specific components in several cases.

Among personal aspirations, the probability and realization of personal

advancement were found to be in the closest relationship with emotional

intelligence. The realization of personal advancement was in a close correlation

with all the components of emotional intelligence; the probability of personal

advancement was in a close correlation with all components, except interpersonal

and stress management EQs. Emotional intelligence and its specific components

were not in a close correlation with the importance of personal advancement. A

close positive correlation was also found between emotional intelligence (within

Conclusion 67

that, interpersonal EQ and general mood EQ) and the probability of personal

relations. No close correlation was found, however, between emotional

intelligence and the importance and realization of personal relations. Out of the

components of emotional intelligence, only intrapersonal EQ and general mood

EQ were in a close, but negative, correlation with the importance of personal

relations. Among individual aspirations, the importance, probability and

realization of health and social responsibility were not in a close correlation with

emotional intelligence. As for the components of emotional intelligence, only

stress management was in a close correlation with the probability of health. An

individual is characterized by a higher degree of emotional intelligence when the

probability of his personal advancement is higher (based upon previously

accomplished personal advancement) and when he has more prospects for

meaningful human relations in the future.

We were not able to verify our sixth hypothesis, that is, the alleged significant

negative correlation between extrinsic aspirations (within that, wealth, reputation

and image) and the indicators of emotional intelligence, particularly optimism and

happiness. No close correlation was found between the combined indicator of

extrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence. We were able to find a close

correlation between certain extrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence and its

components at certain points only. A close negative correlation was identified

between adaptability EQ and the realization of wealth, the importance of

reputation and the importance of stress management EQ and image. Among

extrinsic aspirations, optimism was in a—not positive, but negative—correlation

with the realization of reputation and the probability of happiness and image.

We were only able to partly verify our seventh hypothesis, that is, an alleged

positive relationship between intrinsic aspirations and self-regard, emotional self-

awareness and the ability of self-actualization within intrapersonal EQ. No close

relationship was found between the combined indicators of intrinsic aspirations

and self-regard, emotional self-awareness and the ability of self-actualization. It

was, however, possible to identify a close positive relationship between certain

intrinsic aspirations and emotional intelligence and its specific components,

including self-regard, emotional self-awareness and self-actualization. All the

three emotional skills were found to be in a close relationship with the probability

and realization of personal advancement and with the probability of self-regard,

emotional self-awareness and personal relations. Bar-On [2] reports it is possible

to foretell the grade of self-actualization by the level of development of emotional

intelligence. Bar-On’s research findings suggest that self-actualization depends

upon factors such as self-regard, emotional self-awareness and the ability to trust

ourselves and think and act independently. We are able to set up intrinsic goals,


which are supported by a good regulation of emotions; it will enable us to

approach the state of self-actualization.

We were successful in verifying our eighth hypothesis, that is, the supposition

of the existence of different patterns between the genders in the connections

between personal aspirations and emotional intelligence. Personal aspirations

explained a much higher degree of the variance of emotional intelligence and its

specific components in the case of the men than in the case of the women. Such

differences were found in the total score of emotional intelligence, interpersonal

EQ (and within that, social responsibility and interpersonal relationships) and in

general mood EQ (and within that, happiness) as well. Specific intrinsic

aspirations had different effects in the cases of the two genders. While in the case

of the men, emotional intelligence was in a closer connection with the probability

of all the intrinsic aspirations, in the case of the women, it was in connection with

the probability of personal advancement. In the case of the men, all components

of emotional intelligence, with the exception of stress management EQ, were in a

close positive correlation with the probability of personal relations (EQ total

score, adaptability EQ, general mood EQ), the importance of personal relations

(interpersonal EQ) or the realization of personal relations (intrapersonal EQ). In

the case of the women, emotional intelligence was in a close positive correlation

with the probability of personal advancement (EQ total score, intrapersonal EQ,

adaptability EQ, general mood EQ) and the realization of personal advancement

(EQ total score, intrapersonal EQ, adaptability EQ, stress management EQ,

general mood EQ).

