PERFORMANCE OF OFFICE BUILDING INTEGRATED...
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PERFORMANCE OF OFFICE BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAIC FOR WINDOWS UNDER SEMI-ARID CLIMATE IN ALGERIA MESLOUB ABDELHAKIM A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying Universiti Teknologi Malaysia March 2019
Transcript of PERFORMANCE OF OFFICE BUILDING INTEGRATED...
PERFORMANCE OF OFFICE BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAIC
FOR WINDOWS UNDER SEMI-ARID CLIMATE IN ALGERIA
MESLOUB ABDELHAKIM
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
March 2019
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DEDECATION
To my beloved parents, wife, my daughter Leen, sisters and friends
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. First of all, I must give
thanks to Allah who gave me the ability, patience and has helped me to complete this
study. Peace and blessing be upon our prophet Mohammed.
I would like to express special thanks and gratitude to my supervisor Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Mohd Zin bin Kandar for his guidance, patience, dedication, and
encouragement during my study at UTM. I have the highest respect to Dr.Dodo
Yakubu and admiration for his generous support and guidance during all stages in
my PhD degree.
I would like to give further thanks to those people who supported me in
carrying out this research. Especially, my beloved parents, wife, sisters and my
Aunts for their support and constant encouragement to me during my study. They
have always asked Allah to help me in their prayers. May Allah bless and protect
them.
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ABSTRACT
Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) has become the most significant
alternative form of renewable energy for producing clean energy and to protect the
environment. In Algeria, some problems arise due to the high energy consumption levels
of building sector. Large amounts of this energy are lost through the external envelope
façade, because of poor window design. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the
optimum BIPV windows performance for overall energy consumption (OEC) in typical
office buildings in the semi-arid climate. Field measurements on a tested office building
were carried out during the spring and summer seasons for the calibration and validation
of Energy-plus and Integrated Environment Solution Virtual Environment (IES-VE)
software. The data was analysed and used to develop a model for (OEC) simulation. The
results of the investigation from the site measurements show that the BIPV window
application provides a sufficient quantity of uniform daylight with only 20% Visible
Light Transmittance (VLT), plus a comfortable indoor temperature and a considerable
amount of clean energy production. The base-model and nine commercially-available
BIPV modules, with different Window Wall Ratio (WWR), cardinal orientation and tilt
angles were applied in an extensive simulation exercise. The simulation was carried out
using Energy-plus to evaluate the energy generated through simple and equivalent one-
diode models. The thermal performance used the Ideal load Air System (ILAS) model.
In addition to IES-VE for the assessment of visual comfort and daylighting
performance, through a combination of daylight control method, Useful Daylight
Illuminance (UDI) and CEI glare index (CGI) were done. The results from this study
revealed that the optimum BIPV window design differentiates in each orientation; which
is the double glazing PV modules (A) with medium WWR and 20% VLT in the
Southern facade, 30% VLT toward the East-West axis. Meanwhile, the North
orientation is not suitable the application of BIPV window. The Maximum energy
saving can be obtained with a 60% toward the South orientation by double glazing PV
module (D). On the other hand, the PV modules minimize significantly the glare index
comparing the base-model. The result established that the energy output percentages in a
3D model can be used by architects and designers in the early stages of design. Thus, the
adoption of optimum BIPV window shows a significant improvement of the overall
energy saving and visual comfort to deem them as an essential application in the semi-
arid climate.
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ABSTRAK
Bangunan Fotovoltaik bersepadu (BIPV) telah menjadi alternatif yang paling
penting untuk tenaga boleh diperbaharui bagi menghasilkan tenaga bersih dan juga
untuk melindungi alam sekitar. Di Algeria, beberapa masalah timbul disebabkan tahap
penggunaan tenaga tinggi sektor bangunan. Sejumlah besar tenaga ini hilang melalui
permukaan luar bangunan disebabkan oleh reka bentuk tingkap yang lemah. Oleh itu,
kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji prestasi tingkap BIPV yang optimum untuk
penggunaan tenaga keseluruhan (OEC) di bangunan pejabat biasa di bawah iklim separa
gersang. Ukuran lapangan bagi pejabat yang diuji telah dilakukan pada musim bunga
dan musim panas untuk tujuan kalibrasi dan validasi perisian Energy-plus dan
Integrated Environment Solution Virtual Environment (IES-VE). Data telah dianalisis
dan digunakan untuk membangunkan model untuk simulasi (OEC). Keputusan kajian
dari pengukuran di tapak menunjukkan bahawa aplikasi tetingkap BIPV menyediakan
kuantiti yang mencukupi dan pencahayaan siang seragam, dengan hanya 20%,
Transmisi Cahaya Boleh Dilihat (VLT) ditambah dengan suhu dalaman yang selesa dan
pengeluaran tenaga bersih yang banyak. Model asas dan sembilan modul BIPV yang
tersedia secara komersial, dengan Nisbah Dinding Tingkap (WWR) yang berbeza,
orientasi kardinal dan sudut condong digunakan untuk latihan simulasi yang
menyeluruh. Simulasi dijalankan menggunakan Energy-plus untuk menilai tenaga
melalui model satu-diod yang sederhana, bersamaan dengan prestasi terma
menggunakan model Sistem Udara Beban Ideal (ILAS). Sebagai tambahan kepada
Persekitaran Maya Penyelesaian Alam Sekitar Bersepadu (IES-VE) untuk penilaian
keselesaan visual dan pencahayaan siang hari, melalui gabungan kaedah kawalan siang
hari, pencahayaan siang hari yang berguna (UDI) dan CEI indeks silau (CGI),
dilaksanakan daripada kajian ini mendedahkan bahawa Reka bentuk tetingkap BIPV
optimum dibezakan mengikut, setiap orientasi; yang merupakan modul PV kaca
berganda (A) dengan WWR sederhana dan 20% di permukaan Selatan, 30% VLT ke
arah paksi Timur-Barat. Sementara itu, orientasi Utara tidak sesuai untuk penggunaan
tetingkap BIPV. Penjimatan tenaga maksimum sehingga 60% bagi orientasi Selatan
menggunakan PV kaca berganda (D). Modul PV meminimumkan secara ketara indeks
silau berbanding dengan model asas. Hasil kajian telah menetapkan bahawa peratusan
penghasilan tenaga dalam model 3D boleh digunakan oleh arkitek dan pereka pada
peringkat awal rekabentuk. Justeru, penggunaan tetingkap BIPV yang optimum
menunjukkan penambahbaikan yang ketara terhadap penjimatan tenaga dan keselesaan
visual secara keseluruhan dan ia boleh dianggap sebagai aplikasi penting di kawasan
iklim separa gersang.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDECATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xix
LIST OF APPENDICES xxi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 7
1.3 Research Gap 8
1.4 Research Aims 9
1.5 Research Objective 9
1.6 Research Questions 10
1.7 Scope of the Study 11
1.8 Significance of the Research 12
1.9 Organisation of Thesis 12
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Technology 15
2.2.1 BIPV Definition and Concepts 16
2.2.2 Hierarchical of Photovoltaic Configurations 18
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2.2.3 Design of Building-integrated photovoltaic
module 19
2.2.4 Potential value and economic development of
BIPV 21
2.2.5 Overview on Photovoltaic technology in Algeria
context 23
2.3 Building integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Window 27
2.3.1 Classification of BIPV window generations 27
2.3.2 Comparison between thin film and crystalline
silicon 31
2.4 Factors Influences on the Electrical Performance of
BIPV windows 32
2.4.1 Energy output Performance of tilted BIPV
window 34
2.5 Climatic condition factor effect on BIPV window
performance in Algeria context 36
2.5.1 The Solar radiation 36
2.5.2 The Sun path 39
2.5.3 The Sky Conditions 40
2.6 Architectural design factor effect on Overall energy
performance of BIPV window 43
2.6.1 The Window to wall ratio (WWR) 44
2.6.2 The BIPV window orientation 46
2.7 Research on BIPV Systems 46
2.7.1 The performance of Heat Transfer models of
BIPV window 47
2.7.2 Experimental application studies of Energy
Performance of BIPV window 49
2.8 Daylighting in office Building Design 51
2.8.1 Visual Comfort in Office 51
2.8.2 Visual Task in Office 52
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2.8.3 Metrics for evaluating Daylighting availability
and quality in office 52
2.8.3.1 WorkPlane Illuminance (WPI) 52
2.8.3.2 Illuminance level 53
2.8.3.3 The daylight factor 55
2.8.3.4 Dynamic daylight metric (climate-based) 55
2.8.3.5 Uniformity 57
2.8.3.6 Related-Glare indices 57
2.8.4 Unilateral lighting mode in Algerian office 59
2.8.5 Daylighting performance of BIPV window 60
2.9 Overall Performance of BIPV Windows 62
3 Methodology 67
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Research framework 67
3.3 Experiment Conditions setup 69
3.3.1 Measurement Procedure 69
3.3.1.1 Location, Climate Data and general
considerations 69
3.3.1.2 Design Concept of common single office
building (Base-model) 71
3.3.1.3 PV Module selected for the experiment 72
3.3.1.4 Daylighting measurement 74
3.3.1.5 Heating transfer (heat flux) measurement 77
3.3.1.6 Monitoring of Electrical measurement‘s
instrument 78
3.3.2 Energy simulation software tools 80
3.4 Validation procedure 81
3.5 The building Simulation performance 83
3.5.1 BIPV modules selection for simulation 86
3.5.2 The Simulation Procedure 89
3.5.3 Energy output model simulation 90
3.5.4 Thermal simulation 92
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3.5.5 Daylighting simulation 94
3.5.6 The optimum design of overall energy
performance 100
3.6 Summary 101
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Results of Experiment and Validation 103
4.2.1.1 Calibration of instruments result 103
4.2.1.2 Energy output model results and
validation 106
4.2.1.3 Thermal performance results and
validation 109
4.2.1.4 Daylighting results and validation 113
4.3 Summary of the experimental result 118
4.4 Simulation results 119
4.4.1 Analysis of vertical solar radiance (Meteonorm
Data-base) 119
4.4.2 Evaluation of the energy output of different BIPV
modules 124
4.4.2.1 Assessment of the energy output with
different tilted angle 125
4.4.2.2 Assessment of Cell temperature of BIPV
windows against energy output in
different tilt angle 130
4.4.3 Analytical Criteria for Daylight Simulation 132
4.4.3.1 Daylighting and lighting energy
performance of base-model 132
4.4.3.2 Daylighting and lighting energy
performance of BIPV windows modules 136
4.4.4 Evaluation of Cooling and Heating energy
consumption of base-model against BIPV
window modules 141
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4.4.5 Evaluation of optimum overall energy
performance of different BIPV windows against
base-model 148
4.4.5.1 Energy saving of BIPV windows modules
against base-model 160
4.5 Summary of simulation results 164
5 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND
FURTHER STUDY 167
5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 Review of Research Objectives 167
5.3 Significant findings 171
5.4 Practical Implication and Application of the Research 172
5.5 Research Limitations 172
5.6 Recommendations 173
5.7 Recommendations for Further Study 176
5.8 Review 176
5.9 Summary 177
REFERENCES 178
6 Appendix A 198
7 Appendix B 208
8 Appendix C 213
9 Appendix D 218
10 Appendix E 221
11 Appendix F 223
12 Appendix G 227
13 Appendix H 229
14 Appendix I 246
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
Table 2.1: summary of add value building-integrated photovoltaic, Source: (Watt, 2001)
....................................................................................................................................21
Table 2.2: Latest sub-module efficiencies measured under the global AM1.5 spectrum
(1000 W/m2) at 25°C (Green, Emery, Hishikawa, Warta, & Dunlop, 2015) .................30
Table 2.3: Received sunlight per year in Algeria in relation to climatic regions, Source:
(Yacef et al., 2014) ......................................................................................................38
Table 2.4: glare discomfort indices scale of different metrics ......................................58
Table 3.1: Electrical and Thermo-optical characteristics of BIPV windows used in this
experiment under Standard Test Condition (STC) ........................................................74
Table 3.3: Room index measurement points norms......................................................76
Table 3.4: BIPV windows characteristics, for more details check the appendix A ........88
Table 3.5: description of mathematical variable used in simple model .........................90
Table 3.6: simulation parameter and operation condition of thermostat set point .........94
Table 3.7: Thermal properties of external boundary of typical office building in Algeria,
source: (Yassine & Lotfi, 2011) ...................................................................................94
Table4.1: MBE and RMSE of daily energy output model used in the experiment ...... 108
Table 4.2: Component overview (annual values) ....................................................... 125
Table 4.3: Summary of Performance Indicator Criteria for Daylight Simulation (ISO).