We were only able to partly verify our ninth hypothesis, that is, individuals

considering themselves subjectively more religious (college students) are more

sensitive, more open to their emotions and have more empathy than those who

consider themselves less religious. Although the interpersonal emotional

intelligence of the students who regarded themselves as more religious was

considerably higher than that of those who considered themselves as less

religious, the difference was present in terms of social responsibility and not in

openness and empathy. Less religious students, on the other hand, scored higher

in adaptability and stress management.

We succeeded in confirming out tenth hypotheses, that is, emotional

intelligence and, within that, emotional skills and abilities that include the

understanding of, and discriminating between, our own emotions as well as the

ability to feel empathy to others, are in close correlation with spirituality.

Emotional intelligence was in a close positive relationship with peace and

compassionate love, and in a negative one with divine help. Intrapersonal EQ, an

ability of the individual to recognize, understand and express his feelings and

Conclusion 69

emotions, was also in a positive correlation with the sense of peace and in a

negative one with divine help. Interpersonal EQ, an ability of the individual to

understand the emotions of others and establish contact with them, was in a close

positive correlation with the sense of peace and compassionate love as well.

Within interpersonal EQ, empathy was in a close positive correlation with

compassionate love. Adaptability EQ, which is an ability of the individual to

handle, transform ands solve personal and interpersonal problems, was also in a

close positive correlation with peace and compassionate love and in a negative

relationship with divine help. Similarly, stress management EQ, an ability of the

individual to handle and control his emotions, was in a close positive correlation

with peace and compassionate love and in a negative relationship with divine

help. General mood EQ, an ability of the individual to generate positive emotions

and to motivate himself, was also in a close positive correlation with peace and

compassionate love and in a negative relationship with divine help.

We were unsuccessful in confirming our eleventh hypotheses, that is, the

alleged existence of gender-specific patterns in the connections between

spirituality and emotional intelligence. In the case of both the men and the

women, peace and compassionate love were found to be in the closest positive,

and divine help in a negative, relationship with emotional intelligence. The

specific components of emotional intelligence were in the closest relationship

with the same spiritual values, with minor shifts of emphasis in places. There

were minor differences between the genders in the general mood EQ. In that

point, the women usually followed the tendency observed in emotional

intelligence, whereas in the case of the men, general mood EQ was in a significant

positive correlation with the perception of peace and divine love and in a

significant negative one with the perception of union and closeness.

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INDEX

A

achievement, 4

adaptability, 8, 18, 20, 26, 29, 33, 34, 42, 43,

49, 53, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68

adaptation, 13, 14, 43, 44, 60, 65

adolescents, 22, 23

adult, 7

age, 5, 9, 22, 23

alpha, 14

application, 74

aspiration, 23, 72

assertiveness, viii, 12, 20, 38, 56, 57

assessment, 1, 7, 12, 24, 73

assimilation, 2

attribution, 5

authority, 4

autonomy, 13

awareness, 3, 8, 12, 17, 20, 38, 56, 57, 67

B

basic needs, 13

behavior, 1, 2, 3, 4, 43, 61, 73

behavioral problems, 13

beliefs, 3, 38, 57

brain, 5

breakdown, 36

C

cancer, 73

catastrophes, 47

childhood, 5

Christians, 73

chronic illness, 6

classes, 5

cognitive process, 5

college students, vii, 7, 8, 19, 22, 26, 65, 66,

68

compassion, 6

complexity, 2, 7

compliance, 14, 66

components, vii, viii, 2, 4, 8, 12, 17, 19, 20,

26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 49, 50, 55, 65, 66,

67, 68, 69

comprehension, 2

congruence, 73

consent, 9

conservation, 73

construct validity, 74

control, 2, 3, 4, 12, 17, 19, 45, 46, 57, 62, 69

conviction, 20

correlation, viii, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 39, 41, 42,