.................................................................................................................................. 132
Table 4.4: The useful daylight illuminance of BIPV window modules with different
transparency (10%, 20%, and 30%) against the base-model in cardinal orientations ... 139
Table 4.5: CIE glare index of optimum PV modules in cardinal orientation against base-
model in solstice summer, winter and equinox Spring ................................................ 159
Table 5.1: Summary of Findings in Relation to the objectives. .................................. 170
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
Figure 1.1: : The amount of solar energy could be exploited, source: (IEA, 2013) ....2
Figure 1.2: The average of building‘s energy consumption shown as a percentage of
national energy consumption and in relative international form, Source: (IEA online 4
Figure 1.3: Final energy consumption by sector in Algeria -Zone 2. under semi-arid
climate, Source: (APRUE, 2015)...............................................................................4
Figure 1.4: The Application of BIPV window technology in the world, Source:
(Biyik et al., 2017) ....................................................................................................7
Figure2.1: example of BIPV and BAPV system installation in façade (A) and the
roof (B), the BIPV presented on the left pic. Source: (A) URL:
www.onyxsolar.com/genyo-building (B)(K. Park, Kang, Kim, Yu, & Kim, 2010) .. 17
Figure 2.2: BIPV integration concepts, Source: (Laura Maturi, 2018). ................... 18
Figure 2.3: The hierarchical PV Configurations and PV elements, Source: (Geoff
Stapleton, 2013) ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4: locations of a building where photovoltaic elements can be integrated
into. Source: Naps Systems Oy., Photovoltaic in Buildings - a brief introduction,
2001........................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2.5: Product categorization used throughout the product benchmark analysis
Source: (Verberne et al., 2015) ................................................................................ 20
Figure 2.6: Photovoltaic energy growth and (price) by sector, Source: (IEA, 2014)
............................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2.7: R&D Institutional Framework in the REN ........................................... 24
Figure 2.8: installed 268MW of solar in 2015, source: (Tom Kenning, 2016) URL:
www.pv-tech.org/news/algeria-installed-268mw-of-solar-in-2015 .......................... 25
Figure 2.9: Contribution of Renewable Energy for power generation (PV system) in
Algeria. ................................................................................................................... 26
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Figure 2.10: Example of first generation BIPV window module ............................. 28
Figure 2.11: Example of second and third generation BIPV windows module ........ 29
Figure 2.12: Photovoltaic generations based on solar cell ....................................... 29
Figure 2.13: comparison between the effect of thin film (a-si) and c-si under low
light intensity and high temperature. Source: (Maurus et al., 2004) ......................... 32
Figure 2.14: 2D energy output plots of PV arrays according to various angle-
settingsLeft: Effect of tilt angle & orientation on total yearly energy output of PV
array (east south facing)Middle: Effect of tilt angle and orientation on total yearly
energy output of PV array (W,S facing)Right: Percentage of total yearly energy
output of PV array at different tilt angles and orientations ....................................... 34
Figure 2.15: The annual solar radiation data in m2 for the world in 2016 (solarGis,
2016).of a typical Campbell- Stokes sunshine recorder, Source:
solargis.info/doc/free-solar-radiation-maps-DNI ..................................................... 36
Figure 2.16: Distribution of Direct and diffuse radiance in Tebessa (Algeria) ......... 38
Figure 2.17: (a) the location of Tebessa city (b) sunshine hours & solar radiance in
Tebessa (Weather station in Tebessa) ...................................................................... 39
Figure 2.18: Sun path of the city of Tebessa by IES-VE 2017 ................................ 40
Figure 2.19: Result Zoning of Daylight Availability over Algeria (Zemmouri, 2010)
............................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 2.20: Monthly Distribution of Extreme Conditions of Sky Mode (Dj-Rouag,
2001). ..................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 2.21: Window design architectural Parameters, source: (Carmody et al.,
2004) modified by researcher 43
Figure 2.22: BIPV façade at Bagatelos Architectural Glass Systems Inc,
Sacramento, CA, (Henson, 2012) ............................................................................ 45
Figure 2.23: Tthe minimum Illuminance level based on International Standard ISO
8995-1:2002 (CIE 2001/ISO 2002) for visual performance in office (A) WPI
horizontal for drawing task (B) for computer .......................................................... 55
Figure 2.24: Approximate Daylighting Penetration, Source: (Robertson, 2003) ...... 59
Figure 2.25: facade configurations used in the study 1. Base-case, 2. Half STPV and
3- Full STPV configuration. .................................................................................... 60
Figure 3.1: Research framework ............................................................................ 68
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Figure 3.2: The location and orientation of the case study being investigated (an
office building in University of Tébessa)................................................................. 70
Figure 3.3: Annual averagetemperature of Tebessa (Algeria), source: (Meteonorm,
2010) ...................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 3.4: Climate data of Tebessa city extracted from IESVE software, version
2016........................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 3.5: Design concept of office building chosen for experiment (interior, Plan
of typical floor, Exterior 3D model) ........................................................................ 72
Figure 3.6: (a) Schematic design and dimension of module (b) (pin) layers
components of module (c) structure of amorphous silicon module type used for the
experiment (d) PV module used in this experiment ................................................. 73
Figure 3.7: Data logger, Position of sensor and Base-U-1 & Coupler ..................... 75
Figure 3.8: Grids of measurements within office building ...................................... 76
Figure 3.9: (a) Positions for measuring heat flux and air temperature, (b) FluxTeq
data reader and heat flux sensor placed on a window surface during a cold day ....... 78
Figure 3.10: (A,B) system used to evaluate the maximum energy output of BIPV
windows under real conditions, (C) the recording of solar charge controller (MPPT).
............................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 3.11: Typical floor 3d model for Validation ................................................ 82
Figure 3.12: Summary of validation procedure of this study ................................... 83
Figure 3.13: 3D base model office building used for of daylighting validation
sketchup 2015. ........................................................................................................ 84
Figure 3.14: Proposed model for evaluation the energy output of BIPV windows in
different tilt angle and cardinal, intermediate orientations (Geometric A) ................ 85
Figure 3.15: Proposed 3D model for optimization simulation stage (Geometric B) . 86
Figure 3.16: BIPV windows modules types used for the simulations ...................... 88
Figure 3.17: A schematic diagram of the simulation methodology ......................... 89
Figure 3.18: schematic design of Equivalent one diode model ................................ 91
Figure 3.19: schedule overview heating and cooling (HVAC) system (open-studio)
............................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 3.20: Placement of the sensor on the centre of references office .................. 96
Figure 3.21: Daily Profile schedule of light control in (IESVE, 2016) ................... 96
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Figure 3.22: possible cases of lighting controls vs Illuminance level (a) lower than
minimum level of illuminance (b) higher than targeted illuminance level (c) both
cases in one day. ..................................................................................................... 98
Figure 3.23: Example of minimum Day-lit zone of (10% WWR) ........................... 99
Figure 3.24: flowchart explains the part of determination the optimum BIPV
window design. ..................................................................................................... 101
Figure 4.1: (a) amount of Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), (b) Calibration of two
sensors PHFS-01type in term of (surface cell temperature) (c) Calibration of four
HOBO light meters in term of (Air temperature) used in the experiment ............... 104
Figure 4.2: (a) comparison of Outdoor temperature in measurement and TMY used
in simulation,(b) shelter wooden box design used to measure external air temperature
............................................................................................................................. 105
Figure 4.3: (a) Comparison between Monitoring data and simulated model of PV
module through the mockup model: monthly accumulated data of energy output, (b)
relationship between solar radiance and energy output in May (spring season). ..... 107
Figure 4.4: hourly Global and diffuse radiance of tilt angle 90 degree of Eastern
façade ................................................................................................................... 107
Figure 4.5: Comparison of measured and simulated daily energy output of BIPV
window in East-Southeast facade under semi-arid clime Algeria, Tebessa ............. 108
Figure 4.6: Hourly heat gain/loss measurement data in spring and summer season
compare with simulated data. ................................................................................ 109
Figure 4.7: Validation of measured indoor air temperature and simulation by using
Energy-plus in summer season (1st to 15th June) .................................................. 110
Figure 4.8: Indoor air temperature of tested office during (a) spring season (b)
summer season ...................................................................................................... 111
Figure 4.9: Measurement of Surface cell temperature of BIPV module during (a)
spring season (1 may to 20 may) (b) summer season (1july to 14july) ................... 112
Figure4.10: Total clouds cover distribution in Tebessa city (May2017), source:
Meteoblue website ................................................................................................ 114
Figure 4.11: Comparaison between level of illuminance at references points (A1,
A2, B1, B2) and simulation ................................................................................... 114
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Figure 4.12: The light meter reference (A2) exposed to direct sunlight at 8am,
morning period ..................................................................................................... 115
Figure 4.13: Uniformity of test office under clear and overcast sky ...................... 116
Figure 4.14: Comparaison between measured global outdoor illuminance and
simulation (IES-VE,2016) ..................................................................................... 117
Figure 4.15: (a) yearly global horizontal & diffuse radiance (b) Seasonally global
and diffuse tilted 90o radiance in different orientations (E, N, W, and S) ............... 121
Figure 4.16: Comparison between (GHI) and (DHI) with tilted 90 vertical solar
irradiance in different orientation .......................................................................... 123
Figure 4.17: (a) Energy output of different PV modules with various conversion
efficiency from 2.8% to 8% (b) Energy output performance in cardinal orientation (c)
Monthly Distribution of energy output PV module with conversion efficiency n=4
............................................................................................................................. 124
Figure 4.18: Annual energy output of BIPV window on vertical façade according to
different orientation .............................................................................................. 126
Figure 4.19: Annual energy output affected by different tilt angle on the southern
façade ................................................................................................................... 127
Figure 4.20: percentage of BIPV windows energy output performance based on tilt
angle and orientations under semi-arid region in Algeria ....................................... 128
Figure 4.21: The area of potential BIPV used (Roof, opaque, windows) ................ 129
Figure 4.22: effect of the cell temperature against energy output with different tilt
angle in design days: 21th
june, 21thdecember and 21
th September .......................... 131
Figure 4.23: Annual lighting energy consumption of based-model in cardinal
orientations ........................................................................................................... 133
Figure 4.24: hourly and means of (WPI) level with cardinal orientation of base-
model throughout the year..................................................................................... 134