43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 63,

64, 66, 67, 68

correlations, 41

Index 76

D

definition, 1

dependent variable, 35

deviation, 22, 23

differentiation, 8

discipline, 5

discrimination, 7

dispersion, 22

distribution, 73

dream, 72

E

education, 72

emotional intelligence, iv, vii, viii, 1, 2, 4, 7,

8, 12, 17, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33,

34, 35, 36, 42, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,

54, 55, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71,

72, 73

emotional well-being, 4

emotions, viii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 13, 20, 37, 38, 40,

41, 43, 45, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68

empathy, 7, 8, 12, 17, 20, 41, 59, 66, 68

environment, 13

ESI, 72

examinations, 13

external environment, 2

F

facilitators, 2

factor analysis, 74

feelings, 2, 3, 20, 37, 56, 68

flexibility, 12, 19, 43, 44, 49, 60, 61

G

gender, viii, 5, 19, 20, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65,

69

gifts, 39

goals, vii, 4, 5, 14, 22, 66, 67, 72

God, 5, 6, 25, 53

grades, 13

groups, 9, 10, 12, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,

48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54

growth, 13, 22, 23

guidance, 3, 15, 26, 39, 53, 55, 56, 60, 61, 63

guidelines, 73

H

happiness, viii, 8, 12, 19, 47, 63, 64, 67, 68

harm, 25, 53

harmony, 25, 53

health, 6, 8, 14, 22, 23, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39,

40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 66, 67, 72, 73, 74

health status, 72

high scores, 9, 10

hip, viii, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63,

64, 69

homogeneity, 13

human, 2, 4, 5, 6, 36, 37, 38, 67, 73

human behavior, 4

human nature, 6

humans, 6

Hungarian, 12, 14

Hungary, 14

hypothesis, 65, 66, 67, 68

I

id, 20, 24, 65

idiographic approach, 72

impulsive, 13, 20

independence, 3, 12, 17, 20, 38, 39, 56, 57, 58

indicators, 8, 17, 66, 67

iinsight, 5

institutions, 6

integration, 13, 73

intelligence, iv, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 12, 19,

29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 49, 50, 53, 56, 65,

66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73

interactions, 7

internal consistency, 13

interpersonal relations, viii, 3, 12, 17, 20, 41,

42, 59, 66, 68

Index 77

interpersonal relationships, 3, 12, 17, 41, 42,

68

interpersonal skills, vii, 8, 65

interrelations, vii, 4

intrinsic, viii, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, 14, 22, 23, 26,

28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,

45, 47, 66, 67, 68, 72, 73

J

judge, 14

L

language, 6

likelihood, viii, 14, 34, 36

Likert scale, 15

linear, 35, 55

linear regression, 35, 55

love, viii, 15, 25, 26, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,

60, 61, 63, 64, 68, 69

M

maladaptive, 1

management, viii, 2, 7, 12, 13, 17, 20, 26, 29,

33, 34, 44, 45, 49, 53, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 69

marriage, 1

measures, 73

median, 9

men, vii, viii, 4, 8, 9, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24,

26, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,

47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,

65, 66, 68, 69

mental state, 5

models, 2, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 46, 55, 56, 58,

60, 61, 63

money, 4

mood, 3, 7, 12, 13, 19, 20, 26, 29, 30, 33, 34,

35, 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69

motivation, iv, 2, 4, 13

motives, 13

N

negative relation, viii, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45, 55,