Figure 4.25: Lighting energy consumption by using different VLT of PV modules in
cardinal orientations (a) East, (b) West, (c) South (d) North, respectively .............. 138
Figure 4.26: Annual cooling energy consumption of BIPV modules against base-
model .................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 4.27: annual heating energy consumption of BIPV modules against base-
model .................................................................................................................... 146
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Figure 4.28: Monthly distribution of heating and cooling energy consumption of
base-model with WWR30% .................................................................................. 147
Figure 4.29: Overall energy performance and visual comfort of the PV modules
achieve the optimum design in the Southern Façade .............................................. 152
Figure 4.30: Overall energy performance and visual comfort of the PV modules
achieve the optimum design in the Northern Façade .............................................. 154
Figure 4.31 : Overall energy performance and visual comfort of the PV modules
achieve the optimum design in the Eastern Façade ................................................ 156
Figure 4.32 : Overall energy performance and visual comfort of PV module achieve
the optimum design in the East Façade .................................................................. 156
Figure 4.33 : Overall energy performance and visual comfort of the PV modules
achieve the optimum design in the Western Façade ............................................... 158
Figure 4.34: the maximum percentage of Energy saving of BIPV modules compared
with base-model in cardinal orientations (A) South (B) East (C) North (D) West
respectively ........................................................................................................... 162
Figure 4.35: the optimum WWR of PV modules and base-model in cardinal
orientation and its energy saving against optimum base-model. ............................. 163
Figure 5.1: The optimum design of a BIPV window (WWR, VLT, conversion
efficiency) according to each of the cardinal orientation of an office building with
vertical facades. .................................................................................................... 174
Figure 5.2: 3D model guideline of the energy output percentages obtained from
various tilt angles and (A) Southern hemisphere orientations (B) Northern
hemisphere, for architects and designers ............................................................... 175
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIPV - Building Integrated Photovoltaic
BAPV - Building Added Photovoltaic
IEA - International Energy Agency
APRUE - Agency for the Promotion and Rational Use of Energy
CREDEG - Electricity & Gas R&D Center
UDTS - Unit for the development of silicium technology
CDER - Centre for Renewable Energy Development
UDES - Unit for Developing Solar Equipment
NEAL - New Energy Algeria Company Specialized in
Development of Renewable Energy
OEC - Overall Energy Consumption
STC - Standard Test Condition
UDI - Useful Daylight Illuminance
DA - Daylight Autonomy
Lux - Unit of illuminance
CEI - Commission International d‘eclairage
W - Watt
kWh - Kilo-watt Hour
IES-VE - Integrated Environment Solution Virtual Environment
FC - Foot-Candle
Ei - Exterior illuminance
ii - interior illuminance
m - meter
ȵ - Efficiency of Module
Pmax - Max power
Vpm
- Max power Voltage
Ipm
- Max power Current
WWR - Windows Wall Ratio
WPI - Work Plane Illuminance
DF - Daylight Factor
VLT - Visible Light Transmittance
SHGC - Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
N - North
S - South
E - East
W - West
S-E - South-east
S-W - South-west
N-E - North-east
N-W - North-west
MBE - Mean Bias Error
CVRMSE - Coefficient Variation of Root Means Square Error
GHI - Global Horizontal Irradiance
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DHI - Direct Horizontal Irradiance
CGI - CEI Glare Index
GVCP - Guth Visual comfort possibility
DGI - Daylight Glare Index
URG - Unified Glare index
DGP - Daylight Glare Index
CdTe - Cadmium Telluride
Mu-Si - Micro-morph Silicon
a-Si - Amorphous silicon
CIGS - Copper Indium gallium diselendide
OPV - Organic Photovoltaic
DSSCs - Dye sensitised solar cells
m-Si - Mono-crystalline
STPV - Semi-transparent Photovoltaic
PV-IGU - Photovoltaic insulated glass unit
PV-DFS - Photovoltaic Double skin facade
NEB - Net Electricity Benefit
ZEB - Zero Energy Building
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Data sheet of BIPV modules used in (1) Experiment
(2) Simulations from manufactories
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B The daily and monthly calculation of MBE & RMSE
of Energy output direct current by usage of MPPT
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C Set-up of experiment measurements in tested office
building in Tebessa
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D Algerian Solar Maps show: (1) PV power potential
(2) Global Horizontal Irradiance (3) Direct Normal
irradiance from (1994–2015) according to solar
resource data: Solargis
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E Monthly Distribution of (Global &Diffuse)
Horizontal Solar radiance
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F Improvement of Means CEI Glare Index evaluation of
(A) base-model against (B) optimum PV modules
designs
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G Daily-Peak Illuminance level of base-model in
cardinal orientation with WWR20%
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H Overall energy performance of different PV modules
balanced (cooling/heating energy consumption,
lighting energy consumption and energy output with
the percentage of UDI
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I Yearly basis of Absolut Work plan illuminance of
different PV modules used in the simulation
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1
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Sustainable developments in the field of architecture are turning out to be
increasingly vital which requires the utilization of renewable energy and the reduction of
energy consumption. The effect of global warming is the result of pollutant emissions
from both traditional and conventional energy resources which takes account of the
reduction of fossil fuel, intensification of oil consumption and the increment in the
energy demand (Stoppato, 2008). These concerns have led to the emergence of
significant development of renewable energy industries. Several studies show that this
new sector played a vital role and many countries such as Algeria have taken measures
to ensure sustainability of the utilization of global alternative energy resources (Hui,
1997; A Boudghene Stambouli, Khiat, Flazi, & Kitamura, 2012).
According to International Energy Agency (IEA) world council, solar energy is
natural and a clean energy source as the current availability of the energy surpasses the
annual energy demand by 400 times, whereas its potential surpasses the demand by
10,000 times. The sun will provide roughly limitless energy for the next 4-5 billion years
(IEA, 2013) as shown in the Figure1.1. Hepbasli (2008) stated that solar energy resource
such as photovoltaic is commonly used along with the leading technologies such as
geothermal, biomass and hydroelectric energy. According to the Renewable Energy
Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), there has been a noticeable growth by
55% in the utilization of photovoltaic (PV) as it is considered to be the most substantial
2
energy resources available. In addition, study by Zahedi (2006) found that it is expected
that solar PV electric‘s capacity worldwide shown to incline tremendously by 2030 from
1,000 MW in 2000 to 140,000 MW. By 2040, the renewable electric energy may
possibly become adequate to support the base load and half of the global electricity
energy demand claimed by the European Renewable Energy Council (Teske, Zervos, &
Schäfer, 2007). Further, studies shows that the amount of solar electricity produced
surpasses the global need as projected by the solar pyramid in the case of the Algerian
Sahara with 50% of the space, 10% of the system energy efficiency and 14% PV module
coverage (A Boudghene Stambouli et al., 2012).
Figure 1.1: : The amount of solar energy could be exploited, source: (IEA, 2013)
In this decade, the ability to fully utilize renewable energy innovation in building
as well as environmental sustainability is the main topic for human societies around the
planet. Many researchers such as (Huijts, Molin, & Steg, 2012; Rogers, Simmons,
Convery, & Weatherall, 2008; Vlek & Steg, 2007; Wüstenhagen, Wolsink, & Bürer,
2007) stated that quality is taken into account of all countries in short and long term of
3
natural resources, sustainable development and in addition to the technology used to
designate economic, social, and environmental dimensions of our upcoming survival.
According to Intissar Fakir (2016), low oil prices affects immensely on Algeria‘s
finances and energy use leaving the economy at struggle in 2016. Alternatively, Algeria
is interested to supplant fossil fuels and natural Gas with renewable energy resources.
However, , it is a challenge for the government to promote renewable energy to
minimize the utilization of energy in buildings as it is a new sector in the country
(Himri, Malik, Stambouli, Himri, & Draoui, 2009; A Boudghene Stambouli et al., 2012).
Across all nations, the sector of energy consumption in buildings alone consumes
around 20% to 60% of the overall account that is used by all sectors, and an average of
about 31% worldwide. Algeria, a standout amongst the most nations on the planet‘s
energy utilization assessed 42% more than the average by more than 10% as shown in
the figure 1.2. However, according to latest statistic of the Algerian agency for the
promotion and rational use of energy (APRUE) in 2015, this percentage varies from
zone to others, the Zone 2 and 7 represent the context of this study (Semi-arid climate)
include Tebessa city. Subsequently, Figure 1.3 shows the final energy consumption by
35% in transport sector, 16% industrial sector, 6% agricultural sector and 45%
residential & office building sector as shown in Figure.1.3. The utilization creates 25%
of the national CO2 outflow as these measurements are liable to ascend over the later
because of the developing interest for convenience in building sector (Sotehi, Chaker,
Benamra, & Ramoul, 2015b). This major consumption level warrants a point by point
comprehension of the building sector's consumption elements to formulate and guide the
sector‘s energy consumption in the attainment to stimulate efficiency, conservation,
technology implementation and energy source substituting such as to on-site renewable
energy.
4
Figure 1.2: The average of building‘s energy consumption shown as a percentage of
national energy consumption and in relative international form, Source: (IEA online
Figure 1.3: Final energy consumption by sector in Algeria -Zone 2. under semi-arid
climate, Source: (APRUE, 2015).
5
The building sector is the largest consumer of energy, with a share of almost
50% of the entire energy consumption for all types of buildings, according to experts at
Bayer, the German company that facilitated a meeting on the topic of energy efficiency
on 29 May 2012 (the German-Algerian Chamber of Commerce). Approximately, 60% to
80% of this energy is lost. Up to 60% of the energy loss is attributed to air-conditioning
and heating acquired through external envelopes (openings, roofs, walls and grounds).
This percentage is in line with a recent study carried out by Missoum and Draoui in
(2016). According to an APRUE report in 2013, the demand for electricity in Algeria
has been increasing at a normal rate of 9.5% over the past five years, with 42% of the
energy consumption being accounted for by residential and offices buildings, where
58% of the energy is from gas and 61% from electricity. According to studies by Bélaïd
and Abderrahmani in (2013), electricity production is estimated to double in the next
decade in order to maintain the economic growth and demographic expansion. On the
other hand, a vital portion of the energy consumption in the building sector is marked by
a solid annual growth rate of 6.28%, thereby making it necessary to consider energy
saving measures (Ferhat & Boutrahi, 2014).