56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69

New York, iii, iv, 71, 72, 73

non-destructive, 3, 38, 57

O

old age, 5

one dimension, 53

openness, 7, 68

optimism, viii, 8, 12, 47, 63, 64, 67

orientation, 7

P

perception, 2, 12, 26, 43, 60, 61, 69

perceptions, 26

personal goals, 4

personal relations, 33, 34, 38, 43, 44, 45, 47,

66, 67, 68

personal relationship, 38

personality, 4, 7, 13, 72, 73

physical health, 72

play, 7

pleasure, 3, 47, 51, 64

polarization, 6

population, 65, 73

positive correlation, 8, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,

44, 45, 46, 47, 55, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69

positive emotions, 2, 46, 63, 69

positive relation, viii, 13, 36, 38, 39, 43, 44,

45, 48, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66,

67, 68

positive relationship, viii, 36, 38, 39, 43, 44,

45, 48, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66,

67, 68

predictors, 36, 55

pressure, 2, 13, 20

probability, 10, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 31, 34,

36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,

47, 66, 67, 68

problem-solving, 12, 19, 20, 43, 44, 60, 61

Index 78

problem-solving skills, 19

psychology, 5, 73

Q

quality of life, 1

questionnaire, 13, 14

R

range, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32

reality, 12, 19, 20, 43, 60, 61

recognition, 2

regression, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 44, 46, 55, 56,

58, 60, 61, 62

regression analysis, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 44, 46,

55, 56, 58, 60, 61, 62

regulation, 1, 7, 68

relationship, vii, viii, 7, 8, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40,

41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,

61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69

relationships, 2, 3, 12, 17, 21, 33, 34, 35, 36,

37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 68, 72

reliability, 13, 14, 73, 74

religion, 5, 6, 25, 73

religious groups, 48

religiousness, vii, viii, 4, 6, 7, 12, 15, 24, 48,

49

reputation, 14, 22, 23, 39, 43, 45, 46, 47, 67

reservation, 4

resources, 4

S

sacred, 6, 73

sample, 9, 10, 22, 23, 24, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,

40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 53, 55, 56,

57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66

satisfaction, 4, 7

school, 73

scores, 9, 10, 12, 29, 49, 53

self, 3, 11, 18, 19, 48, 51, 71, 73

self-actualization, vii, 1, 4, 8, 12, 20, 38, 39,

56, 58, 67

self-awareness, 3, 8, 12, 17, 20, 38, 56, 57, 67

self-control, 3, 39

self-determination theory, 13

self-esteem, 3, 8, 20

self-regard, viii, 12, 17, 20, 38, 39, 56, 57, 58,

66, 67

shape, 42

skills, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 17, 19, 20,

39, 45, 58, 65, 66, 67, 68

social activities, 12

social group, 3, 41

social relations, 5, 8, 14, 22, 23, 38, 39, 41,

42, 43

social relationships, 39, 43

social responsibility, vii, viii, 8, 17, 20, 22, 23,

34, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 59, 60, 66, 67, 68

social skills, 2, 4, 7

spiritual, viii, 5, 6, 8, 26, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,

60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69, 73

spirituality, vii, viii, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 25, 26, 50,

52, 68, 69, 72

sports, 4

standard deviation, 9, 22

standards, 72

statistical analysis, 23, 49, 50, 53

statistics, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 48

strength, 25, 52, 64

stress, viii, 3, 7, 12, 13, 17, 20, 26, 29, 33, 34,

44, 45, 49, 53, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 69

students, vii, viii, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 19,

20, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 50, 51, 52,

53, 54, 55, 65, 66, 68, 73

subjective, vii, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 15, 24, 48, 49,

55, 72, 74

subjective well-being, 5, 72, 74

suffering, 6

supernatural, 6

susceptibility, 25, 55

T

thinking, 1, 3, 39

tolerance, 3, 12, 17, 20, 45, 49, 62, 66

trust, 66, 67

Index 79

U

university students, 65, 73

V

validity, 73, 74

values, viii, 5, 6, 8, 12, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25,

26, 27, 29, 31, 69

variables, 7, 55, 72

variance, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,

46, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,

64, 68

visual stimuli, 72

W

wealth, viii, 8, 14, 22, 23, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41,

42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 67

welfare, 55

well-being, 4, 5, 6, 72, 73, 74

women, vii, 4, 8, 9, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 26, 37,

38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56,

57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69

workplace, 73

Personal strivings as a predictor of emotional intelligence

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