From another perspective, a study showed that there are no building regulations
or any recommendations for daylighting and window-to-wall ratios (WWR) for public
buildings. Thus, poor window designs and the absence of regulations in Algeria will lead
to higher energy consumption (A. Belakehal, 2014). However, electric lighting now
makes up 25% of the total energy consumption, making it one of the main consumers of
electricity in buildings (Amirat & El Hassar, 2005).
There are concerns about the incorporation of PV on buildings, as the experience
of various disadvantages has prevented the building sector from understanding the
capability of this advancement in Algeria‘s building envelope. The main problems
blocking improvements in solar technology have been identified as being in relation to
financial issues, the extremely high cost of equipment and the time taken for returns on
the capital invested for such innovations. In addition, householders are not interested in
6
enhancing their energy efficiency by installing building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
in their homes to keep energy costs low. According to (Maafi, 2000; Semache, Hamidat,
& Benchatti), and the APRUE report (2010), PV power is used for rural electrification,
pumping, telecommunication repeaters, refrigeration and ventilation. The report
published in APRUE (2010) by the European Commission on the 6th framework
program on research uncovered the deficiency of the policy regarding building-
integrated PVs, while construction grants for both public and private buildings do not
include any regulations with regard to the utilization of energy by buildings in this
country. The awareness and doubts of households with regard to the installation of
photovoltaics in residential buildings also need to be considered. In addition, studies by
(Chaurey & Kandpal, 2010; Haw, Sopian, & Sulaiman, 2009) have stated that these are
some of the fundamental limitations that need more attention in most countries as with
other concerns arising from limitations in the system design (Heinstein, Ballif, & Perret-
Aebi, 2013). In particular, these new technologies, such as BIPV systems (Goh, Goh,
Yap, Masrom, & Mohamed, 2017; R. J. Yang & Zou, 2016), which can substitute
historical building elements and can achieve additional purposes needed for the
building‘s envelope (Maturi, 2013). Lately, it has been popular to produce electrical
energy from windows and glass (Li, Lam, Chan, & Mak, 2009). This has been made
possible by employing photovoltaic (PV) panels combined within windows. Such
technology is created to aid several functions. In addition to the basic task of generating
electricity, the multiple-use of BIPV window indicates that it is able to give glare
protection and reduce heat gain and loss to save energy (Attoye, Tabet Aoul, & Hassan,
2017). However, there are insufficient researches and analyses in this domain, thereby
making the development of this technology an urgent task in Algeria.
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1.2 Problem Statement
In Algeria, the energy consumption levels for buildings are very high. A large
amount of this energy is lost through the external envelope façade of buildings
(claddings, openings), while energy demands for both heating and cooling are high in
summer and winter respectively due to the nature of the Algerian climate. Since mid-rise
buildings (4-11story) are the dominant typology in Algeria (Senouci et al., 2012), it has
been suggested that window glazing should play a significant role as a building material,
for which BIPV windows can be an alternative.
It has been noticed that literature exhibited a significant lack of BIPV windows
energy support and performance in Algerian building sector (Maafi, 2000; A Boudghene
Stambouli et al., 2012). Besides, the integration of BIPV windows into the façade of
mid-rise buildings instead of conventional windows is almost non-existent as shown in
figure 1.4, even though Algeria has an enormous potential in solar energy in addition to
an obvious drop in PV prices in the market over the last few years.
Figure 1.4: The Application of BIPV window technology in the world, Source: (Biyik et
al., 2017)
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The on-going research into energy consumption in the building sector in Algeria
is mainly concentrated on several areas including the output efficiency of PV plants that
are connected to an installed grid. This application was implemented on the site of the
Centre for Development of Renewable Energy in Bouzaréah (Algiers) (Cherfaa et al.).
This technology is considered to be the first of its kind in Algeria. In addition, the
research has also been focused on minimising energy consumption by utilizing thermal
insulation technology. The most common application is the usage of adobe (mud bricks)
building material. Other techniques that have been given extensive importance in
researches and practical applications in Algeria are the application of BIPVT systems
(Sotehi, Chaker, Benamra, & Ramoul, 2015a) and the manipulation of the orientation of
the building or natural ventilation in summer to obtain optimum performance (Hacene &
Sari, 2013; Zemmouri & Schiler, 2005).
For all the reasons mentioned above, this research attempted to make use of the
enormous solar energy potential of Algeria by utilizing the BIPV windows technology.
This aim was accomplished by investigating the optimum performance of BIPV
windows as an alternative solution for minimizing energy consumption in the building
sector. The outcome of this research, if implemented, will positively impact energy
savings for the occupants and beneficiaries of office buildings, as they comprise the
most common category of energy consumers.
1.3 Research Gap
Architectural practices in Algeria generally do not keep pace with the use of the
aspects of sustainability and technology to reduce energy in the building sector. Based
on the literature and the observations of this researcher as an architect, the use of
renewable solar energy panels in buildings is limited, except for those installed on the
roofs of a few houses. The installation of BIPV windows in the vertical façade of mid-
9
rise buildings is completely scarce even though the use of BIPV windows is linked with
the huge vertical façade areas compared to roof areas. The solar radiation supplied by
the vertical installations might not be at a maximum, but the energy savings could be
compensated by the use of a huge façade such as in mid-rise and high-rise buildings.
The majority of the studies that focused on the overall energy performance of BIPV
windows targeted the climate of Asian countries, while no study has been performed in
countries with a similar climate to Algeria. Consequently, in order to fill the gap, this
research targeted the overall energy performance of BIPV windows in relation to the
WWR, and the orientation and tilt angles in terms of four factors: visual comfort with
energy output, utilization of day lighting, and heat gain and loss to achieve the optimum
performance of a BIPV window façade in a semi-arid climate.
1.4 Research Aims
This research was aimed in determining the optimum performance of BIPV
windows in a typical office building while maximizing daylighting and minimizing the
heat gain/ heat loss into the interior in order to obtain a visually comfortable internal
micro climate and energy savings in a semi-arid climate.
1.5 Research Objective
1. To investigate a level of the overall energy (Energy output, Heat gain/loss
and Daylighting) of BIPV windows performance of a typical office
building under Semi-arid climate in Algeria.
2. To evaluate the performance of different BIPV windows types based on
(conversion Efficiency, visible Transparency, Solar Heat gain Coefficient
10
SHGC and U-value) orientations, Window to Wall Ratio (WWR) for
assessment of overall energy use.
a. To determine the optimum tilt angle design of BIPV window in
term of energy output.
b. To compare the overall energy performance of base-model with
different BIPV window modules
3. To recommend an optimum design model of BIPV windows in cardinal
orientations to improve energy saving and visual comfort in Algeria.
1.6 Research Questions
After reviewing the past literature, and in line with the above-mentioned
objectives, this study will seek answers to the following research questions:
1. What are the influences of applying BIPV windows technology on
overall energy performance under a Semi-arid climate of Algeria?
2. Does modifying the configuration of BIPV windows design
(Orientations, types of PV, WWR) affect reducing the quantity of energy
output?
3. What is the optimum tilt angle to maximise the energy output?
4. What is the optimum WWR and orientation of BIPV windows modules
according to Algeria climate in the office buildings in view to optimise
day lighting and maximise energy output?
5. Is it possible that the use of BIPV window as an alternative to
conventional window could lead to zero energy saving?
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1.7 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study covered the following points:
i. Building sector, including residential and public buildings, which is comprised
of different activities such as for tourism (hotels, restaurants), education, health,
administration, offices (financial institutions and other private services).
However, this study focused on office buildings.
ii. Office building structures contain many spaces such as individual or open
offices, laboratories, meeting rooms, and conference rooms. An individual office
was chosen for this study because it is considered to be the most important
element in an office building; however, a computer used as (electrical
equipment) always has constant energy consumption for all scenarios.
iii. This study focused on second-generation PV modules (thin film technology) that
are available in the market rather than on first-generation modules (silicon
wafer-based technology).
iv. Algeria is a large country with four different climatic zones. The overall energy
performance analysis of this study was limited to the Haut-plateau region of
Algeria, where the majority of the offices are concentrated (the region is located
between latitudes 34°-36° and is within a semi-arid climate zone).
v. This study focused on the effect on the overall energy performance of a BIPV
window installed on the vertical façade rather than on the roof area of a building
mainly because the roof area is relatively small compared to the external façade
of a high-rise and mid-rise building. Furthermore, a large portion of the roof
area is usually occupied by various building service installations such as water
tanks, chillers, cooling towers, a lift machine room, etc.
vi. The EnergyPlus and IES-VE (Integration Environment Solution Virtual
Environment) simulation software were chosen from several simulation
software, including Design-builder, Ecotec, Velux, and Revit. Energy-Plus was
chosen for its ability to simulate the BIPV window application accurately and to
provide all the necessary details. At the same time, IES-VE was selected for its
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many properties and its accurate annual calculation of daylight through the WPI
data, useful daylight illuminates and glare index metrics, and diminished light
control (IES, 1993; IES-VE. 2006;(CF Reinhart & Breton, 2009).
1.8 Significance of the Research
There is no specific design of BIPV window in Algerian office buildings in
relation to its orientation, sunlight permissible in office, and visual comfort of occupant
through regulations to achieve the maximum energy saving and environmental needs.
The Authorities of Algeria has not put in place a proper design procedure for office
building energy consumption and visual comfort for users. Therefore, this research aims
to generate significant information to serve as a platform for overall energy performance
requirements for office building design. Subsequently, the requirements would form a
basis for future overall energy and visual comfort recommendations for Algerian office
building design.
1.9 Organisation of Thesis
Chapter Two reviews the state-of-the-art BIPV technology in the world and,
particularly, in Algeria. This is followed by an explanation on the concept of the BIPV
window and its classification and design. Furthermore, this chapter presents the
electrical, climatic and architectural factors that influence the performance of the BIPV
window technology. In addition, it reviews the experimental applications and heat
transfer model of the BIPV window. It also provides an explanation of the visual
comfort in offices and the metrics used to evaluate the quantity and quality of day
lighting using the BIPV window. Furthermore, this chapter presents the performance of
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the BIPV window within an office building. It concludes with an examination of the
relevant researches on this topic.
Chapter Three explains the research methodology, which is a combination of two
methods. The first consists of a site visitation and experimental measurements in a
selected Algerian office building, followed by computer simulations using EnergyPlus
and IES-VE Integrated Environment Solution Virtual Environment.
Chapter Four presents the results of the field measurements in a tested office in
Tebessa during critical time periods, and compares these results with the international
standard. This chapter also presents the results from a simulated overall energy model of
a base model and different BIPV window modules in the office in order to determine the
maximum energy saved and to meet the criteria of visual comfort.
Chapter Five reviews the research objectives highlighted in Chapter one and
examines the impact of the findings revealed through the outlined objectives. The
practical implications and recommendations are highlighted, and the limitations of the
study are discussed, with suggestions offered for further research.
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